英美概况复习大纲

复习大纲

Volume One

An Outline Introduction to Britain

?Lecture I

?Land Area, Names and position of Britain ?1。 Land Area

?Total area of the whole country is 240,000skms with 230,000skms of Great Britain, the air-distance of Britain from south to north being 1,000kms and 500kms from west to east。 The whole population is about 56,000,000 General view

2.Questions on the Names ?Where are the British Isles? ?Where is Britain? ?Where is England? ?Where is Scotland? ?Where is Wales? ?Where is “Ireland”

?Where is Northern Ireland?

?What is the Northern Ireland Problem? ?What is IRA?

?Where is the UK----The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland? ?What is the difference between UK, Britain and England?

?Map of Great Britain and Northern Ireland England

?The largest (takes up 60% of the whole island) ?Most populous (makes up 85% of the country?s whole population) ?The richest section

?Economic & cultural center(p.2)

“We English people take this too much for granted, and tend to use the words ?England? and ?English? when we mean ?Britain? and ?British?。 This sometimes annoys the Scots and Welsh”

(data from other sources) Northern-Ireland problem ?What is IRA?

?What is the serious headache of UK over the Northern-Ireland problem? (ref. to p.6-7)

Northern Ireland, also known as Ulster, has a population of one and a half million. About 1/3 of them are Roman Catholics who are not glad to see the unification with Great Britain dominated by Protestantism. The Catholic extremists organized the Irish Republican Army to continue their struggle. The goal of IRA is to oust the English and unify Northern Ireland with the Republic of Ireland. The guerrillas resort to terrorist campaigns of bombing, murdering and arson. They even launched mortar

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attacks on London?s Heathrow Airport; their political wing is known as Sinn Fein. The bloody political and sectarian fighting in N.I. has promoted Brit. and N.I. to reach an agreement known as Downing Street Declaration which offers Sinn Fein a role in talks on the future of N.I.

3.Position of Britain/UK/England ?Where is UK situated?

?How many land neighbors does UK have?

?How many countries/nations does UK face across the sea(s)?

?Do English/British People think their country favorably situated in the world? (ref. to p.7) ?Did----------?

Questions for Next Lecture

1. How is the weatherlike of Britain?

2. What is the general feature of British climate? (p.11)

3. What is the most frequent safe topic in English daily small talk? Why?

4. What does the poem sentence “Shall I compare thee to a summer?s day” (Chinese translation: 我可否把你比作炎炎夏 日？）really mean by Shakespeare? 5. How much is the rainfall of Britain? Lecture II. English weather

?How is the weather of Britain?

?Can you come up with a general impression on British weather after we have a little talk on the English weather report?

?Describe or relate it to me if you have any idea? Weather Report on Aug.20th,2006

Data from other sources

?“Other countries have a climate; in England we have weather.”

?In no country other than England, it has been said, can one experience four seasons in the course of a single day! Day may break as a balmy spring morning, an hour or so later black clouds have appeared from nowhere and the rain may be pouring down. At midday conditions may be really wintry with the temperature down by about 8 or more centigrade. And then, in the afternoon the sky will clear, the sun will begin to shine, and for an hour or two before darkness falls, it will be summer.

?This uncertainty about the weather has had a definite effect upon the Englishman?s character; it tends to make him cautious. For example, the foreigner may laugh when he sees the English setting off on a brilliantly sunny morning wearing a raincoat or carrying an umbrella, but he may well regret his laughter later in the day.

?The English weather has also help to make the Englishman adaptable. It has been said that one of the reasons why the English colonized so much of the world was that, whatever the weather conditions they met abroad, they had already experienced something like them at home.

Question for Lecture III

?What type of nation is Britain? (only for consideration) ?Does Britain have a long history?

?Does Britain have a broadened cultural background ?Or Does Britain have a long historical culture? Lecture III

?A Landscape of Britain

?The Countries-scape from a Tourist?s view ?A Brief View over the British Island

Buckingham Palace has served as the official London residence of Britain's sovereigns since 1837. George III bought Buckingham House in 1761 for his wife Queen Charlotte to use as a comfortable

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family home close to St. James's Palace. Queen Victoria was the first sovereign to take up residence in July 1837, just three weeks after her succession.

Besides being the official London residence of the Queen, Buckingham Palace is also the busy administrative headquarters of the Monarchy and Has probably the most famous and easily

Recognizable facade of any building in the world. The Changing of the Guard takes place inside the railings of the forecourt.

The Foot Guards provide a colorful display in Their Red tunics(紧身短上衣) and bearskins(熊皮 高帽) and are accompanied by a band through out. During the 45 minute ceremony the New Guard replaces The Old Guard and a detachment is left at Buckingham Palace with the remaining New Guard marching on to St James Palace. Trafalgar Square

Trafalgar Square is a square in central London that commemorates the Battle of Trafalgar (1805), a British naval victory of the Napoleonic Wars. The original name was to have been \Fourth's Square\The area had been the site of the King's Mews since the time of Edward I.

The Square has become an enormously important symbolic social and political location for visitors and Londoners alike.

Its symbolic importance was demonstrated in 1940 when the Nazi developed secret plans to transfer the Nelson Column to Berlin following an expected German invasion. National Gallery

?On the north side of the square is the National Gallery and to its east the St Martin's-in-the-Fields church. The square adjoins The Mall via Admiralty Arch to the southwest. To the south is Whitehall, to the east The Strand and South Africa House, to the north Charring Cross Road and on the west side is Canada House.

Wales Britannia Bridge不列颠桥

Now, think about the questions I proposed before this lecture ?What type of nation is Britain? ?Does Britain have a long history?

?Does Britain have a broadened cultural background ?Or Does Britain have a long historical culture?

?Yes, Britain has a long history.

?Does Britain have a broadened cultural background?

?Yes. Not only has Britain a broadened cultural background but also it has been trying to keep an excellent preservation over the historical background. (which will be further proved later) ?Does Britain have a long historical culture?

Question for Next Lecture

?Who were the natives of the English? ?Who named the Island “Britain”?

?How many peoples or tribes invaded Britain? ?Who set the feudal system in Britain?

?Who united the whole country as one nation?

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?Who invented the language “English” or “old English”? ?What kind of language system does English belong to? ?What type of nation is Britain? (again)

Lecture IV. English People and Shaping of the Nation

Are the British people Europeans? This may seem a strange question to Africans and Asians, who tend to think of all white men as Europeans. but the British, when they are in Britain, do not regard themselves as Europeans. The Europeans, to them, are those rather excitable foreigners from the other side of the English Channel, who have never learnt how to speak English. Europe is ?the Continent?: a place full of interest for British tourists, but also the source of almost all the wars in which Britain has ever been involved.

Thus, although geographically speaking Britain is a part of Europe, yet the fact that it is a separate island has made its people feel very, very insular. They feel, and in many ways are, different from the rest of Europe, and they sometimes annoy continental nations by failing to support them, or even to understand them, in time of need.

Where did the British people come from? This is an extraordinarily interesting question, since they are a mixture of many different races, and all these races invaded Britain at various times from Europe.

Where did the British people come from?

?This is an extraordinarily interesting question, since they are a mixture of many different races, and all these races invaded Britain at various times from Europe. Nobody knows very much about Britain before the Romans came. During the first century B. C., but there had been at least three invasions before that. The first of these was by a dark-haired Mediterranean race called the Iberians. The other two were by Celtic tribes: first the Gaels, whose descendants are the modern Scots and Irish, some of whom still speak the Gaelic(Celtic) language; and secondly the Britons, who gave their name to the whole island of Britain.

?These were the people--whom, the Romans conquered (about 55 B.C. ref. to p. 81). The Romans gave the Britons a good deal of their civilization(eg. baths, temples, amphitheaters, etc.), but they never settled in Britain in very large numbers, so the British race survived until the overthrow of the Roman Empire by the ?barbarians', i.e., the numerous Germanic tribes which overran the whole of Western Europe. There were three great Germanic tribes which invaded Britain: the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes (please see the map in p. 83); and together they form the basis of the modern English race.

?The Britons, as a race, disappeared except in Wales and Cornwall. Many Welsh people still speak their ?British?, i.e. Celtic tongue, which is called Welsh. In Cornwall the language has died out, though it can still be recognized in some proper names, the Angles were so numerous that the country was called Angle-land, i.e., England, and the Anglo-Saxon language was Old English: in other words, modern English has descended directly from it.

So far then, we have noted the Iberians, two kinds of Celts, the Romans, and the Germanic peoples, which we shall call collectively the Saxons: but the story is by no means ended. A few hundred years later a further invasion took place from the North-East, that of the Danes, and the whole North-Eastern half of England became for a long time Danish territory. Finally, and even more important, there came the great Norman invasion. The Normans were 'North-men', and like the Danes had come originally from Scandinavia in the North-East; but they had settled in part of Northern France, still known as Normandy, and adopted the French language. In the year 1066, Duke William of Normandy claimed the English throne, and after defeating and killing the Saxon king Harold at the Battle of Hastings, he went on to conquer the whole country, and to merit the name of William the Conqueror. He was

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crowned William I of England, and the present Queen is one of his descendants.

The Saxons became a subject people, and all the most important noblemen were-Normans. English was the language of the common people and Norman French was the language of the aristocracy, including the King and his court. Even today, many French expressions recur in traditional ceremonial language, and a few English people feel proud if they can prove that their ancestors were Normans. Eventually, however, the speech of the common people prevailed, and the use of French died out: but the common people had already absorbed some of it, and many everyday expressions in English have a French origin.

?There has never been another invasion of Britain in the 900 years since William the Conqueror, so that all the various elements have had time to settle down and form one people. As a whole, the British are proud of their diversity，and like to think that it has given them a diversity of qualities which has turned out to their advantage.

The Romans

The history of the growth of Rome and the impact that the Romans had upon the lands they conquered, Britain included, is fascinating. Through a combination of superior military strength, tactical and strategic awareness way beyond the means of their opponents and a lot of political luck and later clout (power and influence), the Romans transformed a small town into first a sizeable kingdom and later an Empire without rival until the modern era. The Roman Empire

The Roman Empire lasted for over a thousand years and can be considered the greatest empire of all times. Spreading from the Middle East to Britain, from the North of Germany to the depths of Africa the Roman Empire was a truly magnificent achievement A brief biography of William of Normandy

William was born in Normandy in 1028. His father was Robert, Duke of Normandy and his mother was Herleva, the daughter of a wealthy merchant from Falaise. As Robert and Herleva never married, William was therefore an illegitimate son: although he was Robert's only child.

Despite his illegitimacy William was accepted by most of the Norman barons as the heir to the duchy of Normandy. In 1035, William succeeded his father, who had passed away whilst returning from the Crusades.

His early life was fraught with danger. There were many Normans, including many within his own family, who would have preferred to have a different ruler. His survival during this period was largely due to the support given to him by his mother's family.

William began to take control of his Duchy in earnest during his teens. Normandy had been through a period of anarchy following his father?s death and William was quick to learn that trust could not be taken for granted. This led to a series of conflicts within Normandy and against his closest neighbors that, in turn, led to William becoming a gifted knight and warrior.

William was in the 1050's threatened by both the King of France and the Count of Anjou, both significant players in contemporary French politics. Williams political guile at the time was second to none however and, despite the Pope refusing to accept it, William married Matilda of Flanders, a close relation of his. This marriage secured the support of Flanders and enabled Normandy to stave off the threats from the French king, Henry and of Geoffrey of Anjou. Not until 1060, and the timely deaths of both of these hostile leaders, was William able to feel secure in his tenure and begin to create a Norman empire.

?William seized advantage of his neighbors lack of leadership, France now had a young boy as king, and attacked and conquered the region of Maine (1063). Now William could turn his thoughts towards England, where greater prizes lay in store for him.

?In 1051, Edward, the aging and childless King of England, had fallen out with his father in law: the Earl of Wessex. Most probably as a result of this fall out, William was suggested as Edwards heir to

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the throne. Prior to Edward's death in 1066 however, there had been a change of heart. Edward named Harold of Wessex (the old Earl's son) as his heir. Upon the death of the King, several days later, William found that his inheritance had been snatched away from him and given to Harold of Wessex.

?The sequence of events that followed is well documented elsewhere. In brief, William claimed that on a visit to Normandy in 1064, Harold of Wessex had sworn allegiance to William and promised that he would support him in his claim to the throne. Whether or not this statement was made by Harold is very hard to prove. William used this to gain support amongst European leaders and the church. Harold was a false king, a thief and a usurper. through this line of argument William gained the support of many nobles in many parts of Europe. The offer of riches and reward upon his rightful succession to the English throne, no doubt, also influenced people when offering their support for the Duke of Normandy. To take what was rightfully has, William prepared for the invasion of England. A massive risk, with everything to lose if he was unsuccessful.

?William's Norman fleet, supported by a large number of Bretons and men from Flanders, set sail across the Channel and landed at Perversely, near Hastings. The success of his mission was incredible. A mixture of luck and excellent leadership resulted in the Norman Duke defeating Harold and taking hold of England. The illegitimate son of a Norman Duke had now turned the tables, he was now a King.

?It is in the years after the famous battle of Hastings that William?s strength of character and determination are most visible. For 5 years he faced rebellion after rebellion in England. His forces dealt clinically with each of these and enforced the new, Norman, order with terrifying brutality. New structures of Government, laws and taxation regimes were established across the country and, by the early 1070's, William's rule in England was nigh on unassailable from within.

?Such was the force behind the conquest that by the 1080's William was in a position to take stock of his achievements. His vision and understanding of how to control a population becoming ever more clear. The Domesday Book catalogued most manors within the country, providing the Monarchy with a previously unthought of amount of information about the value of each person. Economically this is a major step forwards in terms of taxation and centralisation of the nations resources. (Although its purpose was to establish how he could pay for his growing army when faced by a potential invasion from Denmark in 1085). The on-going process of castle building demonstrates his determination to dominate the population, enabling his regime to be implemented quickly and, from 1071 onwards, without being openly questioned.

?It is a mistake however to view William as suddenly becoming English. Most of his time was spent in Normandy. England was a much treasured prize, not his home. Normandy itself remained under threat from her neighbours. His growing empire was threatened by the Scandinavian Kings, and so William was occupied for much of the time with further wars and endless diplomacy.

?It was during one of his many campaigns against the French kings that William lost his life. Having attacked the town of Marne William was fatally injured whilst pillaging the town. he died in September of 1087, leaving his Duchy to Robert, his eldest son and England to William (Rufus) his third son. This act demonstrates what William considered to be his most prized possession: England, most certainly, was not that!

?Even in death though William was not beyond causing a commotion. His body, swollen by several years of excessive eating and drinking, proved too large for the stone coffin in which he was to be buried and burst, leaving his remains on the floor of the chapel. Tower of London

Tower of London

The Tower is one of London's most popular visitor attractions and forms a stunning riverside backdrop. The Tower of London came into existence following the Norman conquest (1066) and the need to colonize and defend England. Since then it has been used as a prison, palace, place of execution and a showcase for the Crown Jewels.

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The Tower today is a tourist attraction, featuring the British Crown Jewels, as well as the buildings themselves, a fine armor(special metal clothing that soldiers wore in the past to protect their bodies while fighting) collection, and a remnant (remains) of the wall of the Roman fortress that Claudius built there to protect the city of Londinium (London). In deference to an ancient legend, a number of ravens/reivn/(a large bird of the crow family, with shinny black feathers and a rough unpleasant cry) are fed at the Tower at government expense. Legend has it that Charles II was told that if the ravens left the Tower then the monarchy would fall.

Paper work

?What was the effect of the Norman conquest? Question for Lecture V

?What type of institution (system of government) does Britain exercise? ?Who rules the country?

?Why does the nation retain the monarchy or the national people support/esteem and even love their monarch (queen/king)?

?Who or which institution is invested with the governmental/national-power or state-authority? Lecture V. British government

I. state institution/establishment (system of government) : ? typical constitutional monarchy

Because: 1.The Queen is the Head of State (with limited powers) 2.The government is hers (Her Majesty?s Gov. Or the country is running in the name of the Queen) II. Constitution of government

1.monarch/the sovereign/(king/queen) (on whom the Crown is constitutionally conferred) 2.The Parliament: 1) Upper House/House of Lords

2) Lower House/House of Commons 3. Government/Cabinet

Powers and limitations of the three branches

Powers or functions of the Monarch: 1. Head of state

2. summons, prorogues, dissolves parliament

3. Gives royal Assent to bills passed by the parliament

4.“ Fountain of justice” (on ministerial advice, can pardon anyone who has committed a crime) 5. Fountain of honors (on ministerial advice) she confers noble title 6. “Forms” a government

7. Receives credentials of foreign states ()

8. his/her birth day is national day, a lot of ceremonial formalities of domestic affairs ()

?Limitations of sovereign's power (by basic law known as constitution):

1. No written law to define his/her power, she only does what parliament and the Cabinet want her to do, as if she were acting the Queen in historical play

So his/her participation in gov. is a kind of formality and historical legacy, she is regarded as the living symbol of national unity (she is to provide the national focus for popular loyalty, embodying the highest standard of morality and the continuity of national history)

2. Succession to throne is regulated by Parliament Acts and common law (Act of Settlement of 1770) 3. Has no right to choose her/his spouse

Conclusion: the monarch/sovereign (king or queen) reigns but (she) does not rule

?Windsor Castle is the largest inhabited castle in the world and the oldest in continuous occupation. It is one of the Queen’s three official residences. The magnificent State Apartments are furnished with some of the finest works of art from the Royal Collection, including paintings by Rembrandt, Rubens, Canaletto, Gainsborough and the famous triple portrait of Charles I by Sir

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Anthony Van Dyck.

?Windsor Castle is one of the official residences of Queen Elizabeth II. Since William the Conqueror built the first castle in 1080, its proximity to both London and the old royal hunting forest (now Windsor Great Park) made it popular as a royal residence.

?Over the centuries many kings have lived at Windsor, adding or altering buildings, and a serious fire in 1992, and the subsequent restoration and rebuilding, continued this process of change and renewal. ?The main areas of the castle that can be visited include the State Apartments, where visiting dignitaries are entertained, Queen Mary's Doll's House, the Lower Ward, where you can see the changing of the guard most days at 11.00am, St George's Chapel and the Albert Memorial Chapel. Windsor Castle is a working palace and official engagements sometimes limit areas open to the public. ?Powers of the parliament: 1.Makes laws

2.Elects the country?s chief executive

3.Determines the gov.?s revenue and expenditure

4.Supervises the gov.?s administration of the national affairs and criticizes its mismanagement of public affairs, keeping with the belief that a democracy can not survive without criticism (vote of non-confidence motion, topple the gov. if it thinks of it necessary) ? Limitations of parliament's power:

Has no say on concluding treaties with another country

Powers of Gov. and the Cabinet

?Manages national and foreign affairs

1.Manages/administrates national affairs(public affairs)and foreign affairs, enforce the laws 2.Deploy the troops in the name of Queen ?Restrictions of Gov.?s Powers:

1. Her Majesty?s Gov. in the name of the Queen

2. Parliamentary Gov. or responsible Gov./cabinet (answerable to the Parliament) 3.Asks every penny for its management/administration expenditure

Downing Street

Downing Street is named after Sir George Downing who built houses here in the 17th century. Sir George, 1623-84, spent part of his youth in the American colonies, he was the second graduate from the newly founded Harvard College, before returning to England to fight for the Parliamentarians in the Civil War.

?In 1680 he purchased a piece of land near Whitehall Palace and built a street of houses.

?Four of these houses have survived, and in 1732 George II gave No.10 Downing Street to Sir Robert Walpole and since that time the building has been the official residence of the Prime Minister.

?As well at the Prime Minister's private apartment, No.10 Downing Street houses the Cabinet Room, the State Dining Room, where official guests are entertained, and government offices. The black front door of No.10 Downing Street, guarded by a single policeman, is one of the most famous sights in England.

?Other buildings in Downing Street also have government functions. No.11 is the official residence of the Chancellor of the Exchequer and No.12 houses the Whips' Office, where Party campaigns are organized.

?Until recently Downing Street was open to the public but in 1989 Margaret Thatcher had iron gates erected at the Whitehall end for security purposes. ?Although visible from Whitehall, Downing Street is not open to the public

III. How the government is established or formed up ?1.Political system:

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“Complete” democracy

Because: All the high-ranking officials are elected ?2.Two-party system:

All the parties are granted equal treatment, the majority party of the House of Commons forms the Gov. (“by” the queen), which is called “gov. party, the other one/ones is called “opposition party

Questions for VI Lecture

?How do we describe British economic system? ?Where did the economic theory come from? ?What does the term “laissez-faire” indicate? ?What is Keynesianism?

?How can we understand and describe British “socialism”? ?What is the “British Disease”?

?Can we get some idea of “Thatcher?s Prescription”? Lecture VI. National Economy

?Britain is the first country to start the industrial revolution, generally speaking, the 1st industrialized country.

?British economic system is known as capitalism, private free enterprise or market economy----means of production (basic production facilities) and land can be sold and bought by private individuals. ?A member of G7 and EU

?GDP is $1.5trillion, per capita amounting to $25,000. being as much as more than 28 times of that of China.

British economic mode----laissez-faire ?Background:

?After the greedy English capitalists accomplished their “primitive accumulation of capital” through plunder and exploitation ( confistication of property of churches, colonization of Africa and Asia, the notorious “triangular trade, “enclosure campaign”--- “sheep devour man”), Britain ushered in the industrial revolution, which turned it into the “workshop of the world”. English products flooded the world market. Many cities sprang up; towns became the sources of the nation?s wealth and the urban population increased rapidly. England repealed the Corn Law in 1846 by abolishing high tariffs on imported foods. The change in policy showed that England could now afford to give up protection of its agricultural production because industry had replaced agriculture as the main source of the national income and wealth. Old London

?To meet the need of the time, there appeared a new school of political economy which was systematically expounded by Adam Smith. In his epoch-making book THE WEALTH OF NATIONS, published in 1776,Smith argued that protection of the domestic market was wrong and that nations prospered to the extent that governments allowed trade to remain freely competitive. He argued that prices and wages should be allowed to fluctuate according to supply and demand. Smith believed that all men were selfish and the only way to promote their cooperation was to encourage exchange, It was the duty of society to provide the environment in which one's rise and fall were wholly determined by his individual efforts and ability, that is to say, God helps him who helps himself. His theory has been known as laissez-faire capitalism because it denied the role of government in economic life.

?According to the argument included in THE WEALTH OF NATION, people are naturally selfish. They are eager to gain wealth and power. Their endeavors should not be interfered with because people, though acting from selfish desire to enrich themselves, would be led by\an invisible hand\

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enrich and improve all of society. Extensive cooperation among individuals is necessary for any society. And exchange is the best way to make people help each other. Both parties to an exchange can benefit and no exchange will take place unless both parties benefit so long as the cooperation (exchange) is strictly voluntary and free from outside interference.

?The more people take, the more they have to give. The more goods they make or trade, the more goods society will have. As more and more goods are manufacturered and traded, competitions develops. Competition among manufacturers and merchants helps all people by providing even more goods at lower prices. The government has no other role than preventing monopoly and unfair competition. In the words of Jefferson, the best government is the least government.

Adam Smith(1723 -1790)

Smith was one of those 18th century Scottish moral philosophers whoseimpulses(推动(作用),建议) led to our modern day theories; his work marks the breakthrough of an evolutionary approachwhich has progressivelydisplaced the stationary Aristotelian view. 亚当.斯密（Adam Smith）

?亚当.斯密（Adam Smith，1723～1790），是英国古典政治经济学的主要代表人物之一。他的代表作《国富论》（全称《国民财富的性质和原因的研究》）早以被翻译成十几种文字，全球发行。而他本人也因此被奉为现代西方经济学的鼻祖。

1767年，他返回家乡克科第埋首于《国富论》的写作。1776年，凝聚了亚当.斯密十年心血的《国富论》终于问世。此书一出，极受英国资产阶级的欢迎与褒誉，因为它为实行自由放任的经济政策提供了理论根据。亚当.斯密成了最受欢迎的经济学家，《国富论》的观点成了国会议员的常用论据，甚至连当时的英国首相皮特也自称是斯密的学生。不知不觉间，斯密来到了他一生中最风光得意的时刻。1778年，他出任爱丁堡的海关专员，1787年一度出任格拉斯哥大学的校长，但在经济理论再也没有什么新成就。这究竟是因为他已经来到他所出于的时代所能达到的极限，还是因为\生于忧患，死于安乐\满足于现状而缺乏进取，就有待后人思考。

?无论如何，无可否认的是，《国富论》的确是一部划时代的巨著。它概括了古典政治经济学在形成阶段的理论成就，它最早系统地阐述了政治经济学的各个主要学说，它标志着自由资本主义时代的到来。 State Capitalism

?State capitalism is a popular term to denote the state?s encroachment(侵占、侵犯、侵害、超出界限) on free market capitalism. A Future of Peace and Capitalism made this distinction between free market capitalism and state capitalism: “The difference between free-market capitalism and state capitalism is precisely the difference between, on the one hand, peaceful, voluntary exchange, and on the other, violent expropriation(征用，剥夺（土地财产等）).” The problem is that most people do not realize the differences when using the term capitalism, and incorrectly lump() all capitalism as one or the other.

?John Maynard Keynes：

the most famous economist of thetwentieth century and one of the greatestfigures in the whole history of economic inquiry. His book, The General Theoryof Employment, Interest and Money,Published in 1935, revolutionisedEconomic thinking in the field of macro-economic theory and policy; that is, the Theory of the working of the overalleconomy and of the policy measures to maintain economic stability.Although developments in economicthinking since his day have modifiedconsiderably his theoretical ideas and the policy implications that seemed to flow from them, the gist of his reasoning can still find echoes incontemporary economic discussion.

?Keynesian economics is a theory of total spending in the economy (called aggregate demand) and of its effects on output and inflation.

?Keynesians' belief in aggressive government action to stabilize the economy is based on value

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judgments and on the beliefs that (a) macroeconomic fluctuations significantly reduce economic well-being, (b) the government is knowledgeable and capable enough to improve upon the free market, and (c) unemployment is a more important problem than inflation.

?Keynesian policies sought to smooth the economic cycle by increased government spending into the downturn. The extra public spending would boost demand, stimulate investment and create jobs at a time when private demand was falling, thus making the trough(（经济周期中的）低谷期、萧条期 ) of the economic cycle less severe.(p.54--57) Questions for Next LectureVII

?1. How many tiers are there in English educational system? ?2. What is the fundamental policy of English education?

?3.For what reason does Britain also provide religious education and daily collective worship for all pupils?

?4. How many types of secondary schools, and what are they? ?5. Does Britain have a national test like China?s “high-entrance-examination? What is it for? ?6. What is the elemental goal of British higher education?

Lecture VII. British Education

?1.Three tiers. They are primary, secondary and higher education. (p. 68)

?2. the fundamental policy of Britain is 11 or 12 years free and compulsory education. (p.68) ?3.the purpose of religious education is to cultivate pupil?s moral sense (p.69)

?4.there are three types of secondary schools. they are comprehensive secondary schools, independent schools and public schools. (p. 70~73)

?5. yes, Britain has 2 sorts of national tests, sth. like China?s “senior-high-school-graduation examination” and “high-entrance-examination”. The former is called “General Certificate of Secondary Education” (GCSE); the later is also called “GCSE”, but the “examination papers ” are more difficult, which is prescribed for the students to apply for admission into a college or university. (p.71)

?6. the elemental goal of British higher education is to provide necessary training for individuals wishing to enter professional careers, develop students? creativity and analytical skills, give them critical thinking and problem-solving skills. (p.74)

?What kind of social customs of Britain are similar or different to our country? ?Name out some manners which are unacceptable in Britain?

?How do we get to know the name of the person in whom we are interested or inclined to make a friend with?

Questions for lecture XIII

?1.What do you know about the English jury system and common law? ?2.What is the historical significance of the Great Charter?

?3.What do you know about the cause and effect of the Hundred Years? War? ?4.What was the effect of the Wars of Roses?

Questions for lecture VIII

?What kind of social customs of Britain are similar or different to our country? ?Name out some manners which are unacceptable in Britain?

?How do we get to know the name of the person in whom we are interested or inclined to make a

friend with?

Lecture VIII. Daily-life Culture of Britain

?In day-to-day cultural and social life, Britain is in many ways similar to other major Western

11

countries. This is largely because they all believe in God and share similar values. But Britain has its

own characteristics resulting from history. these characteristics can also be found in English way of life. A case in point is the traditional image of the English gentleman.

Manners in England

?The British are said to be reserved in manners, dress and speech. We are famous for our politeness, ?Greetings (Etiquette礼节礼仪)：

?How to greet someone in English etiquette

self-discipline and especially for our sense of humor. Basic politeness (please, thank-you, excuse me) is expected.

British people are quite reserved when greeting one another. Greeting can be a bright ?Hello? ‘Hi’ or ?Good morning?, when you arrive at work or at school.

?Terms of Endearment - Names we may call

you may be called by many different ?affectionate? names, according to which part of the Britain you are in. Do not be offended, this is quite normal. For example, you may be called dear, dearie, flower, love, chick, chuck (宝贝), me duck(亲爱的，宝贝), me duckie, mate, guy, son, ma'am, madam, miss, sir, or treacle, according to your sex, age and location.

?

?Visiting people in their houses

When being entertained at someone's home it is nice to take a gift for the host and hostess. A bottle of wine, bunch of flowers or chocolates are all acceptable.

Do's and Don'ts (Taboos) in England UK:

?Do stand in line:

In England we like to form orderly queues (standing in line) and wait patiently for our turn e.g.. boarding a bus. It is usual to queue when required, and expected that you will take your correct turn and not push in front. 'Queue jumping' is frowned upon.

?Do say \:

If someone is blocking your way and you would like them to move say excuse me and they will move out of your way.

?Do say \

It is very good manners to say \You will notice in England that we say 'thank you' a lot.

Do say sorry:

If you accidentally bump into someone, say 'sorry'. They probably will too, even if it was your fault! This is a habit and can be seen as very amusing by an 'outsider'.

?Do Smile:

A smiling face is a welcoming face.

?Do Drive on the left side of the road

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?In England...Do not greet people with a kiss:

We only kiss people who are close friends and relatives. ?Avoid talking loudly in public;

?It is impolite to stare at anyone in public. Privacy is highly regarded.

?Do not pick your nose in public:

We are disgusted by this. If your nostrils need de-bugging, use a handkerchief. ?Avoid doing gestures such as backslapping(拍?-肩背表示亲热) and hugging This is only done among close friends.

?Do not spit.

Spitting in the street is considered to be very bad mannered.

?Do not burp in public

You may feel better by burping loudly after eating or drinking, but other people will not! If you can not stop a burp from bursting out, then cover your mouth with your hand and say 'excuse me' afterwards.

?It is impolite to speak with your mouth full of food. ?Do not ask personal or intimate questions ?Never eat off a knife when having a meal.

We like our privacy. Please do not ask questions such as \much money do you earn?\\much do you weigh?\Why aren't you married?\

?In England...Women in Britain are entitled to equal respect and status with men in all areas of life

and tend to have more independence and responsibility than in some other cultures. What are Britain's Social Customs?

?Time

British people place considerable value on punctuality. If you agree to meet friends at three o'clock, you can bet that they'll be there just after three. Since Britons are so time conscious, the pace of life may seem very rushed. In Britain, people make great effort to arrive on time. It is often considered impolite to arrive even a few minutes late. If you are unable to keep an appointment, it is expected that you call the person you are meeting. Some general tips follow.

?You should arrive:

* At the exact time specified – for dinner, lunch, or appointments with professors, doctors, and other professionals.

* Any time during the hours specified for teas, receptions, and cocktail parties.

* A few minutes early: for public meetings, plays, concerts, movies, sporting events, classes, church services, and weddings.

?If you are invited to someone's house for dinner at half past seven, they will not expect you to be there on the dot. It is considered good manners to arrive ten to fifteen minutes \might state \says \

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?Invitations

“ Drop in anytime” and “come see me soon” are idioms often used in social settings but seldom meant to be taken literally. It is wise to telephone before visiting someone at home. If you receive a written invitation to an event that says “RSVP”请赐复(正式请柬用语), you should respond to let the person who sent the invitation know whether or not you plan to attend.

?Never accept an invitation unless you really plan to go. You may refuse by saying, “Thank you for

inviting me, but I will not be able to come.” If, after accepting, you are unable to attend, be sure to tell those expecting you as far in advance as possible that you will not be there.

?Although it is not necessarily expected that you give a gift to your host, it is considered polite to do

so, especially if you have been invited for a meal. Flowers, chocolate, or a small gift are all appropriate. A thank-you note or telephone call after the visit is also considered polite and is an appropriate means to express your appreciation for the invitation.

?Dress

Everyday dress is appropriate for most visits to peoples' homes. You may want to dress more formally when attending a holiday dinner or cultural event, such as a concert or theatre performance.

?Introduction and Greeting

It is proper to shake hands with everyone to whom you are introduced, both men and women. An appropriate response to an introduction is \to someone, extend you hand for a handshake and say \ ?Dining

When you accept a dinner invitation, tell your host if you have any dietary restrictions. He or she will want to plan a meal that you can enjoy. The evening meal is the main meal of the day in most parts of Britain.

?Food may be served in one of several ways: \family style,\another around the dining table; \buffet style,\with guests serving themselves at the buffet; and \serving style,\everyone at their table has been served before they begin to eat. Food is eaten with a knife and fork and dessert with a spoon and fork. Afternoon Tea, High Tea

?AFTERNOON TEA (The traditional 4 o'clock tea)

This is a small meal, not a drink. Traditionally it consists of Tea (or coffee) served with either of the following:

?Scones(烤饼,斯康)

?Freshly baked scones served with cream and jam (Known as a cream tea)

?Afternoon tea sandwiches often thinly sliced cucumber, sandwiches with the crusts cut off. ?Assorted pastries(油酥点心各式烘烤糕点)

?Now most ordinary British families do not have time for afternoon tea at home, but in the past it was a tradition. It became popular about one hundred and fifty years ago, when rich ladies invited their friends to their houses for an afternoon cup of tea. They started offering their visitors sandwiches and cakes too. Soon everyone was enjoying Afternoon tea.

?HIGH TEA (The traditional 6 o'clock tea)

The British working population did not have afternoon tea. They had a meal about midday, and a meal after work, between five and seven o'clock. This meal was called 'high tea' or just 'tea'.

?Traditionally eaten early evening, High tea was a substantial meal that combined delicious sweet

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foods, such as scones, cakes, buns(小圆面包) or tea breads, with tempting savouries(餐前开胃菜,餐后消化菜), such as cheese on toast, toasted crumpets(靠面饼), cold meats and pickles(腌菜泡菜) or poached eggs(水煮荷包蛋) on toast. This meal is now often replaced with a supper due to people eating their main meal in the evenings rather than at midday.

Same Body Language in Two Cultures but with Different Meanings

Different Body Language, Same Meaning

Body Language and Meaning in One Culture; No Equivalent Other Culture(1)

Body Language and Meaning in One Culture; No Equivalent in Other Culture(2)

Questions for lecture IX

1.What do you know about the English jury system and common law? 2.What is the historical significance of the Great Charter?

3.What do you know about the cause and effect of the Hundred Years? War? 4.What was the effect of the Wars of Roses? Lecture IX. English History

?Britain has a long history, so long as more than two thousand years, which has resulted in the

nation?s own unique historical culture, eg. the typical constitutional monarchy, many ancient buildings, social gentrification, etc. but how these legacies, these social phenomena have been evolved? As we mentioned before, Why does the nation retain the monarchy or why the national people support/esteem and even love their monarch (queen/king) since the monarch reigns but not rule? It has, to some extent, been a kind of puzzle/guesswork to us. A short history of early feudalism

?1066----1087,William I (the Conqueror) ?1087----1100, William II (Rufus) ?1100----1135, Henry I

?Twenty-year war between Matilda and her father, Stephen ?1154----1199, Henry II ?1199----1216 King John ?1216----

?Henry III……Edward I

?Edward II, Edward III, Henry IV, Henry V, Henry VI,

King John

Ten years after Henry II's death, his third and youngest son John became king( 1199~1216 ). John was said to have been the worst of English kings. He had a bad reputation for his treachery and misbehaviour. He ganged up with careerists against his father. He tried to replace his brother Richard I who was fighting for the Holy Land in the Middle East. He greedily collected money for himself. He became more reckless after he mounted the throne. Within six years of his reign, King John lost all his Confnental fief except a tiny spot in France.

?Many English people believe that Robin Hood, a legendary outlaw, was a contemporary of John. He

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bode in the woods, robbing the rich but helping the poor. Many stories, some of which were contradictory to each other, were told with interest among the common people. This partly showed their grievance against the social injustice in John's time when social problems were serious.

King John also quarreled with the Pope. In 1205, the monks of Canterbury ventured to choose an archbishop without consulting King John. Having been chosen, the new archbishop hastened off for Rome to gain the Pope's confirmation. But King John forced the monks to elect his treasure archbishop. The Pope, however, rejected both the candidates and bade the monks to choose his favourite, Stephen Langton, as Archbishop of Canterbury. The enraged king drove the monks who had obeyed the Pope out of the kingdom and confiscated their lands. The Pope then retaliated against the king by placing England under, the interdict, that is to say, he ordered the clergy in England to close all their churches and suspend public services. King John was forced to give in. He not only agreed to accept the Pope's nomination of Stephen Langton but also promised to send a yearly tribute to the Pope. He even promised to hand England over to the Pope who would give it back as a fief. This would turn King John into a vassal of the Pope.

King John planned to whitewash himself with military victories. In 1213, he proposed a war against France so as to reconquer the lost territory. But the barons refused to follow him. In fact, they were planning to put an end to John's reckless and tyrannic behaviour. The Great Charter

The barons became more and more discontented with John's tyranny and misgovernment. In 1214, a number of them met and decided to compel the king to sign a charter containing the things that a king might not do. But John refused to sign it. The rebel barons raised an army and marched against him. When they reached London, the insurgent nobles found the gate wide open because many people supported the rebellion. The nobles and the king met at Runnymede, not far from London. On June I5, 1215, they forced King John to sign and swear to observe the charter they had prepared.

The Great Charter, or the Magna Carta, is a most important document in English history. It is as important to the English people as the Declaration of Independence to the Americans. It has been regarded as \corner stone\of English history. Some of its most important provisions are as follows:

1 )The king must promise to observe the rights of his vassals (barons) and the vassals in turn must observe the rights of their men.

2) The merchant is not to be deprived of his goods for small offenses, nor the farmers of his wagon and implements. No tax should be levied in the kingdom without the consent of the Great Council. 3) No free man shall be imprisoned or banished or punished in any way, unless convicted by a jury of his fellow citizens.

4) The king should permit merchants to move about freely and observe the privileges of the various towns.

The Great Charter was the first step of constitutional experiment and rule of law. It tried to establish a legal relation between the king and his barons by defining their respective rights and obligations. The Great Charter paved the way for the new-born bourgeoisie to get political power because it granted more power to the Great Council, which was the embryonic form of the English Parliament. The charter protected the rights of the erchant class. This facilitated the development of commerce and handicraft.

The Great Charter laid down the basic rules for the English and American legal system. It raised the problem of protecting life, property, and preventing possible abuse of power of the government. It tried to establish a due process of law for trials of criminal and civil cases.

16

Judgments could only come after trials and no freeman should be punished by the law unless convicted by a jury of his fellow citizens. All these rules, designed to protect the privileged class at first, were later extended to the broad masses of common people and established the guideline for protection of civil rights in the Western World.

Though the Great Charter protected freemen who made up only 12% of the population, the serfs who made up the overwhelming majority of the population gained little benefit from it. But still the charter represented a turning point in the development of English history. The demand for a social order regulated by the law began to challenge feudal despotism. British constitution and the Parliament

There is no written constitution. A thousand years ago, before the Norman conquest in 1066, the Anglo-Saxon kings consulted the great council (an assembly of the leading men from each district) before taking major decisions.

Between 1066 and 1215 the king ruled alone, but in 1215 king john signed the Magna Carta (the Great Charter----the first constitutional paper), which gave some of his powers to the nobles. (This was the embryonic form of the English Parliament). In later centuries this was seen as the first occasion on which the king was forced to take advice.

In 1264 the first parliament of nobles met together. Since then the British constitution has evolved, in other words, it has grown up slowly, as a result of countless acts of parliament.

There have been no violent changes in the constitution since the ?bloodless revolution’/“glorious revolution” of 1688. Then, parliament invited William and Mary to become Britain's first constitutional monarchs. A constitutional monarch is one who can rule only with the support of parliament.

The bill of rights (1689) was the first legal step towards constitutional monarchy. This bill prevented the monarch from making laws or raising an army without parliament?s approval.

Since 1689 the power of parliament has grown steadily, and the power of the monarch has declined to nothing. The great reform bill of 1832 and the second reform bill of 1867 enabled a very large section of the population to vote for its government.

Today every citizen aged eighteen or over has the right to vote. Questions for consideration

?1.What was the effect of the Renaissance in England?

?2.How had the English values changed under the influence of the Renaissance? ?3.What was the Roman Catholic Church like in the Middle Ages? ?4.What was the beliefs of the Puritans?(p.111-123) ?5.What was the effect of the Industrial Revolution? ?6.How did Britain expand its Empire abroad?

?7.What was the effect of the two World Wars on Britain?

Questions for lecture X

?1. Where is America situated? And is it favorable for human inhabitancy? ?2.Is China larger than America or not in terms of land-area? ?3.Does America have any colonies?

Volume II. An Outline Introduction to the United States of America Lecture X.

Position and Land-area of the United States of America

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?It is usually said that China is a big country abounding in natural wealth with a gigantic

population, however, it is not obviously aware that America has a vast territory and abundant resources but not densely populated.

?America is mainly situated in the northern temperate zone, which is an ideally habitual region North American

?The continent of North America encompasses 9,351,970 square miles. Its highest point is Mt. McKinley in Alaska, USA, at 20,320 feet above sea level. Its lowest point is Death Valley in California, USA, at 282 feet below sea level. North America's approximate population in 2002 was 494,394,000. North America includes Canada, the United States of America, Mexico, Greenland, the Caribbean islands, and the countries of Central America. North America is bounded on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the north by the Arctic Ocean, and on the south by South America. The longest river in North America is the Mississippi and Missouri, which runs through the USA for a length of 3,741 miles. North America's largest lake is Lake Superior (31,820 square miles) which sits astride the border between Canada and the United States.

Questions for lecture XI

?How many geographically-featured parts is Mainland America roughly divided, and what are they? ?What kind of impression have you got on America after we have talked by this lecture?

Lecture XI. Surface Regions and Landform of America 导 言

美国的小学生按传统都要学唱：

啊！美丽辽阔的山川， 一片金色麦浪， 在富饶的平原上， 耸立着庄严的山岗。 阿美利加！阿美利加！ 上帝恩宠之邦。 蒙神恩施博爱， 横贯东西海洋！ Three Basic Geographical Areas or surface Regions

?1.The Atlantic Seacoast (also called: Eastern Coastal) Plain and the Appalachian(s) Mountains (ref. to P.145)

?2.the Mississippi River Valley/Basin and

the Great Central Plain

?The Rockies to the Pacific Ocean/lower and gentler Coast Ranges.

River Vitality 0f Mississippi

?The Mississippi River is vital to the people of the basin. Over 18 million people rely on the Mississippi for water supply. Communities up and down the Mississippi use the river to discharge industrial and municipal wastes (as permitted by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency). Commercial navigation on the Mississippi River allows Midwestern farmers to ship grains to world markets, with over 60 percent of U.S. grain exports shipped via the Mississippi. The river generates close to $2 million annually from commercial fishing and over $1 billion from Upper Mississippi River recreation alone. Mississippi River basin

?The Mississippi river provides some of the most extreme examples of sediment related flooding

18

within the United States.

?Since the Mississippi river's basin encompasses over a third of the United States and contains many poorly managed, sediment-laden tributaries, its sediment load is usually very high.

?Many communities in Louisiana which have grown up near the delta of the Mississippi have been \flooding and sedimentation for many decades. In some instances levee construction has become so extensive that the river's bottom may be ten or more feet above the average elevation of the surrounding community.

The 3rd Geographically Featured Part

?The Rockies to the Pacific Ocean/lower and gentler Coast Ranges.

The Rockies ( the Rocky Mountains)

2 regional terms in Mainland America

Yellowstone National Park

Ladies adventure bus toward Canyon

Questions for XII lecture

?How many sorts of climate does America have?

?What brings about the distinction of meteorological conditions of the country? ?How many natural disasters does America sustain?

Lecture XII Climate and Weather of Mainland America

?Mainland America is mainly situated in the northern temperate zone. But, owing to its large size and

varied landforms, it has different types of climate in different areas.

1. New England is dominated by the northern and oceanic climate, usually there would be several fierce blizzards every year

?Mid-Atlantic states, although the seasons are well defined, can sort out to be oceanic climate ?The south-east states ---- oceanic climate, are sometimes harassed by hurricanes in summer.

?The Midwest, states on upper-reaches of Mississippi, including the Missouri R. and Ohio River

valley----typical continental climate, troubled by another natural disaster “tornado” A few major cities of US

?The eleven stats of the Rocky Mountains have sharply different climatic conditions

?Boston----one of the oldest cities of America; ?New York----the largest (seaport) city of America

?Washington D.C. (District of Columbia)---- one of the neatest cities, situated on the traditional

dividing line (Potomac River), as the capital of the United States;

?Detroit ----the auto-capital of the U.S;

?San Francisco----the oldest city of the US (set up by Spanish colonists) ?Los Angeles----the largest city of US in terms of area.

Questions for lecture XIV

?Who were the forefathers/ancestor of Americans? ?How many races/nationalities are there in the US? ?Why is the US called a melting-pot?

?Who were the Pilgrim Fathers, and why they were given such a name?

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Lecture XIII People, Race and Ethnic Groups of America

?J.F.kennedy once said: The United States was “a society of immigrants, each of them had begun life anew……This is the secret of America; a nation of people with the fresh memory of old traditions who dare to explore new frontiers.”

?The United States is an/the largest immigration country; immigrations from Europe to America began more than 400 years ago.

?Who took the lead in immigration?

1.Spanish colonists took the lead and established a few outposts in what is now Florida in1500s; 2.Before long a French colony was founded in what is now Maine; 3.In 1607, Britain planted its first colony in what is now Virginia; ?Are these people were the forefathers of Americans?

In 1607, Britain planted its first colony in what is now Virginia; they set up the first colony, Named James-town Pilgrim Fathers

?In September, 1620, a group of 101 Puritans and some employees left Plymouth, Eng. And sailed for America in the ship named Mayflower.

?They worked out a solemn agreement, known as Mayflower Compact.

?They set up their first settlement which was called Plymouth, soon they built another, named Boston

Immigration Country---Melting-pot

?The United States is a nation of 100 ethnic groups.

?The majority---whites, taking up 85/78% of total population.

?All the others are called minorities, with blacks amounts to about 12%, Hispanics (Hispano/Espanoles/Iberico)10%, the rest are Asians, Africans ?Chinese Americans, some 2.8million 1) White People

The majority of Americans are white people who account for about 78% of the total US population. The white people are immigrants or descendants of immigrants from European nations. Most of them believe in Christianity.

The foundation of the United States was the 13 English colonies established by England before 1700. It was the 13 colonies that finally founded the United States. Most of the early immigrants from Britain, generally known as the White Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASP), were \motherland because they refused to obey the roles of the Church of England and demanded freedom of religious belief for every individual. Their belief laid the foundation of the separation of church from the state in the United States.

New England, mainly populated by freedom-loving Puritans (including independents and other radical Protestants) in the colonial time, has been known as the cradle of American liberty.\1620, a group of English Puritans founded the Plymouth, colony in Massachusetts. They signed the MayfloWer Compact, which marked the beginning of a completely new system---self-government, based on equality and democracy. They held the first Thank-giving Day celebration to thank Cod. New Englanders, traditionally called Yankees, were regarded as representatives and defenders of the Anglo-Saxon culture that finally became the basis of American mainstream culture.

Many people from other European countries also immigrated to the English colonies of North America in the colonial time. In his famous pamphlet Common Sense Thomas Paine wrote, \not England is the parent country to America. These words encouraged more immigrants from other European countries to come to the United States.

Most of the early European immigrants fled their homelands to escape starvation and historical unrest. The old autocratic system in Europe deprived them of the basic human right and they were told to be subservient to the system they did not like. That is why immigrants from other European countries soon embraced the Anglo-Saxon culture and adapted with surprising speed to American society. Today

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European immigrants are also welcome because they could be assimilated into the American way of life within a comparatively short time.

After 1890 immigration from northern and western Europe fell off sharply because rapid industrial development made labor scarce in these areas. It is now estimated that

about one third of Americans have ancestors from Britain. They are still the most influenlial and wealthiest in the United States. One of the contributing factors is that Ameriean culture is based on Anglo-Saxon culture.

2) Black People

Black Americans, about 35 million in 2000, account for about 12 % of the total US

population. The first group of blacks was brought\colonies were in need of labor, the slave system developed rapidly and

During the 1880s, a lot of Jews fled to the United States from east Europe.

During the Second World War, many Jews went to America to escape the holocaust~ ~mrted by Hitler.

Today there are more than 6 million Jews in America, accounting for more than 2% of the US population.

The Jews have been reputed for being skillful financiers or moneylenders, hence the English expression \one of the many important pressure groups in American society, having a great influence on U.S. polities. Their influence plays a

very important role in prompting the U.S. Government to help Israel whenever there is

the need do so. Politically, most Jewish-Americans tend to give their support to the Democrats. Melting Pot or Mosaic

For many years in history the United States was likened to a \melting pot.\It meant that as immigrants from different regions and cultures came to live in the United States, their old ways of life melt away and they became part of the American culture.The United States was thus compared to a big pot of soup that had bits of flavor from each different culture.

The U. S, population was characterized by multiplicity in terms of composition. J. Hector St. de Creveeoem', a French naturalist, wrote a famous book entitled Letters from an American Farmer, which was composed of his essays on the American way of life. The book introduced the concept of America as a melting pot for the people of many nations.

\then is the American, this new man ? He is either an European, or the descendant of an European, hence the strange mixture of blood, which you will find in no other country, I could point ont to you a family whose grandfather was an Englishman, whose wife was Dutch, whose son married a French woman, and whose present four sons have now four wives of different nations.\

The traditional concept of \

some people compare America to a mosaic because the US population is composed of more than one hundred ethnic groups. It is like a picture of many distinctive colors and these colors do not mix with each other. An ethnic group is made up of people with some common characteristics that make them different from other groups. They are either of the same national origin or share specific racial or physical traits. They are usually bound together by common traditions and values. Members of an ethnic group tend to see themselves as separate from other people. Often groups of people from the same culture live together in distinctive communities, such as Chinatowns in a number of cities and Little Cuba in Florida. There are also areas almost exclusively populated by other ethnic groups, such as Korean immigrants and Mexican immigrants.

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But the mosaic concept does not always hold true either, for the children of immigrants often want to speak English and follow the American way of life. It is estimated that about 48% of European immigrants marry outside their own ethnic groups by the time they reach the third generation. They are no longer called French-Americans or Irish-Americans. They are known as \Americas\because they have been \all Americans bound together by a new kind of glue. Just as George J. Mitchell, a former federal judge, put it,

\Most nations derive from a single tribe or a single race. They practice a single religion. Common racial, ethnic, and religious heritages are the glue of nationhood for many. The United States is different. We have all races, all religion, a limited common heritage. The glue of nationhood for us is the American ideal of individual liberty and equal justice…\

New immigrants from regions other than North and Western Europe sometimes suffer from discrimination because their cultural and religious backgrounds are different from those of the white people. Racial discrimination, in the final analysis, is unequal and unjust treatment. There are many contributing factors to discrimination.

Since the 1960s, the U. $. Government has passed a series of laws to eradicate any racial discrimination. But discrimination has not died out because the law is not omnipotent(全能的，无限的，绝对权力的). A new immigrant in America complained:

\home you are either rich or poor, that is the only discrimination. Here (in the U. S. ) bosses discriminate against workers, whites against blacks, legal immigrants against illegal immigrants. Even within the same race there is discrimination. I think it is because in America there is so much competition. People need any edge they can get to move ahead.\

Her conclusion, though not completely acceptable, points to some facts in

American society. The American law promises equal chance for every citizen, but American philosophy is based on individualism, self-reliance and competition, which may lead to the adoption of social Darwinism that God helps him who helps himself. It would be ridiculous to imagine that America is a ready-made paradise for everyone who goes there. But it is also wrong to say that American society is a stratified(分层次的) society dominated by a small number of people and it does not allow anyone other than the white to make a fortune. As a matter of fact, the United States is more resilient(有弹性的，富有活力的，适应力强的) than many other countries in dealing with difference, in spite of their complaints, few immigrants would leave America for another country. Almost everyone could find his fellow countrymen in the United States. Upper, Middle and Lower Classes

The Upper Class: According to official statistic, about 10% of the total American population controls some 65% of the nation's private wealth, mainly in the form of corporate stock. They make up the most important part of the upper class. Their income taxes can help show their economic status. The top 10% of Armenians paid 51%, or some 150 billion U. S, dollars of the 1984 federal income tax while the top 5% of Americans in the same year paid 38% of the total federal income tax.

There is no denying that they are the main taxpayers, but their take-home (net) income Is still disproportionately high.

Known as millionaires or multi-millinaires, upper-class Americans own many things that are beyond

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the reach of common people, such as spacious cozy villas, private -swimming pools and luxury cars. Some of them are extravagant spenders, who spend a lot of money on pleasures and luxuries without use value. They eontribute money to the campaign funds of politicians and lobby the legislature. In making

policies the government has to take their interests into full account. If the government policy does not offer them the chance to make a profit, they will stop making investments or move their money abroad. This will send the stock market down and lead to a new recession.

The Middle Class: In terms of income, is positioned between the upper class and the lower class. It mainly consists of white-collar workers with income above the national average. Middle-class Americans are mostly professional people who rely on their salaries for a living. There is the opinion that manual workers of low educational levels, such as miners, truck drivers and road builders, should not be included in\ 'high class, even. if their pay ~s .

It is estimated that middle-class Americans comprise more than 40% of the total

American population. They paid about 40%, or some 130- billion dollars, of the 1984 federal, income tax bill, middle-class Americans live in affluence. They have detached houses or villas in the suburbs, although some may live in semidetached houses. They can afford to buy a new car every five years. They have the money to make pleasure trips in summer. Some of them can afford to build private swimming-pools, They send their children to universities so as to prepare them for middle-cl~ jol~.

Middle-class Americans make up the most. important bloc of consumers in America. They make up the majority and have surplus money. All salesmen and manufacturers know the importance of catering to their needs. Many ads are aimed at stimulating their desire for consumption. Their sense of self-esteem often prompts them to buy new things. Middle-class Americans play an important role in American polities.

They are better educated and well informed. Their demand for stability helps to maintain social order. No politician win a popular election without the support of middle-class

Americans because they make up the largest voting bloc. Soon after the Democrats failed to win a majority of seats at the mid-term election of 1994 and lost the Control of the House and the Senate, President Clinton proposed a bill to cut the income tax to please middle-class Americans.

It is commonplace to hear middle-class Americans-complain. They have to work

hard to keep their position and standard of living. They pay a lot of income, taxes but they are not entitled to social welfare benefits which are aimed at helping the poor.

Besides, their children have to pay all the fees for higher education. Their life is affluent, \always faced

Questions for lecture XIV

?What are the US government principles?

?What is the connotation of the Federal System?

?What are the three branches of the Federal/Central Gov., and how each of them checks the other two in preventing abuse of power?

Lecture XIV Government and Politics ?Government Principles:

1.supremacy of people and popular consent----the Government derives its just power from the consent of the governed; the Government has no other powers except those given by the people and written in the Constitution;

2.Federalism and separation of powers (principle of checks and balances) ----the power of the government must be limited and divided by a fundamental law, the Constitution;

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3.the Government should have adequate power for achieving its appropriate purpose.

Constitution/Formation of the Government ?The US Gov. consists of three branches: the Legislative (the Congress); the Executive (Administration); the Judicial (the Supreme Court)

?The Gov. exercises division of power/ balance of power/restriction of power the Legislative

the Executive the Judicial

The Legislative Branch

The legislative branch of the federal government, officially known as the U. S. Congress is composed of two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives. The two houses are granted equal powers and all bills have to pass both the Senate and the House before going to the President for his signature.

The central function of Congress is to make federal laws because \powers\ granted to the federal govemment “shall be vested in a Congress of the United States.\Only Congress has the power to collect taxes and levy duties, to pay the country's debts, to regulate tore~gn commerce, and to rame armies and pay for them.

Another important function of Congress is to make investigations. Congressional investigations are an important tool for federal lawmakers to know the views of American people about a proposed bill. The Congress usually holds hearings over disputed questions. Congress has the power to call any American citizens, including federal officials, to testify--to say what they know on the subject under investigation. Those who refuse to testify or give false testimony will be punished for contempt of Congress or perjury. Congressional investigations aim to prevent corruptions and wrongdoings of high-level officials. The Congress, for example, investigated the Watergate affair and President Clinton's alleged affair with White House intern Lewinsky.

The House of Representatives is a subdivision of the bicameral Congress. Ever since 1910, the House has had a permanent membership of 435, with each Representative standing for more than half a million American now (ref. to P. 56 of our book) ?The House (of Representatives): 1. impeachment

2. initiation of revenue bills Committees:

1. Ways and Means Committee 2. Investigation Committee ?The Senate:

1. Budget Committee

2. Appropriation Committee 3. Foreign Relation Committee Questions for lecture XV

1. What was the area size of original America (when it came into being----when the United States of America was founded)?

2. How much was the United States enlarged after the Purchase of Louisiana?

3. What was the real cause of Mexican War, and what about its results? (ref. to p.304-305)? 4. What was the result of the US-Spanish War?(ref. to last para. of p.335) 5. Why did US impose the equal-trading-right “Open Door” policy on China?

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Lecture XV. US/America?s Expansion ?1.Original US of America ?2.Purchase of Louisiana(1803) ?3.1845-1848(Mexican War) ?4.1867 Purchase of Alaska ?5.1898 US-Spanish War

?6.By the turning-point of 20th century, purchase of the right to dig Panama Canal ?7.1899-1900 “Open Door” Doctrine imposed on China

US Expansion (ref. to p.309&259) 2.Purchase of Louisiana(1803) ?Background:

?Jefferson's success in the presidential eletion of 1800 refleted the growing importance of farmers and tradesmen from Whom Jefferon derived his main support. To serve their interests, Jefferson emphasized development of agriculture and trade. He supported westward expansion for land and the complete control of the Mississippi River as an outlet for American farm products, According to the peace treaty concluded with England after the War of Independence, the Mississippi River was the western boundary of the United States.

?The area to the west of the Mississippi, known as Louisiana, did not belong to America. It was first claimed by Spain and in 1800 it was ceded to France under Napoleon, who was then at war with several nations. Jefferson took advantage of the war and proposed to Napoleon that France sell New Orleans to the United States. Napoleon, who was badly in need of money, decided to make a bargain. He agreed to sell the city as well as Louisiana to America at the price of 15million dollars.

?The U.S. Constitution did not say the federal govermnent could pumhase land from another country, but Jefferson approved the purchase.

?This additional 2.6 million square kiloineters of land, purchased at the price of three-and-a-half cents an acre, at once douhled America's territory and pushed the American frontier west far beyond the Midwest.

?The bargain also put the Mississippi River system under the complete control of the Uniied States. Cheap water transportation greatly stimulated the agricultural and industrial production and a number of big cities such as Chicago and Kansas City sprang up in this region.

3. 1845-1848(Mexican War)

Mexican War and Its Results (1846--'1848)

Texas had been a part of Mexico. In 1820, Moses Austin, a businessman and speculator from Connecticut, planned to found an American settlement in Texas with the approval of Mexican officials. But Austin died before plans for the colony were completed. His son, Stephen Austin, led the first group of settlers to Texas in 1821.

In 1835, Americans living in Texas started their independence war and declared independence on March 1, 1836.

President Jackson and many southerners wanted to acquire Texas, but northerners---especially those who were against slavery were against the annexation.

Because of the disagreement, the US Congress recognized the Republic of Texas instead of annexing it in 1837.

During the debate over whether to annex Texas, the American journalist and politician John Osullivan put forward the Manifest Destiny theory. According to the argument of Manifest Destiny, North America was allotted to American people

\It was the American people?s \

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The jingoistic tenet of Manifest Destiny tried to justify Amencas territorial expansion by arguing that it was not only inevitable but divinely ordained. The implications of Manifest Destiny were actually threefold:

1) inevitability of the independence of the United States; 2) the legitimacy of American's territorial expansion;

3) the spread of American democracy being the task of American people who are chosen to do the Lord's work.

(The tenet of Manifest Destiny was used many times to just the acquisition of new territories in American history.)

In 1845, the US Congress passed a resolution admitting Texas to the Union.

Mexico soon severed its diplomatic relations with the United States in protest of the annexation. When the American Government sent troops to occupy the disputed border region between Texas and Mexico, war broke out.

Mexico was not as strong as the United States. The US troops defeated Mexican troops, crossed the border and drove into the capital of Mexico. The Mexican Government was forced to give in and negotiations began. The unequal treaty imposed on the Mexicans included three main points:

1 ) The Rio Grande River was to be the boundary between Mexico and the United States

2) The large block of territory, over 500 000 square miles, including California and New Mexico, was ceded to America;

3) The US Government, in return, would pay the Mexican government $15 million.

the Mexican War, one of the aggressive wars started by the US government, finally expanded the territory of the United States to the Pacific Coast. A number of new states were organized in the Far West and Southwest of Unite States Oppemmifies and Adventures

The first half of the 19th ~eentury wit_nessed America's t~'ritorial expam. and social development. The purchase of Louisiana and annexation of Texas led to a large-scale westward movement. Socially, Americans were getting more freedom for individuals to conduct their own affairs, the Federalists, who had feared the danger of too much liberty, discredited after the Second War with England. As a radical democrat.

President Jackson actually embodied American people's fai~ m hunma

nature and ..the belief that citizens deserved to live free from government restraint. The newly,founded Democratic Party provided the chance for men of humble origins to be appointed~ to 'high office.

Meanwhile, opportunities for Americans to become rich also increased. Stories of those who found pathways to wealth caused Americans to believe that there were many opportunities open to them. In one book, The Rich Men of Massachusetts, readers discovered that Roswell Gleason had won success only because of his strong determination to do something and be somebody, a reflection of the Puritanic belief.

Some other books suggested that the future was especially bright for those who were willing to take some risks. Herman Melville explained in his novel Moby Dick why many young boys longed to go to sea:

\home with me foreign clothes of rich fabric.., and wear them up and down the streets \

Novels like Moby Dick and people's eagerness to make a fortune promoted the development of the whaling industry. Whaling was profitable because people used the

4. 1867 Purchase of Alaska

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?Much of the territory the United Stats was purchaed, such as and Florida. When there was no

neighboring land to be purcbesed, America bought Alaska from Russia at the price of 7.2 million dollars in 1887.(1.5 millionSKMs)

?The purchse of this large “ice-box”, a nickname given by Americans, was not warmly welcomed by common Americans, but gradually the new territory proved its value with its rich reserves of gold and oil. Alaska Lakes

5.1898 US-Spanish War(P. 334-336)

The fast development of economy and the growth of big interetest groups pushed America to imperialism. Its old concept of isolation and the Monroe Doctrine could no longer satisfactorily meet the need of the US capitalists production

The United States had long been covetous of the islands generally known as Cuba which was then still controlled by Spain. America offered of $ 100 miliion in exchange for Cuba, but rejected by Spain. But American monopolist, suceteded in controlling much of Cuba?s economy and foreign trede by throwing in large investments and flooding Cuba with American goods.

America's chance finally came in 1895 when the War of independence broke out in Cuba. After maintaining neutrality for 3 years, America found a pretext in a mysterious explosion which sank the Amencnn. Battship Maine in Havana harbor. Warship of UA-Spanish War Result of the War

Spain and United States signed a peace treaty in Paris in December 1898.

1) It provlded for Spamsh withdrawal from Cuba, leaving the island under US' occupation.(The United States did not actually annex Cuba because the Teller Amendment passed when the $. S.Congress declared war, prevented the United States from taking over Cuba.

2) Puerto Rico, Guam, and. the Philippines were ceded by Spain to the United States, which in return paid Spain $ 20 million.

3) The United States controlled the Philippins until it was granted complete independence on July 4, 1946. American troops left Cuba in 1902 ,but retained the control of Cuba's Guantanamo as a military. Aggression Against China

The Sino-US relation dates back to the early nineteenth century when trade between the two countries developed. After the Opium War, the United States managed to get almost all the pdvileges provided in the unequal Treaty of Nanjing, but it did not ask for cession of land. The U. S. China policy was based on the Open Door doctrine, which referred to the principle of western powers “equal trading rights in China”.

In the late1800s, the major European powers had btained control of important regions of China. It appeared that they would soon carve up China and edge out the United States.

The United States was unwilling to accept such a result because it desired access to the large market of China. Accordingly, in 1899 and 1900 U.S. Secretary of State John Milton Hay negotiated an agreement with Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Italy, and Japan that guaranteed \equal and impartial trade with all parts of the Chinese Empire\Chinese territorial and administrative\. The open door doctrine remained the basis of U. S. policy toward China until the end of the Second World War.

The doctrine was opposed to any attempt to carve up China by any imperialist powers. The United States opposed the occupation of Northeast China by Japan after the Incident of September 18.

As foreign merchants and missionaries poured into China, conflicts arose. Waves of anti-foreign aggression spread through out many parts of China. This finally led to the uprising of 1900 of Yihetuan (or “Society of Righteousness and Harmony”), known by Westerners as the Boxer Uprising. With encouragement from the Qing Court, radicals among the Boxers tried to storm foreign legations and killed a number of foreign missionaries. Under the pretext of protecting their citizens and property in China, the Eight-power Alliance, including the United States, invaded China.

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The Qing government was forced to sign the Boxer Protocol (1901), which provided that China pay out 450 million silver dollars to the foreign allies and allow foreign troops to control the railway stretching from Tlanjln to Be,jlng.

America got 24 million dollars from the indemnity. Then the U. S. Congress declared that America's dividend exceeded its total expenditure on the war and 11million dollars was to be returned to China as educational fund to help educate Chinese students in American schools.

For this purpose, some preparatory schools were set up in China. Some American politicians argued that this embodied Amenea's belief in fair play and America's good will to the Chinese people, but the Chinese people regard the war as aggression against Chma. Questions for Lecture XVI

?What are the main factors that have contributed to the fast development of American economy?

Lecture XVI. National Economy

?General Introduction

?The United States is the largest developed country and the only superpower in the world.

?With about 5% of the world's population, the United States produces about 27% of the total world output. Its (GNP) per capita surpassing $ 35,000 which is 40 times as much as that of China.

?The U. S. leads the world in such fields as information technology; computers, space, nuclear energy, electronics and military products.

?The United States is the largest automobile maker of the world and it produces a large proportion of the world's machinery, chemicals, oil, steel, and electrical energy. ?The united States is a major/largest buyer and seller in the world market.

?Common American people?s sense of being an American is closely related with the idea that he or she is the citizen of the world?s largest industrialized nation with a large territory and rich natural resources. This sense contributes the distinction between Americans and that of other nations.

But America was underdeveloped before 1776. under British rule, the colonies were consigned largely to two roles:

1. As the suppliers of raw materials;

2. As the markets for British manufactured goods. Advancement of American Industrialization

?The first factory of textile in the US was built in 1793 by a British immigrant in Rhode Island. The textile industry remained the pillar main for many years. ?In 1890, the output of factories exceeded that of farms

?By 1913, more than one-third of the world?s industrial output was produced in the US.

?Largest productive capacity leads to enormous consumption . The US each year consumes some 25% of the raw materials produced in the world.

?The US plays a very important role in the healthy development of the world economy. Some world economists say, “When the United States coughs, the rest of the world catches a cold.”

Factors contributing to the fast development of American economy (204)

1.Sparsely-populated land, rich natural resources; (it produces half of the world?s corn, ref. to p.220) 2.Continuous influx of immigrants have reduced the cost of labor;

3.Strongest power in the western hemisphere, (Mainland America) immunized from foreign aggression;

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4. Foreign policy protected American industries against fierce competition from abroad. American Economic System

?The economic system of the United States is known as free enterprise because everyone is free to start an enterprise, the capitalist system as Carl Marx named. Today it is often referred to as market economy.

?The US law protects American people's right to \pursuit of happiness.“ It regards the right to property as a human right because the right to possess property is indispensable to one's pursuit of happiness,

?The system protects private ownership of property, including the means of' production. land, for example, can be sold and bought freely by private individuals.

?The government is not allowed to confiscate private property without making compensation.

?The US economic system has been based on the main argument contained in The wealth of Nations, Americans embraced the economic ideas advocated by Adam Smith because they fitted with. the American dream of freedom. Lecture XVI

Roosevelt’s New Deal the Great Depression

The Trigger: The immediate cause of the Great Depression was the New York Stock Exchange crash on October 24,1929, known as “Black Thursday”.

?Overproduction and the sluggish market had already filled investors with fear about the future. When they learnt that a decline in prices of securities might be expected, stockholders began to sell large blocks of stock. The rich people withdrew their money. Some others started to hoard gold. With so much money withdrawn from circulation, banks had to close their doors.

Countless factories went bankrupt and closed down, as people were forced to reduce their consumption because their wages had decreased. During the crisis America's production of coal declined 14%, iron and steel 80%, and autos 80%. The total value of the industrial output dropped from some $ 70 billion to slightly more than $ 31 billion.

The farm products prices fell to such a low level that farmers refused to harvest their ripe crops, financial returns from the fields in 1932 were only half those in 1929.

About 25% of the total labor force, without counting the many millions working part-time, Wages decreased 60%. There was no social security program.

About 2 million young people became \or a meal at every stop.

Main Contents of the New Deal

1.Roosevelt?s idea to struggle against the panic from the Great Depression: There is nothing to fear , the only thing we have to fear is fear itself 2.Financial approaches: 1)EBA

(1)suspend the link between gold and US dollar (2)devalue US dollar

2)The Truth in Securities Act 3.Employment approaches:

1)Abolition of Prohibition Law

2)WPA----Works Progress Administration

(1)TVA----Tennessee Valley Authority ----flood control and power generation projects;

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(2)CCC----(Civilian Conservation Cops) tree planting, construction of roads, high-ways, parks

3)establishment of Minimum Rate of pay

4.Remedy for Farm overproduction:

1) AAA---Agricultural Adjustment Act

2) AAA---Agricultural Adjustment Administration

In 1933 the Congress passed the AAA and set up the AAA to carry out the Act -----to raise farm prices by acreage limitations. Ref. toP.349

The historical significance of Roosevelt?s “New Deal”

?Roosevelt?s “New Deal” was an American type of social reform based on the new concept that the government was responsible for the healthy development of national economy and social security, and that the growth of production could not be maintained only if the great body of the consumers could continue to purchase its output. To achieve balanced development, the New Deal increased government interference in the nation’s economic life.

?the New Deal did not really bring an end to the Great Depression, but it saved the capitalist system and allowed Americans to survive the worst crisis in the history of capitalism. Lecture XVII American Culture

?American culture, in its broad sense, refers to everything related to American people and society--airs, literature, education, values, concept, insihgt, mode of production, social system and way of life. American culture emerged with the English colonies in North America, which were predominated by English cultural patterns, epeeially in language and political institutions. But American culture has been influenced by many other cultures brought in by immigrants from all over the world. many other factors unique to the United States have also contributed to the formation and development of Alnerican culture. Basis of American Culture

Pursuit of freedom and equality has been the guiding principles and goal of American culture. Most of the history of the United States revolves around the struggle to translate these principles into practice----from the founding of Plymouth colony to the Independence War, to the adoption of the Bill of Rights, to the Civil War, to New Freedom, to the civil rights movement, Great Society

The White Anglo-Saxon Protestants played a dominant role in the process of laying the foundations of American culture. \representative of some great idea,\

In Our Country, according to Strong, Greek civilization was famed for its beauty, the Hebrews for their purity. Romans for their law.

He argued that the Anglo-Saxon race had two great ideas to its credit. The first was the love of liberty, and the second was Christianity

The Anglo-Saxon Protestant theology believed the basic sinfulness of humankind; but it also declared that God had determined that some people, the elect, would be saved despite their sins. The Puritans, who regarded themselves as the elect would be actually saved. They were actually Calvinists. People who adhered to Calvin?s advocacy of sociely, diligence, thrift, and lack of ostentation. The Puritans regarded contemplation mere laziness, and poverty either as punishment for sin or evidence that one did not have God?s grace.

?Puritanism advocated industriousness, self-discipline, introspection(内省，反省) and readiness to endure the hardships involved in trying to gain one?s goal. Not to succeed in one?s calling was a sign that the approval of God was withheld. In the eyes of the of puritans, the behavior for worldly

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wealth should replace the behavior for sanctity(圣洁，尊严)

They considered individual responsibility more important than blind obedience. Because of its stress on strict morality, the word Puritanism is often misused in a way that does not mean the same as historical Puritanism. People, for instance, improperly label rigid moral standard, prohibition of wine, opposition to innocent pleasure, and religious intolerance as puritanical.

?They had some different religious belliefs from the Catholic Clhurch. they believed that God was incomprehensible to man, and the power of God was all-knowing, yet hidden and hidden to man, while Cathohes believed that God could be roached through his representative on the earth----the Pope. Puritan salvationwas different from that of Catholics. Puritans were convinced that human beings were predetined by God before they were born. Some were God?s chosen people, others were predestined to be damned to hell. Therefore no good works could save anyone, and nobody knew if he or she was God's elect?

?But Catholics argued that a person could confess his or her sin, do good works and give money to the church and buy back his or her soul.

?Was there any evidence for Puritans to show that some peo!le were God's chosen people? Puritans believed that everyone had a calling which was given by God. The success of one's work or the prosperity in his calling was the sign of being God's elect.

?Therefore, everyone must work hard, spend little and invest for more ?business. Working hard and living a moral life were their ethics. How ?Could puritans find God's will and establish a direct contact with God? ?They concluded that the Bible was the authority of their doctrine. So

?every Pmitan must read the Bible in order to find God's will and search for one's individual contact with Ged. To be able to read the Bible and undersdand God' s will, education was essential for Puritans.

?The experience of the early immigrants also contributed to the distinction of American euhure. The immigrants sailed across the stormy Atlantic Ocean in small and poorly provided ships, risking their lives. Many of them left their families hehin because they did not have so much money to pay for the passage.

?When they arrived North America, they found half of the landmass was covered with dense forest, Everymhing was different from that in their home country and they had to struggle for survival in the wilderness. The early imnfigrants' experience of hard labor for survival contributed to the labor ethics of American people and strengthened their love of land and nature. Americans love to keep close to nature, glorify labor, and desire to have a piece of land

?Early Puritanism (in New England):

?As most of the Mayflower people were puritans, the early time of New England was widespread with Puritanism

?Before they came to the New World, they thought the Church of England was too catholic and wanted to purify the church, so they were called \the doctrine by John Calvin.

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wealth should replace the behavior for sanctity(圣洁，尊严)

They considered individual responsibility more important than blind obedience. Because of its stress on strict morality, the word Puritanism is often misused in a way that does not mean the same as historical Puritanism. People, for instance, improperly label rigid moral standard, prohibition of wine, opposition to innocent pleasure, and religious intolerance as puritanical.

?They had some different religious belliefs from the Catholic Clhurch. they believed that God was incomprehensible to man, and the power of God was all-knowing, yet hidden and hidden to man, while Cathohes believed that God could be roached through his representative on the earth----the Pope. Puritan salvationwas different from that of Catholics. Puritans were convinced that human beings were predetined by God before they were born. Some were God?s chosen people, others were predestined to be damned to hell. Therefore no good works could save anyone, and nobody knew if he or she was God's elect?

?But Catholics argued that a person could confess his or her sin, do good works and give money to the church and buy back his or her soul.

?Was there any evidence for Puritans to show that some peo!le were God's chosen people? Puritans believed that everyone had a calling which was given by God. The success of one's work or the prosperity in his calling was the sign of being God's elect.

?Therefore, everyone must work hard, spend little and invest for more ?business. Working hard and living a moral life were their ethics. How ?Could puritans find God's will and establish a direct contact with God? ?They concluded that the Bible was the authority of their doctrine. So

?every Pmitan must read the Bible in order to find God's will and search for one's individual contact with Ged. To be able to read the Bible and undersdand God' s will, education was essential for Puritans.

?The experience of the early immigrants also contributed to the distinction of American euhure. The immigrants sailed across the stormy Atlantic Ocean in small and poorly provided ships, risking their lives. Many of them left their families hehin because they did not have so much money to pay for the passage.

?When they arrived North America, they found half of the landmass was covered with dense forest, Everymhing was different from that in their home country and they had to struggle for survival in the wilderness. The early imnfigrants' experience of hard labor for survival contributed to the labor ethics of American people and strengthened their love of land and nature. Americans love to keep close to nature, glorify labor, and desire to have a piece of land

?Early Puritanism (in New England):

?As most of the Mayflower people were puritans, the early time of New England was widespread with Puritanism

?Before they came to the New World, they thought the Church of England was too catholic and wanted to purify the church, so they were called \the doctrine by John Calvin.

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