杜昶旭阅读课讲义

阅读课讲义

主讲：杜昶旭

——花花（Fleur）根据老杜录音整理

Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

? 怎样的考试和怎样的我们…….

? 托福考试的本质探求——对”Test of English as a Foreign Language”的再认知

? 托福到底有多难？

? 习惯的说法：高考－>六级－>考研－>托福－>SAT－>GRE－>GMAT－>LSAT ? 用合理的方式进行难度的评价 ? 从“OF”到“IN” ? Test OF English：“对”英语的测试

? TOEFL (Test Of English as a Foreign Language)

? IELTS (International English Language Testing System) ? TOEIC (Test Of English for International Communication) ? CET-4 (College English Test-Band 4) ? CET-6 (College English Test-Band 6) ? PETS (Public English Test System) ? Test IN English：“用”英语的测试

? GRE (Graduate Record Examination)

? GMAT (Graduate Management Admission Test) ? SAT (Scholastic Assessment Test) ? LSAT (Law School Admission Test)

? NCEE (National College Entrance Examination) ? NGEE (National Graduate Entrance Examination) ? 托福作为语言考试的本质

? 测试考生对英语的综合应用能力——包括听、说、读、写的独立能力和综合能力； ? 测试考生在实际的学习、生活过程中的语言应用能力——所有测试内容均与实际结合； ? 考生的英语水平与分数具有直接相关性——零基础测试假设；

? 包含且仅包含语言使用过程中的所有因素——词汇、句子、语篇、语境、交流方式。 ? 托福考试的本质探求——从形式特征到内容特征

? 托福阅读的形式特征 ? ETTOFEL IBT Reading section includes 3 to 5 reading passages, each approximately 700 The Swords long. There are 12 to 14 questions per passage. You have from 60 to 100 minutes to answer 所all questions in the section. (Official Guide .p.19) 阐述Most questions are worth 1 points but the last question in each set is worth more than 1 points. 的The directions indicate how many points you may receive. (Reading section directions in actual 形test) 式 ? ? ? ? ? ?

文章数量：３或５篇 这样安排是为了为了匹配时间，７０％的考生希望遇到５６ 考试时间：每篇文章２０分钟 文章长度：７００字左右 题目数量１２－１４篇

每题原始分数：最后一题２－４分，其他题目１分

分值范围：标准分０－３０分（分数对应规则参照《新托福官方指南》１２５页）

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Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

我们的实际情况：

我们的听说读写都一样差，我们认为自己阅读能力强——幻觉。 ３９或者５６都一样，而且，其中只有３或者６个段子是算分的。（５篇中有两篇并不算分，但是我们都不知道是哪两篇）

The Reading section is divided into separately timed parts. (Reading section directions in the actual test ) A clock in the top of the screen will show how much time to available to answer these questions.(Reading section direction in the first model test) Within each part, you can go to the next question by clicking Next. You may skip question and go back to them later. If you want to return to previous questions, click on Back. You can click on Review at any time and the review screen will show you which questions you have answered and which you have not answered. From this review screen, you may go directly to any question you have already seen in the Reading section. (Reading section directions in the actual test) Some passages include a word or phrase that is underlined in blue. Click on the word or phrase to see a definition or an explanation. (Reading section directions in the actual test) You have seen all of the questions in this part of the Reading section. You have time left to Review. As long as there is time remaining, you can check your work. Click on Return to continue working. Click on Review to see the review screen for this section. Click on Continue to go on. Once you leave this part of the Reading Section, you WILL NOT be able to return to it. . (Reading section directions in the actual test) ? ? ? ?

笔记区 ? 不要提前，尽量晚开考；考试休息期间别到处走动，可以听听其他人考口语，提前准备自己的口语话题。 准备周期：４—６个月为比较理想； 单词生词率：３－５％； 以后会介绍如何推断单词词义以及如何背单词。 考试注意点（口语）：声音宏亮，语速稳定，逻辑清晰 ＧＲＥ和TOFEL是全集和子集的关系，一个是all, 一个是none，老俞的红宝书剔除了T’OFEL单

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时段划分：２个（２０分＋４０分）或３个（２０分＋４０分＋４０分）； 计时方式：由系统自动进行倒计时；

常用按钮：Next, Back, Review, Return, Continue

单词划线解释：对考生友好还是浪费时间？（韦氏11版）

Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

从PBT到IBT的阅读习惯变化 ? 垂直阅读和水平阅读的差异 ? 视线与思维同步的问题 ? 纸张和屏幕的差异

? 对比度差异所带来的视觉疲劳感 ? 是否可以做标记带来的记忆效果差异

? 托福阅读的内容特征

This section measures your ability to understand academic passages in English. (Reading section directions in the actual test) ? 托福考试的话题特征

Campus life

Academic issue 阅读只考学术文章。

科普文章和TOFEL的专业词汇比例一般都在３－４％左右，GRE在１２％左右 大百科全书：大英百科，微软百科，wiki百科 Questions are intended to measure your understanding of the passages in terms of the following: ? ? ? ? ? Vocabulary and grammar Major ideas and important information Relative importance of ideas Relationship of ideas to each other Organization of ideas and concepts. (Reading section directions in the actual test)

? 词汇

? 习惯性认知的误区：提高词汇量就等于提高了阅读能力。 ? 托福的词汇考查方式 词汇认知：认识or不认识 一词多义，熟词僻意 词汇推断

? 语法

? 习惯性认知的误区，语法不好，英语同样能学好； ? 语法的重要性，语法之于语言正如法律之如社会； ? 托福阅读如何进行语法考查？

? 输出能力（口语和写作）中的语法考查

检查是否主动犯错。

? 输入能力（阅读和听力）中的语法考查 通过语法设置障碍

解释成绩：在ETS 保留的时间是２年，在学校申请日期截止日之前考完即可。 科普阅读建议：大百科全书（大英和微软百科，还有w i ki 百科 ） Discovery ，国家地理，ＴＴＣ，等

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语言能力的基础查看缺陷解决方案 Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

主题和重要信息

? 主题

? 习惯性认知的错误，主题能用一两句话（尤其是各段首句）简单概括。 ? 托福阅读文章的新特点：标题。 ? 托福文章的主题类型特征

Single-focus 一个主题，多个方面 Multi-focus 多个主题，多个方面

? 托福文章主题的考察方式

to make a summary：6选3，多句话概括

the topic of a paragraph

? 重要信息

? 细节信息

? 习惯性认知的错误：细节是具体的描述性内容，是零散无关的 ? 细节作为重要信息所包含的内容

general statement 局部范围内的概括 更重要

some related details

(1) 主题:辨析文章的主要观点,并与局部小观点区分;辨析段落主题.(注:所有文章都有标题) (2) 细节:概括性信息的把握并判别具体信息的真伪---- TRUE? FALSE? NOT GIVEN?

? 细节信息的考察方式

认知：文中有还是没有

辨析：信息ture or false

推断信息

? 习惯性认知的错误：推断信息和细节信息等同

? 区分事实信息（Statement）和推断信息（Inference）——需要逻辑支撑 ? 内容推断和态度推断（why how） ? 推断信息的推理逻辑

? 信息优先级

? 习惯性认知的误区：在英语阅读中，我们从来不关心信息优先级。 ? 关注信息优先级的方法：

? 兴趣驱动（Interest-driven） ? 知识驱动（Knowledge-driven）：TOFEL最多 ? 逻辑驱动（Logic-driven）：GRE,SAT多

? 关系与结构

? 习惯性认知的误区：英语阅读中我们过多地关注了信息本身，却忽略了信息之间的关系——关联信息被离散化。

? 不同层次的信息关系，句子和句子的关系，段落和段落的关系。

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Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

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Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

? 水平阅读的记忆能力 □ 基本无任何记忆 □零星记忆部分词或者词组 □有记忆碎片但是无规律 □有记忆碎片并且有部分关联 □有关联记忆信息 ? 阅读耐力（以出现走神现象为准） □10分钟左右 □20分钟左右 □40分钟左右 □60分钟左右或更长 ? 单词 □大多数不认识 □认识一半左右 □大多数认识 □完全无障碍 ? 语法 □完全不重视且没有系统学习过 □想学但是不知道如何学 □学过但是效果不好 □学过且效果不错 □有效且精通 ? 句子 □对句子结构完全不了解 □对句子结构有一定了解并能进行简单的句子分析 □对句子结构非常了解，并可以进行所有句子的结构分析 ? 主题 □完全不能把握 □ 随机性较强，视文章而定 □基本能把握 □完全没问题 ? 重要信息 ? 细节信息 □对细节信息概念理解有错误 □ 概念理解正确但是不知道如何把握 □知道概念和如何获得信息、偶而有遗漏 □非常准确地把握细节信息 ? 推断信息 □对推断信息概念理解有错误 □概念理解正确但是不知道如何把握 □知道概念和如何获得信息，偶而有遗漏 □非常准确的把握推断信息 ? 信息优先级 □从未关注过 □刻意关注 □自然关注 ? 关系和结构 □从未关注过 □刻意关注 □自然关注 ? 从状态到缺陷——层次化的问题模型

Hierarchical passage->paragraph->sentence->word

Word:认知和推断 Sentence: 句子的最小表义单位， Paragraph: 结构的获取 Passage: 对于relation的把握

通过使用上面表格不断对自己修正和提高，查漏补缺。

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Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

? 面对缺陷，我们应该怎样…….

? 基本缺陷的解决——单词、语法和资料的选择

? 单词缺陷的解决方案 ? 词汇书的选择

? TOEFL考试需要我们掌握多少单词？ ? 我们自己有多少单词？ ? 我们需要什么样的词汇书？

四级词汇书 词汇配对表

TOEFL词汇书： 比如李笑来的21天；玉梅的词汇书； 戴云写的ibt 10000单词（实际7000－8000）

自由笔记区： 成绩好＝勤奋＋聪明？ 不要巩俐，踏踏实实走好每一步，托福的学习过程本身就是一种享受，是提高自己能力的一个过程。 一个东西，盛传很有功效，可是一直没有看到真正的效果，还是没有用的东西。 ? 词典的选择

? 托福考试需要什么样的词典？

? 推荐的词典

朗文 2800字解释了所有的东西

背单词只有一个方法：就牛津

American history dictionary

是死记硬背。 文曲星: 别用这个反查意思，用google好了。

我们建立在死记硬背基础? 词汇记忆方法

? 两种记忆方式

上，但是我们希望把方法? 机械记忆

? 自然记忆

变得更加有效。

? 单词在记忆过程中的状态 ? 形同陌路 ? 似曾相识 ? 一见如故 ? 刻骨铭心

? 单词记忆的方法 原则：高频率重复

1. 使用零散时间背单词

2. 重复周期15天，大量进行重复 >300 每个单词给5－10秒，遍数要多，不要手

写，模拟自然记忆

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Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

3. 阅读和背单词相结合，阅读难度控制在生词率3－5％

不认识的单词，尽量不要去想是什么意思。等读完之后去查，写在word本上 4. 视觉刺激和听觉刺激相结合――老俞的单词串讲－注意记忆发音

例：脑白金广告

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Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

? 语法缺陷的解决方案 ? 语法书的选择 朗文英语语法

剑桥中级英语语法－English in use(看中文版) 托福ibt语法精要（戴云） 科林朗茨语法 注意：当成手册去查

? 包含且仅包含语言使用过程中的所有因素——词汇、句子、语篇、语境、交流方式。 1. 老托福真题－首选（寄托，太傻，鲤鱼，小马过河，emule等网站均可下载到） 2. Discovery

3. National Geography

4. 大百科全书：微软大百科＋大英百科＋wiki百科 5. 原版教材 6. 英美文化教程

7. MIT的Open course(带视频)

8. TTC教育公司录制的美国上课实录，选择一个就刻意听很长时间，注意听逻辑结构 9. 21世纪，China daily,英语世界等杂志 10. 每天半小时坚持是上网看English news

? 缺陷能力的解决——篇章和句子

? 结构化阅读方法

? 托福文章的结构特征 1. 结构主体（支撑） 2. 细节主体（填充） 正如叶脉和叶肉，

主题句：能够引出新内容的句子（每段的前几句）

主题段：最早出现和文章标题相关联的段落(文章的前几段) 论文的结构：嵌套三层次 Intro.(B.G.或者topic)

Body (sub-topic -> analysis + evidence

Sub-topic -> analysis + evidence ?)

Conclusion: topic 的重复（结构） 立论：同意观点； 驳论:反驳观点

? 快速笔记方法－克服记忆能力的缺陷 ? 回忆：思维框架的概念 ? 快速笔记的作用

? 代替垂直阅读时的勾画

? 辅助思维框架形成并辅助记忆 ? 信息索引

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Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

The Civil War Involvement in a war is painful to any nation. No nations wants to sent it’s young people to fight and die. It is even worse when the war is fought within the country, but worst of all is when a country finds itself divided, and people of the same nation fight each other. In America’s history, the most painful period is surely the Civil War. The civil war was fought for many complex reasons. Probably the most important was the issue of slavery. The Southern states, dependent on slaves for producing cotton, wanted to continue the practice of slavery while the industrialized Northern states wanted to abolish it. The issue of “States’ Right”, the right of individual states to make laws without interference from the national government, was also very divisive. There were even basic cultural differences which caused friction between Northerners and Southerners. (1) All of these factors led to a war between the North and South which would be the bloodiest in the nation’s history. Both sides suffered terribly in the war. Families were torn apart as fathers, sons, and brothers chose different sides. Hundreds of thousands of young men died on both sides. The city of Atlanta was burned to the ground. Fortunes were ruined and the economy of the Southern states was wrecked. (2) The people on both sides suffered, and that suffering was worse because it was inflicted by people who had been their countrymen, and even their brothers. Shortly after the war, a bitter Southerner assassinated the beloved president Abraham Lincoln. After four bloody, terrible years, the North won the war and the country was re-united. The slaves were freed and the nation set about rebuilding. Historians will always argue whether or not the Civil War could have been avoided. And what it’s long term benefits have been. (3) there can be no argument, however, that the Civil War was the most painful period in American’s history.

? 句子插入题（Insert Text Question） ? 题目的形式 In the passage you will see four blank squares. The squares are located at the beginning or ends of sentences. Sometimes four squares appear in one paragraph. Sometimes they are spread across the end of one paragraph and the beginning of another. You are then asked this question: Look at the four squares [?] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. [You will see a sentence in bold] Where would the sentence best fit? Your job is to click on one of the squares and insert the sentence in the text. ? 解题方法

? 句子关联的方式 句子关联题不会让你明显感觉到缺陷

生硬关联：关联词 （明确的逻辑链） 自然关联：语义场 重复信息

指代关系

C1 C2

? 解题步骤

非简单句：关联词 1. 句子分割

简单句： 谓语或者状语 拆分成为两部分

2. 概念获取，概念绑定 向前找n1, 向后找n2。进行概念匹配，看那个位置前面出现了 n1, 后面出现了n2,则插入即可。

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Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

Immune System ? Among the most important systems in the human body is the immune system. When a virus or anything that is not a part of the normal body tissue enters the body it is immediately recognized as foreign and the immune response system is activated. ? After the immune system has successfully fought a first time infection, the body retains the ability to mount a fast secondary immune response to the same type of infection if it happens again. ?Because of the secondary response, people generally only suffer diseases such as chicken pox once. ? Glossary: “immune”: having antibodies capable of reacting with a specific antigen. “chicken pox”: an acute contagious disease, primarily of children, that is caused by the vericella-zoster virus and characterized by skin eruptions, slight fever, and malaise. Question: Look at the four Square [?]that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Chicken pox affects most children before they reach their 10th birthday. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square ? to add the sentence to the passage. Mutation A mutation is a change in a gene or a chromosome. ?Most mutations are harmful and so are unlikely to be handed from one generation to the next. ?Mutations that result in advantageous characteristics, however, may be passed on to the next generation and preserved in a population. On the whole, genes are stable because DNA is a stable chemical but once in a hundred thousand times they might mutate. ?The cause of mutation is not known but laboratory exposure to radiation and ultraviolet light is known to increase mutations in experimental mice although the rate is higher than normal conditions. ? Glossary: “mutation”: an organism that has characteristics resulting from chromosomal alternation. Question: Look at the four Square [?] in paragraph 2 that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. But harmful mutation （that do enter a population are gradually eliminated by natural means because individuals suffering from a serious disease） are unlikely to reproduce. 这里的but表示并且 Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square ? to add the sentence to the passage. 46

Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

Computer Generated Imaging The advent of the computer has brought about a revolution in almost all areas of our lives. One industry that has been revolutionized by computers is the motion picture industry. Computers have forever changed the way movies are made. There was a time when directors were very limited in how to create things on screen. ? But what if the subject of the movie was a gigantic reptile that destroyed a major city? ? In the past, the director would have to film a guy in a rubber suit or a miniature version and hope they didn’t look too fake. But now Computer Generated Imaging (CGI), a director can create images which look almost as real as the real thing. ? CGI let directors have a realistic-looking giant reptile destroy a realistic major American city without having to find a life-size giant reptile or destroy a real American city. Whether it is a giant reptile, soaring starships firing laser blasts, or hordes of rampaging arachnid aliens, CGI lets directors bring their imaginations to the screen. ? CGI does not just help the science fiction director, though. It also lets a director create realistic backdrops and images of real-life things. Recreating theme would be too difficult or too expensive. For example, CGI lets a director create life-like images of people falling from a sinking ocean liner without actually having to sink an ocean liner, or filling a sports stadium with 30,000 screaming fans without having actually hire 30,000 people. Now that it is possible to create almost anything visual with CGI, perhaps directors will concentrate on the other aspects of film-making, like plot, dialogue, and acting. As audiences get used to the visually spectacular scenes, they may decide they want more as much from the people on screen as from the giant lizards. Audiences always want something new which is better and flashier. Glossary: “arachnids”: any of various arthropods of the class Arachnida, such as spiders, scorpions, mites and ticks. Question: Look at the four Square [?] in paragraph 2 that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. They had to film the real thing, or a convincing life-size model. 拆分，前面是they, 是一个人的复数。因此，找到directors Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square ? to add the sentence to the passage. ? 事实信息题 ? 重要的说明 These questions ask you to identify factual information that is explicitly stated in the passage. They ask you to identify specific information that is typically mentioned only in part of the passage. (Official Guide. p.20) ? According to the paragraph, X occurred because… 47

Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

? 题目的形式 ? ? ? ? ? According to the paragraph, which of the following is true of X? The author’s description of X mentions which of the following? 内容 According to the paragraph, X occurred because… According to the paragraph, X did Y because… 逻辑 According to the paragraph, why did X do Y? ? 事实信息类题目的干扰选项设计方法

? 我们是如何犯错的？

? 正确选项的特征：原文重现或同义改写 ? 干扰选项的特征：与正确选项的相似性

? 信息滞留原理

? 利用信息滞留的干扰选项设置方式

a. A在原文的出现, B在原文中不出现.,A + B在选项中出现. b. A\\B均在原文中出现, A + B在选项中出现. c. A+ B在原文中出现.， A或B在选项中出现.

? 例子：听完描述后写出印象最深的几个概念

public transportation (PT.) London, Tokyo, Beijing, Subway

? 按照方式一设置的干扰选项 ? 按照方式二设置的干扰选项 The development of PT in big cities. The advanced subway system in London and development未在原文出现过。 BJ.

B?原文

? 按照方式三设置的干扰选项

B?原文

? 正确选项

PT in big cities. The importance of buses, subway, and taxi A/B to big cities.

? 针对信息滞留现象，对选项作出的处理方式

验证选项中的概念及其最大的概念组合是否在全文出现。 验证选项应和题干构成因果关系 验证选项和原文构成因果关系

48

Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

? 以信息滞留为基础设置的两种干扰模式 ? 虚假比较

如果选项中出现了比较级\\最高级\\绝对化描述或范围的扩张, 则该选项优先不为正确选项,除非在原文存在比较的一一对应.

? 答非所问

确保所选答案和题干构成因果关系

因为选项，所以题干检查是否有逻辑性－作为判断方式

? 事实信息题的解题步骤 笔记区： ? 我们之前的错误是什么 ? 正确的做法 关键词：能够缩小搜索范围的词（段落号＼１）根据题目中的关键词进行定位（笔记→原文） 时间和数字＼人名＼地名＼专有名词＼题目Scanning: 在原文中寻找某特定概念 的核心概念） 寻找关键词及其同反义词和上下义词 寻找关键词及其相关概念的第一次出现位置 ２）根据所读内容形成答案判断 定位题目 ? 笔记 → 原文 ３）验证选项，选择与答案判断一致的选项 ４）若无匹配选项则检查：读题＼定位＼理解 正确性． scanning 注意: ? 验证选项中的概念和最大的概念组合是否在文章中 出现.

? 确保所选答案和题干构成因果关系 ? 确保所选答案和原文构成因果关系

? 推广：所有与文章相关的题目，其干扰选项设计原理和方式相同，所有语言类的考

试，其干扰选项的设计原理和方式相同 It is estimated that over 99 percent of all 1. What does the author say in paragraph 1 笔记区： species that ever existed have extinct. What regarding most species in Earth’s history causes extinction? When a species is no longer (A)They have remained basically 1st >99% adapted to a changed environment, it may unchanged from their original forms. perish. The exact causes of a species’ death (B)They have been able to adapt to species extinct vary from situation to situation. Rapid ecological changes. ?<－changed ecological change may render an environment (C)They have caused rapid change in the environment hostile to a species. For example, temperatures environment may change and a species may not be able to (D)They are no longer in existence adapt. Food, resources may be affected by environmental changes, which will then cause 2. Which of the following is NOT problems. For a species requiring these mentioned in paragraph 1 as resulting from resources. Other species may become better rapid ecological change? adapted to an environment, resulting in (A)Temperature change competition and ultimately, in the death of a (B)Availability of food resources (C)Introduction of new species species. (D)Competition among species

40

Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

自由笔记区 例1. It was just a decade before this that many drug companies had found their vitamin sales skyrocketing and were quick to supply protecting physicians with generous samples of vitamins and literature extolling the virtue of supplementation for a variety of health-related condition. 例2 It was she, a Baltimore printer, who published the first official copies of the Declaration, the first copies that (included the names of its signers and therefore heralded the support of all thirteen colonies.) Who强调人，易被误认为是定语从句， 例3. It was in the cities that the elements that can be 是她，出版了第一部独立宣言的官方版 associated with modern capitalism first appeared ——the use of money and commercial paper in place of barter, 本，… open competition in place of social deference and hierarchy with an attendant rise in social disorder and the appearance of factories using coal or water power in place of independent craftspeople working with hand tools. 平行结构

A, B and C 平行结构

In place of

小结区： 1.对句子的完整处理流程

句子 强调结构 关联词 Vt 常规处理

有，就去掉强调结构 有，作层次化处理 否，进行倒装判断

2. 强调阅读句子时要对关联词和谓语动词敏感。 3.问题：你是否可以对所有句子进行结构分析并确保理解正确性？ 4.练习：以老托福文章或者《新托福考试官方指南》中的句子为练习对象进行句子精读练习，以是

30

Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

? 句子的泛读方法

? 阅读理解的错误习惯：指读、声读、回读、视角高度过低 ? 加大理解单位，变单词为意群组合 ? 可以合并为意群的成分

泛读----快速阅读与有效阅读 副词adv

(1) 阅读中的详略结合-----SKIMMING 介词短语 prep phrase

1) 需要详细阅读的内容 分词短语

? 结构主体的内容 非谓语不定式

? 非举例性质的概括描述 主语和谓语或谓语和宾语

? 题目映射回原文的内容 As … as

2) 可以快速浏览的内容 固定搭配

? 大量的数据堆砌

? 明显的举例: 为何而举,举例主体,结束位置 ? 对比\\类比读一半 强迫阅读法 ? 让步\\转折读一半(转折以后的那一半)

理解单位扩大和阅读中逻辑的构建----模糊理解理论

? 焦点训练法 例: Generally, in order to be preserved in the fossil record, organisms must process hard body parts such as shells or bones. Soft, fleshy structures are quickly destroyed by predators or decayed by bacteria. Even hard parts left on the surface for certain length of time will be destroyed. Therefore, organisms must be buried rapidly to escape destruction by elements and to be protected against agents of weathering and erosion. Marine organisms thus are better candidates for fossilization than those living on the land because the ocean is typically the site of sedimentation, whereas the land is largely the site of erosion. 例: Generally, in order to be preserved in the fossil record, organisms must process hard body parts such as shells or bones. Soft, fleshy structures are quickly destroyed by predators or decayed by bacteria. Even hard parts left on the surface for certain length of time will be destroyed. Therefore, organisms must be buried rapidly to escape destruction by the elements and to be protected against agents of weathering and erosion. Marine organisms thus are better candidates for fossilization than those living on the land because the ocean is typically the site of sedimentation, whereas the land is largely the site of erosion. 31

Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

?

构建阅读逻辑，变翻译为整体理解

? 错误的做法，试图由精确输入得到精确的输出 ? 练习方式，强制一遍阅读法

? 回忆：Predicting and skimming 的内容（讲义13页）

The canopy the upper level of the tree in the rain forest, holds a plethora of climbing mammals of moderately large size, which may include monkeys, cats, civets and porcupines. Smaller species including such rodents as mice and small squirrels are not as prevalent overall in high tropical canopies as they are in most habitats globally. Small mammals being warm blooded, suffer hardship in the exposed and turbulent environment of the uppermost trees. Because a small body has more surface area per unit of weight than a large one of similar shape, it gains or loses heat more swiftly. Thus, in the trees, where shelter from heat and cold may be scarce and conditions may fluctuate, a small mammal may have trouble maintaining its body temperature. Small size makes it easy to scramble among twigs and branches in the canopy for insects, flowers, or fruit, but small mammals are surpassed, in the competition for food, by large ones that have their own tactics for browsing among food-rich twigs. The weight of a gibbon(a small ape) hanging below a branch arches the terminal leaves down so that fruit-bearing foliage drops toward the gibbon’s face. Walking or leaping species of a similar or even large size access the outer twigs either by snapping off and retrieving the whole branch or by clutching stiff branches with the feed or tail and plucking food with their hands. Small climbing animals may reach twigs rapidly, but it is harder for them than for large climbing animals to cross the wide gaps from one tree crown to the next that typify the high canopy. A macaque or gibbon can hurl itself farther than a mouse can: it can achieve a running start, and it can more effectively use a branch as a springboard, even bouncing on a climb several times before jumping. The forward movement of a small animal is seriously reduced by the air friction against the relatively large surface area of its body. Finally, for the many small mammals that supplement their insect diet with fruits or seeds, an inability to span open gaps between tree crowns may be problematic, since trees that yield these foods can be sparse. 32

自由笔记区 Who强调人，易被误认为是定语从句，是她，出版了第一部独立宣言的官方版本，… 平行结构 In place of Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

小结区： 1. 问题：对句子理解的两个要求——正确性和有效性——我们是否已经达到？ 2. 阅读和写作的关系见讲义 页 3. 练习：处理1995到2005年老托福阅读真题，重点关注2000年到2005年部分，每篇文章要 求按照如下方式处理四遍： 一． 快速笔记，完成题目； 二． 处理生词，精读句子——精读 ? 阅读广泛性和阅读重点把握

? 从结构和内容两方面把握阅读重点

? 回忆：结构化阅读的内容

? 托福文章的结构分类 Often passages will present information about the topic from more than one perspective or point of view. This is something you should note as you read because usually you will be asked at least one question that allows you to show that you have understood the general organization of the passage. Common types of organization you should be able to recognize are ? classification ? comparison/contrast ? cause/effect ? problem/solution (Official Guide p.19) 笔记区： 1.顺承式 2.分类式

按照时间/事件发展线索 －线形结构 分类方式及类别特征 －树形结构

3.问题解决式/现象解释式： 解决方案/解释及最终结论 －伞形结构

构建阅读逻辑, 变翻译为整体理解----强调一遍阅读法

强制阅读法：读的时候只看一遍，脑子里圈起句子内容，结合predicting和skimming，获取有效信息。 阅读的第二个层次：由精确的输入通过逻辑得到模糊的输出

精读: 消除阅读障碍的阅读方式→确保阅读的正确性→对 泛读: 快速有效阅读/广泛阅读→获取有效信息→快/广

33

Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

? 托福文章的内容分类 蜜蜂会有预测能力：很猛！ ? 托福文章内容具有明显的重复性――语料库 动物行为重点关注：蜜蜂蚂蚁和海洋? 人类对于陌生事物的本能性恐惧——熟悉材料 生物 ? 回忆：托福阅读的话题类型（讲义第3页） fungi：脚气 真菌会考到听力，顽? 自然科学 固是因为细胞壁 a. 生物学 马骏对蘑菇过敏 ? 植物学: 植物的分类和特征

? 动物学: 动物的分类和行为.鸟类\\群体性昆虫（主要是蚂蚁－信息素和蜜蜂－跳舞）\\海洋生物 ? 微生物学: 真菌(蘑菇\\真菌的顽固) fungi b. 地理\\地质学 Geography/Geology

? 地形\\地貌特征: 成因\\分布\\气候\\生态\\影响 五大湖区的地形地貌，喀斯特地形等 ? 地质事件: 成因或原理\\过程\\影响 比如地震的原理， 风化腐蚀的过程 c. 天文学 Astronomy

? 具体的星体特征: 基本特征(形状\\距离\\轨道\\旋转\\温度\\质量); 大气层(氢气\\氦气\\氨气\\甲烷); 表面特征(阳面阴面，环形山等); 水和生命形式; 人的探索 Jupiter等八大行星， helium ? 天文学事件: 成因\\过程\\影响 d. 考古学 Archeology

? 古生物: 恐龙(灭绝), 鸟类鱼类( 进化史pterosaur→archaeopteryx→modern birds) ? 古代遗址\\遗迹: 中国的古代遗迹－这个古代长城和兵马俑，齐桓公时代的灌溉设施 考过金字塔，印第安人的遗址遗迹 e.气象学 meteorology

? 灾害性天气: 成因\\过程\\危害\\预防 暴风飓风龙卷风 ? 天气预报: 卫星\\计算机技术 satellite f. 新技术和新事物

? 发展史：冰箱、永动机、蒸汽机 曾经新过的东西 ? 特征及应用

以上一共六个方面。人文科学一出通常都是难题，曾经考过唐吉柯德，比例占30％。分六个方面 ? 人文科学－按照字面理解，不要发散 a. 美国历史 讲土人，说他们过的很爽，? 土人: 生活\\宗教\\艺术 后面来了一群人，然后就不? 都市化过程: 人口增长\\城市扩张\\交通发展\\经济繁荣 讲了。呵呵！ b. 历史学和人类学 河殇，很猛！ ? 原始人生活变迁: 游牧到定居(农业) 200年美国发展，好像一个成? 古代文明 特别注意两河流域文明 绩特别好的孩子。 c. 文学 中国像一个淘气的孩子，打? 流派: 产生\\思想\\代表人物，代表作品，代表作家 完了发现不好了，开始学，? 作家: 生平\\作品 没有学几年又开始大跃进，d. 绘画和雕塑 文化大革命，92年老人画圈? 流派——印象派，野兽派 以后才开始发展起来了。 ? 类型:城市艺术（比如自由女神，大街上的雕像） 美国人想着中国人是发达国? 画家 家。民族情感很重要。 e. 音乐 ? 类型: country, ragtime… 美国整个历史与之有关 多看书，会有好处。想问题? 乐器 会更加清楚。 f.心理学: 人类情感分析

不考本来就很专业的：比如医学，数学，物理学——只考符合科普性质的内容。 仅仅关注考期半年内的机井：关注和听力有关的，比如综合测试和口语

34

Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

? 结构分类和内容分类结合——阅读重点把握 顺承式 比如生物学分三类： 分类式 内容解决式 用Excel表格另外总结。 小结区： 1. 结构化阅读应该与阅读广泛性结合，共同构成文章阅读的完善体系； 2. 句子理解，包括正确性和有效性，是理解文字内容的基础； 3. 不必刻意提高速度或者控制时间，充分熟练并掌握方法就能使得速度自然提升；用生物钟控制 4. 注意练习的针对性，要不断总结练习中出现的问题并及时解决； 5. 注意练习的类型，熟能生巧还是发现问题？ 6. 练习：对老托福阅读文章进行结构和内容归纳，分析其阅读重点。theatre 剧院，戏曲 郁金香 ? 题型，如此而已…… ? 托福阅读的题型分类

? 《新托福考试官方指南》上给出的题型分类 TOEFL READING QUESTION TYPES 笔记区： Basic Information and Inferencing questions(11 to 13 questions per set) 1. Factual Information questions (3 to 6 questions per set) 2. Negative Factual Information questions (0 to 2 questions per set) 事实信息题，比例高 3. Inference questions (0 to 2 questions per set) 4. Rhetorical Purpose questions (0 to 2 questions per set) 否定事实信息，与前一个相反 5. Vocabulary questions (3 to 5 questions per set) 6. Reference question (0 to 2 questions per set) 推断题 7. Sentence Simplification questions (0 to 1 questions per set) 8. Insert Text questions (0 to 1 questions per set) 修辞目的题－广义的，就是逻 Reading to Learn questions (1 per set) 辑形式，可能就是比较或因果 9. Prose Summary 10. Fill in a Table 词汇题 ? 对题型的重现归纳

? 答案与文章阐述内容直接关联的：1，2，9，10 ? 答案与文章阐述内容间接关联的：3，4

? 答案与文章阐述内容基本无关的：5，6，7，8 听力：可以和阅读共享话题和所有的训练方法

35

Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

?

托福阅读题型分析

? 词汇题（Vocabulary Questions） ? 重要的说明 These questions ask you to identify the meanings of individual words and phrases as they are used in the reading passage (a word might have more than one meaning, but in the reading passage, only one of those meanings is relevant.) There is no “list of word” that must be tested. (Official Guide. p.25) ? 题目的形式 ? The word X in the passage is closest in meaning to ? In stating X, the author means that ? 解题方法 自由笔记区： 认识：直接解题，沾边就对 词缀（含义/范畴） A?{1,2,3,4,5} 词自身 词的组合 ??不认识 推断 {1,2,3,4,5}?认识 因果 {1,2,5}选项匹配?认识不认识 代入验证 上下文完形填空 对比 解释 选项不匹配?不认识 词缀量少，容易掌握 猜 掌握4个选项及文章中出现的word As Philadelphia grew from a small The word hinterland in the 笔记区： passage is closest in meaning to town into a city in the first half of the land表示地域 eighteenth century, it became an (A) tradition important marketing (B) association increasingly hinterland 内陆地区，内地 a vast and growing (C) produce center for agriculture hinterland. (D) region 把word看出空格 ，看内容 Hunting is at best a precarious way The word precarious in the food, even when the passage is closest in meaning to 与之的关联。推断 of procuring diet is supplemented with seeds and (A)uncertain (B)humble (C)worthy (D)unusual fruits. even,让步转折＝although The word chronicle in the passage is closest in meaning to In time the increasing complexity of precarious 不稳定，不安全的 Neolithic societies led to the (A) repeat development of writing prompted (B) understand 例：哪怕你是第一候选人，我也 by the need to keep records and later (C) exchange by the urge to chronicle experiences, (D) describe 不选你。even－表示否定的态度 learning and beliefs.

36

Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

about 3100 B.C. they were The word subjugated in the 笔记区： By apparently subjugated in southern passage is closest in meaning to Mesopotamia by the Summerians, (A) concentrated name became synonymous (B) conquered whose X的名字成为紧邻PG北部的那个 with the region immediately north of (C) segregated the Persian Gulf in the fertile lower (D) distinguished 区域的代名词 valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates. Native Americans of northern The word fashion in the 通过“解释” The California were highly skilled at passage is closest in meaning to 两河流域文明，幼发拉底河，底 basketry, using the reeds, grasses, (A)maintain barks, and roots they found around (B)organize 格里斯河，美索不达米亚，波斯 them to fashion articles of all sorts (C)trade sizes——not only trays, (D)create and 湾 containers, and cooking pots, but hats, boats, fish traps, baby carriers, and ceremonial objects. In addition, they made use of four The word article in the passage distinct variations on the basic is closest in meaning to 出国是一种手段，有机会出去见 twining process, often employing (A)decoration (B)shape than one of them in a single (C)design (D)object more 识一下就是好事，分数是衡量的 article. ? 指代题（Reference Question） ? 题目的形式 ? The word X in the passage refers to (Official Guide p.26) 考点：句子直接词的关系

? 解题方法

代词

a. 从句的主语指代主句的主宾语(使用属性判断,不用含义) b. 关系代词指代先行词(插入结构不影响指代关系) c. 重复概念指代: Tom and his cat(就近原则) d. some of others

some + n / some of + n, others指名词 some + v, some others共指之前概念 名词:

a. 优先选择题干的上下意词

37

Reading Comprehension a is a kind of A, A是a的上意词

b. 若上下意词不唯一则当作代词指代处理 注意:

a.被指代对象往往在代词之前出现 b. 从句开头往后找答案

c. 代词和被指代对象的数性和性质必须一致 d. 指代的传递现象

IBT TOFEL

38

Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

Jupiter and other giant planets are of a low-density type quite distinct from the terrestrial they are composed predominantly of planets: such substances as hydrogen, helium, ammonia, and methane. If the physical barriers of the plant are breached, then preformed chemicals may inhibit or kill the intruder, and plant tissues contain a diverse array of toxic or potentially toxic substances, such as resins, tannins, glycosides, and alkaloids, many of which are highly effective deterrents to insects that feed on plants. Aviculturists, people who raise birds for commercial sale, have not yet learned how to simulate the natural incubation of parrot eggs in the wild. They continue to look for better ways to increase eggs production and to improve chick survival rates. What is particularly meaningful to anthropologist is the realization that although the available to a society may to some material extent limit or influence what it can do , the materials by no means determine artistically what is done. Some of their baskets were completely covered pendants; others with feathers that with shell made the baskets’ surfaces as soft as the breasts of birds. Encouraged by the example of certain Americans of European descent such as Thomas Eakins, Robert Henri, and George Lukes, who had included persons of African descent in their paintings as serious studies rather than as trivial or sentimental stereotypes, African American this period set about creating a new artists of of themselves and their lives in the portrayal United States. As they began to strive for social and cultural independence. Their altitudes toward themselves changed, and, to some extent, other segments of American society began to change their attitudes toward them.

The word they in the passage refers to (A) nuclear reactions (B) giant planets (C) terrestrial (D) substances The word which in the passage refers to (A) tissues (B)substances (C)barriers (D)alkaliods The word they in the passage refers to (A)birds (B)aviculturists (C)eggs (D)rates The word it in the passage refers to (A)realization (B)society (C)extent (D)influence The word others in the passage refers to (A)masters (B)baskets (C)pendants (D)surfaces The word them in the passage refers to (A)Americans of European descent (B)paintings (C)African American artists (D)attitudes 笔记区： 托福不要你假设C 是terrestrial planets 假设不能作为判断的依据 aviculturists 鸟贩子 39

Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

? 句子简化题 ? 题目的形式

A simple sentence in the passage is highlighted. You are then asked ? Which of the following best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence? Incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. (Official Guide. p .28) ? 解题方法 ? 句子简化题的实质和要求 S?S?,含义不变，简单化。 逻辑不能变，是最基本的。 ? 句子包含的两个基本元素 逻辑：结构相关 语义：内容相关－相关（逻辑） －无关（名词n 常见的逻辑关系转换—— 四大“明显”/ “隐含”关系 ? 解题步骤

1. 确定题干句子中的逻辑成分 关联词，动词，状语 因果，比较、最高级，否定 2. 确定与逻辑相关的语义 最简化原则 因果：原因结果 比较：三要素 最高级 否定：作用对象

自由笔记区： (1) 句子简化题简介和提问方式: 参见OG第28页 (2) 句子简化的两个层面: 语义和逻辑 (3) 常见的逻辑关系转换----四大 “明显”/ “隐含” 关系 句子简化题解题步骤 １）寻找给定句子中的逻辑关系：因果＼比40

）Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

3. 选择与题干逻辑语义一致的选项 验证并且选择

先主后次，从逻辑到语义。

?

难点：逻辑关系的等价转化 ? 否定

? 明显的否定关系特色词汇：

no, not, none, neither, nor, never, deny

? 隐含的否定关系特色词汇

fail to, lack of/lack, absent from, refuse, ignore, remove few, little, 否定词缀less.

阅读的第三个层次：透过单词的含义理解他背后隐藏的逻辑－纯逻辑 阅读的第四个层次：体会文字所承载的美学原理－超越文字，看到文学背后的美感

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Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

? 因果

? 明显的因果关系特色词汇

because / because of, since, for, as, due to, owing to, in that, so, so that,

as a result, therefore, there by,

hence, consequently, accordingly, thus ? 隐含的因果关系特色词汇 C ①E

① 表示导致含义, 包括使役动词: lead to, cause, result, result in, give rise to, render, produce, make, support, stimulate, spur, spark, fuel, motivate, prompt, let， promote, be responsible for.

E ②C

②由??而来: come from, result from, originate, derive from, initiate from, stem from, be attributable to, be responsive to.

E ③C

③反映,体现: reflect, present, suggest, show, imply, demonstrate.

④ C, E 或者 E , ④C

④ 考虑到?, 依赖?: given, considering, on account of, in view of, thanks to, according to, rely on, depend on, resort to.

⑤ C, E E, ⑤C

⑤条件关系词: if, when, while, once, as, as soon as, as long as, 虚拟条件句.

⑥ E 或者 E ⑥

⑥分词短语\\不定式\\独立主格作状语

? 明显的比较关系特色词汇

同级比较 as…as 比较级 more than

? 隐含的比较关系特色词汇

a. “变化——量”: change, vary, alter, modify, revise, increase, decrease, create, destroy,

b.“趋势”develop, improve, progress, advance, grow, degenerate,

continue = remain = stay = stable = still.——同级比较，稳定的趋势

c. “差异”: same, different, match.

d. “超越”: surpass, exceed, transcend, excel, over. ——递进

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Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

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Reading Comprehension IBT TOFEL

? 最高级

? 明显的最高级特色词汇 -est/ 比较级

the most important/ most significantly ? 隐含的最高级特色词汇

隐含最高级\\绝对化关系的特色词汇:

a. 自身含有最高级含义: maximum, minimum, outstanding, extreme, favorite peak, top

b. 否定加比较: nothing can better than that

No one could be better than him.

c. 程度较深的词: surprisingly, amazingly, prohibitively(修饰价格的high) extremely factors led to a war (A) There are many reasons for 笔记区： All of these the war in which many people between the North and South which died than any other war. would be the bloodiest in the . (B) During the war, there are nation’s history more casualties in the south and north than in the east and west. (C) The only one reason contributed to the war which is the worst in the world history. (D) Many people died because of lack of blood transfusion which led to a war. (A) If the war had not been The people on both sides suffered, with their brothers, there would and that suffering was worse have been no pain. because it was inflicted by people (B) If the war had not taken who had been their countrymen, and place in the countryside, there even their brothers. would have been less pain. (C) If the war had been with other nations, the results would have been worse. (D) If the war had not been with the same race, the pain would have been much less. (A) Discussing the matter is There can be no argument, however, worthless to everybody. that the Civil War was the most painful period in American’s history. (B) The vast majority of people accept the statement of fact. (C) It is impossible to hold a different opinion. (D) It is illegal to hold a different opinion. 44

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