美国宪法修正案 中英文对照版

逐条对应

美国宪法修正案

Amendments to the Constitution

修正案[一]

国会不得制定关于下列事项的法律：确立国教或禁止信教自由，剥夺言论自由或出版自由；剥夺人民和平集会和向政府诉冤请愿的权利。

[1791年12月15日批准]

Amendment[I]

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.

修正案[二]

管理良好的民兵是保障自由州的安全之所必需，此人民持有和携带武器的权利不得侵犯。

[1791年12月15日批准]

Amendment[II]

A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.

修正案[三]

士兵在和平时期，未经房主许可不得驻扎于任何民房；在战争时期，除依法律规定的方式外亦不得进驻民房。

[1791年12月15日批准]

Amendment[III]

No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

修正案[四]

人民保护其人身、住房、文件和财物不受无理搜查扣押的权利不得侵犯；除非有合理的根据认为有罪，以宣誓或郑重声明保证，并详细开 列应予搜查的地点、应予扣押的人或物，不得颁发搜查和扣押证。

[1791年12月15日批准]

Amendment[IV]

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

修正案[五]

非经大陪审团提出报告或起诉，任何人不受死罪或其它重罪的惩罚，惟在战时国家危急时期发生在陆、海军中或正在服役的民兵中的案件 不在此限。任何人不得因同一犯罪行为而两次遭受生命或身体伤残的危害；不得在任何刑事案件中被迫自证其罪；未经正当法律程序，不得剥夺任何人的生命、自由 或财产；非有恰当补偿，不得将私有财产充作公用。

[1791年12月15日批准]

逐条对应

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

修正案[六]

在一切刑事诉讼中，被告应享受下列权利：由犯罪行为发生地的州和地区的公正陪审团予以迅速和公开的审判，该地区应事先已由法律确 定；获知控告的性质和原因；同原告证人对质；以强制程序取得有利于自己的证据；并取得律师帮助为其辩护。

[1791年12月15日批准]

Amendment[VI]

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.

修正案[七]

在习惯法诉讼中，争执价额超过20元，由陪审团审判的权利应予保护；案情 事实经陪审团审定后，除非依照习惯法的规则，合众国的任何法院不得再行审理。

[1791年12月15日批准]

Amendment[VII]

In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

修正案[八]

不得索取过多的保释金，不得处以过重的罚金，或施加残酷的、非常的刑罚。

[1791年12月15日批准]

Amendment[VIII]

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

修正案[九]

本宪法对某些权利的列举不得被解释为否定或轻视由人民保有的其它权利。

[1791年12月15日]

Amendment[IX]

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

修正案[十]

宪法未授予合众国，也未禁止各州行使的权力，分别由各州或由人民保留。

逐条对应

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.

修正案[十一]

合众国司法权，不得被解释为可扩大适用受理另一州公民或任何外国公民或国民对合众国一州提出的或起诉的任何法律或衡平法的诉讼。

[1798年1月23日批准]

Amendment[XI]

The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State.

修正案[十二]

选举人应在本州岛岛集会，投票选举总统和副总统，所选的总统和副总统至少应有1人 不是选举人本州岛岛的居民；选举人应在选票上写明被选为总统之人的姓名，并在另一选票上写明被选为副总统之人的姓名。选举人须将所有被选为总统及副总统的 人分别开列名单，写明每人所得票数，在名单上签名作证，封印后送至合众国政府所在地，呈交参议院议长。参议院议长在参议院和众议院全体议员面前开拆所有证 明书，然后计算票数。获得总统选票最多的人，如所得票数超过选举人总数之半，即当选为总统。如无人获得这种过半数票，众议院应立即从被选为总统之人的名单 中得票最多者（不超过3人）中投票选举其中一人为总统。但选举总统时应以州为单位计票。每州代表有 一票表决权。以此种方式选举总统的法定人数为全国2／3的 州各有1名或数名众议员出席，选出总统需要所有州的过半数票。如选举总统的权力转移给众议院而该院 在次年3月4日前尚未选出总统，则副总统应 总统死亡或宪法规定的其它有关总统丧失任职能力的条款代行总统职务。获得副总统选票最多者，如所得票数超过选举人总数之半，即当选为副总统。如无人获得过 半数票，则参议院应从名单上得票最多的2人中选举1人 为副总统。以此种方式选举副总统的法定人数为参议员总数的2／3，选出副总统需要参议员总数的过半数票。但依宪法无资格当选为合众国总统的人不得当选为合众国副总统。

[1804年6月15日批准]

Amendment[XII]

The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate;--The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted;--The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right

逐条对应

constitutional disability of the President. (See Note 14)--The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.

修正案[十三]

第一款在合众国境内或属合众国管辖的任何地方，不准有奴隶制或强制劳役的存在，但惟用于业经定罪的罪犯作为惩罚者不在此限。

第二款国会有权以适当立法实施本条规定。

[1865年12月6日批准]

Amendment[XIII]

Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

修正案[十四]

第一款在合众国出生或归化合众国并受合众国管辖的人，均为合众国和他所居住的州的公民。无论何州均不得制定或实施任何剥夺合众国 公民的特权或豁免权的法律；无论何州未经正当法律程序不得剥夺任何人的生命、自由或财产；亦不得拒绝给予在其管辖下的任何人以同等的法律保护。

第二款众议员名额应按各州人口总数的比例分配，但不纳税的印第安人除外。各州年满21岁 且为合众国公民的男性居民，除因参加叛乱或犯其它罪行者外，其选举合众国总统与副总统选举人、国会为议员、州行政和司法官员或州议会议员的权利被取消或剥 夺时，该州众议员人数应按上述男性公民的人数同该州年满21岁的男性公民总人数的比例予以削减。

第三款无论何人，凡先前曾以国会议员、合众国官员、州议会议员或州行政或司法官员，宣誓拥护合众国宪法，而又参与反对合众国的暴 乱或谋叛，或给予合众国敌人以帮助或庇护者，不得为国会参议员或众议员、总统和副总统选举人，或在合众国或任何一州任文职、军职官员。但国会可以每院三分 之二的票数取消此项限制。

第四款经法律认可的合众国公债，包括因支付平定暴乱或叛乱有功人员的养老金和奖金而产生的债务，其效力不得怀疑。但合众国或任何 一州都不得承担或偿付因资助对合众国作乱或谋叛而产生的任何债务或义务，或因丧失或解放任何奴隶而提出的任何赔偿要求；所有此类债务、义务和要求均应被认 为是非法和无效的。

第五款国会有权以适当立法实施本条各项规定。

[1868年7月9日批准]

Amendment[XIV]

Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.

逐条对应

excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age,(See Note 15) and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of

representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.

Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability.

Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in

suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void.

Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.

修正案[十五]

第一款合众国或任何一州不得因种族、肤色或以前的奴隶身份而否认或剥夺合众国公民的选举权。

第二款国会有权以适当立法实施本条规定。

[1870年2月2日批准]

Amendment[XV]

Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

修正案[十六]

国会有权对任何来源的收入规定并征收所得税，所得税收入不按比例分配于各州，也不必考虑任何人口普查或统计。

[1913年2月3日批准]

Amendment[XVI]

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration.

逐条对应

合众国参议院由每州人民选出2名参议员组成，参议员任期6年，各有一票表决权。各州选举人应具备州议会中人数最多一院的选举人所必需的资格。

任何一州在参议院的议席出现缺额时，该州行政当局应发布选举令以填补此项缺额；但任何一州州议会在人民按照州议会指示进行选举补 足缺额以前，可授权行政长官做出临时任命。 本修正案对于本条作为合众国宪法一部分被批准生效前当选的任何参议员的选举或任期不发生影响。

[1913年4月8日批准]

Amendment[XVII]

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures.

When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, That the legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct.

This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution.

修正案[十八]

第一款从本条批准起一年以后，禁止在合众国及其管辖下的一切领土内酿造、出售和运送致醉酒类，并且不准此种酒类输入或输出合众国 及其管辖下的一切领土。

第二款国会和各州都有权以适当立法实施本条规定。

第三款本条除非在国会送达各州之日起7年内经各州州议会按照宪法规定批准 为宪法修正案，不得发生效力。

[1919年1月16日批准]

Amendment[XVIII]

Section 1. After one year from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited.

Section. 2. The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Section. 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.

修正案[十九]

合众国或任何一州不得因性别而否认或剥夺合众国公民的选举权。

国会有权以适当立法实施本条规定。

[1920年8月18日批准]

Amendment[XIX]

The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.

Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation

逐条对应

第一款如果本条尚未获批准，总统和副总统的任期应于原定任期届满之年1月20日正午终止，参议员和众议员的任期应于原定任期届满之年1月3日正午终止；其继任人的任期即在此时开始。

第二款国会每年至少开会一次，开会日期除以法律另行规定外，应于1月3日正午开始。

第三款如当选总统在规定的任期开始之前已死亡，当选副总统应成为总统。如在规定的总统任期开始以前总统尚未选出，或当选总统不符 合资格，则当选副总统应代行总统职权直到有一名总统符合资格为止；如遇当选总统和当选副总统均不符合资格的情况，国会可以法律规定代理总统人选或选择代理 总统的方式，此人即可依法代行总统职务，直至有一名总统或副总统符合资格为止。

第四款当选总统的权利转移到众议院，而可被该院选为总统的人中有人死亡；或选举副总统的权利转移到参议院，而可被该院选为副总统 的人中有人死亡时，国会得以法律对此种情况做出规定。

第五款第一款与第二款应在本条批准后之10月15日起生效。

第六款本条如在国会送达各州之日起7年内，未经3／4之州议会批准为宪法修正案，将不发生效力。

[1933年1月23日批准]

Amendment[XX]

Section 1. The terms of the President and Vice President shall end at noon on the 20th day of January, and the terms of Senators and Representatives at noon on the 3d day of January, of the years in which such terms would have ended if this article had not been ratified; and the terms of their successors shall then begin.

Section. 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall begin at noon on the 3d day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day.

Section. 3. If, at the time fixed for the beginning of the term of the President, the President elect shall have died, the Vice President elect shall become President. If a President shall not have been chosen before the time fixed for the beginning of his term, or if the President elect shall have failed to qualify, then the Vice President elect shall act as President until a President shall have qualified; and the Congress may by law provide for the case wherein neither a President elect nor a Vice President elect shall have qualified, declaring who shall then act as President, or the manner in which one who is to act shall be ｓｅｌｅｃｔed, and such person shall act accordingly until a President or Vice President shall have qualified.

Section. 4. The Congress may by law provide for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the House of Representatives may choose a President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them, and for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the Senate may choose a Vice President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them.

Section. 5. Sections 1 and 2 shall take effect on the 15th day of October following the ratification of this article.

Section. 6. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States within seven years from the date of its submission.

修正案[二十一]

第一款美利坚合众国宪法修正案第18条现予废除。

第二款在合众国各州、各领地或属地内为交付或使用致醉酒类而进行的运送或输入，如违

逐条对应

第三款本条除非在国会送达各州之日起7年内经各州制宪会议按照宪法规定批 准为宪法修正案，不发生效力。

[1933年12月5日批准]

Amendment[XXI]

Section 1. The eighteenth article of amendment to the Constitution of the United States is hereby repealed.

Section 2. The transportation or importation into any State, Territory, or

possession of the United States for delivery or use therein of intoxicating liquors, in violation of the laws thereof, is hereby prohibited.

Section 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by conventions in the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.

修正案[二十二]

第一款无论何人不得当选总统职务两次以上；无论何人在他人任期内担任总统职务或代理总统超过两年者，不得当选担任总统职务一次以 上。但本条不适用于在国会提出本条时正在担任总统职务的任何人；也不妨碍在本条开始生效的总统任期内可能担任总统职务或代理总统的任何人在此任期结束以前 担任总统职务或代理总统。

第二款本条除非在国会将其提交各州之日起7年内由3/4州议会批准为宪法修正案，不发生效力。

[1951年3月1日批准]

Amendment[XXII]

Section 1. No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and no person who has held the office of President, or acted as President, for more than two years of a term to which some other person was elected President shall be elected to the office of the President more than once. But this article shall not apply to any person holding the office of President when this article was proposed by the Congress, and shall not prevent any person who may be holding the office of President, or acting as President, during the term within which this article becomes operative from holding the office of President or acting as President during the remainder of such term.

Section 2. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states within seven years from the date of its submission to the states by the Congress.

修正案[二十三]

第一款合众国政府所在的特区，应按国会所指定的方式选派若干名总统和副总统的选举人，为此目的，该特区应被视为一个州，选举人数 量应相当于它有权选举的参议员和众议员人数的总和，但不得超过人数最少的州的选举人人数；以上选举人是在各州所选派的选举人之外所增添的，但．为了选举总 统和副总统，应被视为由一个州所选派的选举人。他们应在特区集会，并依照宪法修正案第12条的规定 履行其职责。

第二款国会有权以适当立法实施本条规定。

[1961年4月3日]

Amendment[XXIII]

Section 1. The District constituting the seat of government of the United States shall appoint in such manner as the Congress may direct:

A number of electors of President and Vice President equal to the whole number of

逐条对应

addition to those appointed by the states, but they shall be considered, for the purposes of the election of President and Vice President, to be electors appointed by a state; and they shall meet in the District and perform such duties as provided by the twelfth article of amendment.

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

修正案[二十四]

第一款合众国或任何一州不得以未交人头税或其它税款为理由，否认或剥夺合众国公民在总统或副总统、总统或副总统选举人或参议员、 众议员的任何初选或其它选举中的选举权。

第二款国会有权以适当立法实施本条规定。

[1964年1月23日批准]

Amendment[XXIV]

Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote in any primary or other election for President or Vice President, for electors for President or Vice President, or for Senator or Representative in Congress, shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state by reason of failure to pay any poll tax or other tax.

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

修正案[二十五]

第一款如果总统免职、死亡或辞职，副总统应成为总统。

第二款副总统职位出现空缺时，总统应提名一位副总统，经由国会两院都以过半数票批准后就职。

第三款如总统向参议院临时议长及众议院议长递交书面声明，宣称他无能力履行其权力与职责，则其权力与职责应由副总统作为代理总统 来履行，直至他提出相反的书面声明为止。

第四款如副总统以及各行政部门或国会依法设立的此种其它机构的多数主要官员，向参议院临时议长和众议院议长递交关于总统无能力履 行其权力与职责的书面声明，则副总统应作为代理总统立即承担以上权力与职责。

此后，当总统向参议院临时议长和众议院议长递交他丧失能力情况并不存在的书面声明时，除非副总统以及各行政部门或国会依法设立的 此种其它机构的多数主要官员在4日内向参议院临时议长和众议院议长递交总统无能力履行其权力与职责 的书面声明，总统应恢复其权力与职责。国会应对此做出裁决。如在休会期间，应在48小时内为此目的 召集会议。如果国会收到后一书面声明2l天之内，或处在休会期间被要求召集会议以后的21天之内，以两院的2／3票数决定总统不能履行其权力与职责，副总统应继续作为代理总统履行上述权力与职责；否则，总统应恢复其权力与职责。

[1967年2月11日批准]

Amendment[XXV]

Section 1. In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice President shall become President.

Section 2. Whenever there is a vacancy in the office of the Vice President, the President shall nominate a Vice President who shall take office upon confirmation by a majority vote of both Houses of Congress.

Section 3. Whenever the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that he is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, and until he transmits

逐条对应

Section 4. Whenever the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive departments or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall immediately assume the powers and duties of the office as Acting President.

Thereafter, when the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that no inability exists, he shall resume the powers and duties of his office unless the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive department or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit within four days to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office. Thereupon Congress shall decide the issue, assembling within forty-eight hours for that purpose if not in session. If the Congress, within twenty-one days after receipt of the latter written declaration, or, if Congress is not in session, within twenty-one days after Congress is required to assemble, determines by two-thirds vote of both Houses that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall continue to discharge the same as Acting President; otherwise, the President shall resume the powers and duties of his office.

修正案[二十六]

第一款合众国或任何一州不得因年龄而否认或剥夺已满18岁或18岁以上的合众国公民的选举权。

第二款国会有权以适当立法实施本条规定。

[1971年7月5日批准]

Amendment[XXVI]

Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States, who are 18 years of age or older, to vote, shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account of age.

Section 2. The Congress shall have the power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

修正案[二十七]

新一届众议员选出之前，任何有关改变参议员和众议员的任职报酬的法律，均不得生效。

[1992年5月7日批准]

Amendment[XXVII]

No law varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and Representatives shall take effect until an election of Representatives shall have intervened.

本文来源：https://www.bwwdw.com/article/w7nm.html