江苏大学 - 基础班、提高班以及拓展班英语期末考试复习整理材料
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1.1. Professional papers are generally of the following four types: (1)report paper; (2)research paper; (3)course paper; (4)thesis paper 1) Report Paper
The report paper summarizes and reports the findings of author(s) on a particular subject. 2)Research Paper
A research paper can be intelligent, well-informed, interesting, and original in its conclusions. It draws its material from many sources. 3) Course Paper
A course paper mainly refers to the paper written after a specific course is learned or at the end of the term. 4) Thesis Paper (Dissertation)
A thesis paper is usually written and submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MA or MS in a specific discipline. 2. General Characteristics of English Academic Writing Style
There are eight main features that are often discussed to represent the style of academic writing: complex, formal, objective, explicit, accurate, hedged, responsible and making reference to other writers’ work. It uses language precisely and accurately. Questions & Exercises
1. Read the following two passages and try to find out the stylistic features of each.
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(1)
The American wife stood at the window looking at. Outside right under their window a cat was crouched under one of the dripping green tables. The cat was trying to make herself so compact that she would not be dripped on.
“I’m going down and get that kitty,” the American wife said. “I’ll do it.” Her husband offered from the bed.
“No, I’ll get it. The poor kitty out trying to keep dry under a table.” The husband went on reading, lying propped up with the two pillows at the foot of the bed. “Don’t get wet,” he said.
The wife went downstairs and the hotel owner stood up and bowed to her as she passed the office. His desk was at the far end of the office. He was an old man and very tall…
------Excerpt from Cat in
the Rain by Hemingway
Explicit, responsible, objective, complex, explicit, accurate
(2)
All the experiments draw on the observations made during the First Global GARP Experiment (FGGE) of 1979, when an intensive international effort acquired as complete a set of global observations as was ever made before or since, in each set of experiments, forecasts were made drawing on all of the
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observing systems available-----satellite temperatures, satellite cloud-track winds, winds and temperatures from commercial aircraft, surface observations (land and ship), and balloon observations. Then new sets of forecasts drew on this maximum system with one or more observing systems deleted from it.
--------“Weather Satellites Coming of Age”, Science,
Vol.229, Jul 1995,p.256
Complex , formal, objective, explicit, accurate , responsible 2.1. Titles
2.1.1. General functions
A. Generalizing the Text
A title should summarize the central idea of the paper concisely and correctly.
B. Attracting the Reader
If a title is accurate, concise and distinct, it will attract readers a lot and stimulate readers to read the whole text.
C. Facilitating the Retrieval
A title usually provides leads for the international information retrieval organizations to choose the appropriate keywords contained in it when they organize index and secondary documents. 2.1.2 Linguistic Features
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A. Using More Nouns, Noun Phrases and Gerunds
The words or phrases used in a title are very often nouns, noun phrases or gerunds, nominalization, which usually are keywords for the paper, having the ability to sum up the whole text. B. Using Incomplete Sentences
A title is just a label of appellation of the paper, reflecting the main idea of the content
I. Types of Writing
With the characteristics of writing, there are four kinds of writing: narrations, descriptions, expositions and argumentations. narrations are the articles that tell stories, giving accounts of events, descriptions are articles that give pictures of something, expositions are articles that explain what is difficult to understand, and argumentations are articles that argue, reason, prove, infer or persuade II. Research description
There are two basic approaches to description: objective and subjective. 1. Objective Description
Focus on the object he is portraying rather than on his personal action to it.
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City center areas of 0.4 and 1.1km2 were studied for Newcastle and Des Moines respectively. Both sites were located about the central region of the city and included mainly commercial buildings. Maps of the city centers, with the areas of study marked, are shown in Figure 1 and 2. The Newcastle site was included in a study of several UK city centers as part of a resource assessment for the UK. Results from all eight UK city sites were similar and, therefore, Newcastle can be considered as a typical example of a UK site. It has not yet been possible to consider US sites other than the one reported here, although we believe that the building layout and type is typical of a medium-sized US city.
Comparison of typical US and UK city layouts shows several differences. The most obvious difference concerns the usually oriented N-S, E-W. Central Des Moines shows a small variation due to the natural geographical features, with the grid being aligned with the Des Moines river and displaced approximately 150 from the N-S, E-W directions. However, away from the river, the pattern reverts to the typical N-S, E-W grid. This contrasts with the layout of the Newcastle site, where the roads show significant curvature and run parallel only in restricted areas. The ordered grid system constrains the orientation of the majority of buildings. Whilst a few buildings are rectangular in footprint and have surfaces oriented in parallel with the road direction. Since the dollar input to a surface is a function of orientation, the preferential orientation may be expected to lead to maximum (or minimum) inputs occurring simultaneously for a large proportion of the surfaces. In contrast, the curved road layout in the UK site leads to effectively random wall orientation and, thus, only a proportion of surfaces will be optimally aligned normal to the sun’s direction at any given time. To investigate the effects of orientation more fully, calculations were also performed for two control structures. These were cubic in shape, with uniform sides of 10 m, and oriented truly N-S and 150 off to mimic the Des Moines site. These structures were not shaded by surrounding structures, unlike the buildings in the actual city site.
The second difference concerns the density of buildings. ……. The distribution of building type also varies between the sites……..
Finally, there is the difference in geographical location, which results in different sun angels and climate conditions. To investigate the influence of this parameter, the practical sites and control samples were analyzed in both locations. (from Mathematical Modeling)
Form the above excerpt, it can be seen that the authors describe the two sites objectively by comparing them from general climatic, geographical, and locational features to the height of building and their wall and roof styles and the sun’s directions at any given time. The authors also give an analysis of the influence of climate, latitude, road layout and the building types on the total solar input and on the optimum surface orientation. Such a kind of objective description is typical for professional research
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papers.
2. Subjective Description
which shows the author’s impression of or responses to what they see.
In many scientifc journals, statistical analysis is used to give the seal of objectivity to conclusion. Yet this general perception of the objectivity of statistics, and perhaps of science in general, may be “misguided.” Let us be careful here; objcetivity is a loaded word, and the next worst thing to be a fraud is to be “nonobjective”.
We are not going to discuss the manner in which scientist strives to obtain objective evidence. Rather, we will discuss whether or not it is possible to arrive at an objective conclusion based on data from an experiment. We grant that objective data can be obtained, but we will argue that reaching a sensitive conclusion form analysis of these data may require subjective input. This conclusion is no way harmful or demanding to statistal analysis. Far from it, to acknowlege the subjectivity inherent in the interpretation of data is to recognize the cnetral role of statistical analyis as a formal mechnism by which new evidence can be integrated with existing knowledge. Such a view of statistics as a dynamic discipline is far form the common perception of a rather dry, automatic technology for processing data.
In many scientific journals, statistical analysis is used to give the seal of objectivity to conclusion……
We are not going to discuss the manner in which a scientist strives to obtain objective evidence…..
This conclusion is in no way harmful or demanding to statistical analysis…..
Acknowledging the subjectivity of statistical analysis would be healthy for science as a whole for at least two reason. The first is that the straight forward methods of subjective statistical analysis called Bayesian analysis, yield answers which are much easier to understand than standard statistical answers, and hence much less likely to be misinterpreted. This will be dramatically illustrated in oru first example.
The second reason is that even standard statistical methods turn to be based on subjective input --- input of a type that science should see to avoid. In particular, standard methods depend on the intentions of the investigator, including intentions about data that might have been obtained but were not. This kind of subjectivity is doubly dangerous. First, it is hidden; few researchers realize how subjective standard methods really are. Second, the subjective input arises from the producer rather than the consumer of the data ---- from the investigator rather than the individual professional who reads or is told the results of the experiment. (from American Scientist)
The above passage can be used as an example to show the author’s attitude towards subjective analysis of statistical data in scientific research. Needless to say, it mirrors the author’s subjective inclinations or
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intentions in the topic of their discussion. Therefore, it would be unrealistic to say that in science and scientific research everything should be cold and objective.
Objective description is always the product of a subjective selection of details, while subjective description captures reaction to an objective reality.
1. Typical Features of Papers of Experimental Nature
The functions of experiment description are to (1) convince readers(2) benefit readers (3) allow readers to duplicate the experiment 2. Process Undertaken in the Experiment
1)Starting with a Process Introduction 2)Steps Taken to Complete the Experiment 3) Detailed Approaches
4) Summing-up or Conclusive Ideas of the Process
Reflections and Practice (1)
I. Work with your partner to find the answers to the following: 1. How do you e understand the function of the experimental description?
2. What may be involved in writing the experimental process?
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3. List the items which may be included in the section of equipment description of a paper?
The experimental process undertaken, technology involved, materials used , equipment introduced, conditions provided.
III. Revise the body of your paper of experimental nature with the skill illustrated in this unit.
Special Attention:
The sentence structure in the professional paper is comparatively unitary and grammatically rigorous, however, to make the paper more readable. Variety is essential. It is the variety in the sentence structure, ways of opening a paper and transition devices that help to avoid monotony(单调) and primer style(幼稚) and enable the author to express himself more effectively.
Since sentence structure can be classified as simple one, compound and complex one, the basic structure of a sentence can therefore be varied by compounding thoughts or subordinating one thought to another. It can further be effected by using different sentence structure and by varying their length.
Variations of sentence openings can be achieved by beginning a sentence with an adverbial clauses, a prepositional phrase, a non-finite (gerund, participles, infinitives)phrase, an expletive expression(in fact,
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on the other hand), an adverb, an adjective, or a coordinate conjunction. For example:
Computerized systems can operate in one of three modes. (2)The operating modes are batch processing, remote batch processing, and time-share processing. (3) Conventional batch processing met all but one of the design requirements. (4) The exception was accessibility. (5) Batch processing could not provide output to diversified, remote locations in a timely manner. (6) Remote batch processing, as the name implied, could provide batch processing at remote locations. (7) it could do this through the use of teletype-writer terminals as output devices. (8) Unfortunately the response time for remote batch processing is unpredictable. (9) It can vary from a few minutes to several hours. Let us analyze the length, structure and variety of the opening sentence. Sentence length: (1) short, 9w; (2) medium, 12 w; (3) medium, 11 w; (4) short, 9; (5) medium, 14 w; (6) medium, 14 w; (7) medium, 13 w; (8) medium, 10 w; (9) medium, 10 w; Variety of sentence structure: (1) Simple sentence; (2) compound sentence; (3) Simple
sentence;
(4) Simple sentence; (5) Simple sentence; (6) subordinate sentence;
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(7) Simple sentence; (8) Simple sentence; (9) Simple sentence;
Variety of sentence opining: (1) n. phrase (computerized systems) (2) n. phrase (opining mode)
(3) n. phrase (conventional batch processing) (4) n. phrase (the exception) (5) n. phrase (batch processing) (6) n. phrase (remote batch processing) (7) pron. (it)
(8) adv. (Unfortunately) (9) pron. (it)
Reflections and Practice (2)
I. Analyze the following paragraphs from the perspective of sentence length, variety of sentence structure and veriety of sentence opening.
1. (1) The environment is everything that surround us; plants animals, buildings, country, air, water--- literally everything that can affect in any way.(2) The environment of a town, with its buildings and traffic and its noise and smells, where everyone is on top of everyone else, is a far cry from that of the countryside, with its fields and crops, its
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wild and domestic animals and its feeling of spaciousness.(3) And the environment differs indifferent parts of the world.
2. (1) This paper attempts to explore logical errors in the translation of college students. (2)Three kinds of errors are identified based on the nature of the errors and similarities of the causes.(3) Misunderstanding ignoring contexts and inadequate knowledge of common sense, science and technology, and specialty on the part of the translators are believed to be main causes for these errors.(4) A lack of logic knowledge, logical thinking ability and a sound habit for practicing translation often leads to these errors unapprehended. (5) Beside, sex difference seems to be related to these errors.
II. Rewrite the following sentences to eliminate the points of monotony and primer style. The order of ideas appearing in the context may be changed, but all the versions you produce should be smooth and natural.
1. All matter consists of molecules,which is made up of still small particles and they include the atoms and an atom. Some of them are electrons which has negative charge, protons which has positive charge and neutrons.
2. The quality of the half-torn reproduction (照相铜版复制) depends
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both on the grade of paper used(the glossier the better) and on the fineness of the screen, in general the finer screen giving the better detail, but the limit is set by the absorbency of the paper and the quality of the printing, not every printer being equipped to reproduce half-tones with maximum clarity.
3. It is argued that the temperature concept has richer theoretical basis than is generally appreciated. The importance of an absolute comparative concept of temperature is emphasized. A set of necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence and metrication(公制化) of the temperature quantity is examined. It is shown that these conditions are all consequences of laws of thermodynamics (热力学会) together with a number of auxiliary thermodynamics assumptions. The absolute comparative concept of a thermometer as well as the absolute scale are introduced without employing the concept of a thermometer. The general notion of a thermometer is introduced as an addendum(补充) to thermodynamics.
1. Section of Results
1) General Functions and Contents of Results
Bring about a solid foundation on which the whole paper rests, by
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boiling down all the facts and data he has gained.
there are usually two ingredients in the section of result: full presentation of the specific data of the work and detailed analysis of the results
2) Writing Requirements for Results
First, any data shown in this section must be meaningful.
Second, the presentation of results should be short and be of crystal clarity.
3. Section of Conclusion
1) General Functions and Main Elements of Conclusion Typical functions of the conclusion of a research paper may include:
(1) Summing up
(2) Statement of Conclusions (3) Statement of Recommendations (4) Graceful Termination
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1. Introduction
1.1 the definition of plagiarism
Plagiarism is the act of using another person’s language or ideas without acknowledgment.
1.2 the deliberate or unintentional act
fail to use quotation marks. 2. Defining Common Knowledge 3. Avoiding Unintentional Plagiarism
without enclosing it in quotation marks. 4. Using Internet Sources
Citing material from this source requires exactly the same approach as quoting from a printed text.
11.1) Necessary Selection
(1) The great variety of sciences and technology. (2) The availability of numerous international professional journals. (3) Serious intersection and overlapping. (4) Rules of paper publication: 11. 2) Needed Information (1) Formal name of the journal: (2) Category of the periodical: (3) Address for the correspondence: (4) Nature of the journal:
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(5) Specific requirements (6) Publication procedures (7) Publication charges (8) Copyright transfer (9) Reprints.
(10) Other considerations
11.2. Process of Paper Submission for Publication 11.2.1 )Manuscript Submission 11. 2. 2) Receipt Acknolwedgementt. 11.2. 3) Manuscript Referral 11.2. 4) Acceptance Note 11.2. 5) Edtiorial Examination 11.2. 6) Return for Correction 11.2. 7) Manuscript Rejection 11.2. 8) Publication and Reprints
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