中医药科研思路与方法(讲义合成)加目录

中医药科研思路与方法

（讲义）

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目 录

第一篇 概 论 ······························································································································· 7

一、进入研究生学习阶段的几个转变 ····················································································· 7 二、科学研究 ··························································································································· 7 三、科学研究的方法与过程 ····································································································· 7 四、医学科学研究 ···················································································································· 7

1．特点： ·························································································································· 7 2．类型 ····························································································································· 8 3．要 求 ························································································································· 14 五、中医科研的特点 ·············································································································· 14 六、中医科研的注意事项 ······································································································ 14 第二篇 医学研究层次的基本方法 ······························································································· 15

一、观察法 ····························································································································· 15

1.科学观察的任务 ··········································································································· 15 2.科学观察的研究方法 ···································································································· 15 3.直接观察常常是科学发现的源泉 ················································································· 15 二、实验法 ····························································································································· 15

1.比较实验 ······················································································································· 16 2.预初实验 ······················································································································· 16 3.断决实验 ······················································································································· 16 4.正式实验 ······················································································································· 16 5.模型实验： ··················································································································· 16

第三篇 医学科学研究选题的种类 ······························································································· 17

一、调查研究性质 ·················································································································· 17 二、实验观察性质 ·················································································································· 17 三、实验研究性质 ·················································································································· 17 四、资料分析性质 ·················································································································· 17 五、经验体会性质 ·················································································································· 17 第四篇 选 题 ····························································································································· 18

一． 选题的产生与来源 ········································································································ 18

1． 来自自身实践的课题 ······························································································· 18 2． 来自他人实践的课题 ······························································································· 18 3． 来自客观要求的课题 ······························································································· 18 4． 来自协作要求的课题 ······························································································· 18 5． 来自上级指定的课题 ······························································································· 18 6． 来自公开招标的课题 ······························································································· 18 二． 选题的途径 ···················································································································· 19 三． 选题的方法 ···················································································································· 19

1.假说形成法 ··················································································································· 19 ２.移植法························································································································· 19 ３.旧题发挥法 ················································································································· 19 四． 初选、筛选 ···················································································································· 19

１.指导思想 ····················································································································· 19 ２.方法适当 ····················································································································· 19 五．定题 ································································································································· 19 六． 选题的注意事项 ············································································································ 20

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七． 研究题目的表述 ············································································································ 20 第五篇 中医科研的假说 ················································································································ 21

一． 假说的定义 ···················································································································· 21 二． 假说的性质 ···················································································································· 21 三.假说的作用························································································································· 21 四． 假说的形成 ···················································································································· 21

1．孕育阶段 ···················································································································· 21 2.形成阶段 ······················································································································· 22 五． 假说的检验 ···················································································································· 22 六、假说的类型 ······················································································································ 22 七、中医学中的假说 ·············································································································· 23 八、确定假说的注意事项 ······································································································ 23 第六篇医学文献的检索 ·················································································································· 24

一、文献检索的意义 ·············································································································· 24 二、医学文献的特点 ·············································································································· 24 三、医学文献基本情况 ·········································································································· 24

1.级别 ······························································································································ 24 2.类型 ······························································································································ 24 四、医学文献检索 ·················································································································· 25

1.检索工具 ······················································································································· 25 2.检索方法 ······················································································································· 25 3.检索步骤 ······················································································································· 25 4.检索途径 ······················································································································· 25 五、计算机检索 ······················································································································ 26 六、中医文献检索 ·················································································································· 26 第七篇中医文献综述的撰写 ·········································································································· 27

一、概论 ································································································································· 27 二、目的和意义 ······················································································································ 27 三、特点 ································································································································· 27 四、内容分类 ························································································································· 27 五、结构 ································································································································· 27

1.题目 ······························································································································ 27 2.作者 ······························································································································ 27 3.内容提要,关键词 ·········································································································· 28 4.前言: ····························································································································· 28 5.正文 ······························································································································ 28 6.总结 ······························································································································ 28 7.参考文献 ······················································································································· 28 六、写作步骤 ························································································································· 28

1.确定题目 ······················································································································· 28 2.搜集文献—检索 ··········································································································· 28 3.阅读文献 ······················································································································· 28 4.制定、修改提纲 ··········································································································· 28 5.再次查阅文献 ··············································································································· 28 6.正式写作 ······················································································································· 28 7.修改---反复修改 ··········································································································· 28 七、注意事项 ························································································································· 28

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第八篇 科研设计 ························································································································· 29

一、概论 ································································································································· 29 第九篇 常用实验设计方法 ············································································································ 38

一、配对设计 ························································································································· 38

1.自身对照设计 ··············································································································· 38 2.异体配对对照 ··············································································································· 38 二、交叉(配对)设计 ··············································································································· 38 三、完全随机设计 ·················································································································· 38 四、随机区组设计 ·················································································································· 38 五、拉丁方设计 ······················································································································ 38 六、正交设计 ························································································································· 39 七、析因设计 ························································································································· 40 八、序贯设计 ························································································································· 40 第十篇 几种常见场合的科研设计 ································································································· 41

一、调查研究 ························································································································· 41

（一）调查研究使用范围 ······························································································· 41 （二）要求 ······················································································································ 41 （三）设计要点 ·············································································································· 41 二、病因学研究 ······················································································································ 41

1、几个基本概念 ············································································································ 41 2、病因学研究方法 ········································································································ 42 三、诊断试验 ························································································································· 46

金标准： ························································································································· 46 研究目的： ······················································································································ 46 研究方法： ······················································································································ 46 界值确定： ······················································································································ 46 结果分析： ······················································································································ 47 四、临床研究 ························································································································· 49

（一）临床流行病学调查和回顾性病因学研究 ····························································· 49 （二）前瞻性病因学研究 ······························································································· 49 （三）临床评价研究 ······································································································ 50 五、动物实验 ························································································································· 51

（一）实验动物 ·············································································································· 51 （二）对照全面 ·············································································································· 51 （三）指标丰富 ·············································································································· 51 (四）实验结果的解释留有余地 ······················································································ 51

第十一篇 中医科研发展思路 ········································································································ 54

一、总体思路： ······················································································································ 54

（一）中医科学研究要满足中医学科自身发展的需求。 ············································· 54 （二）适应和满足现代社会的需求 ················································································ 54 二、中医科研方法学 ·············································································································· 54

问题： ····························································································································· 54 科研思路： ······················································································································ 54 避免 ································································································································· 54 三、中医基础理论 ·················································································································· 55

1．中医语言 ···················································································································· 55 2．中医生命观 ················································································································ 55

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四、中医诊断技术 ·················································································································· 55 五、中医辨证理论 ·················································································································· 56 六、病因病机理论 ·················································································································· 56 七、中医医史研究 ·················································································································· 57 八、方剂理论 ························································································································· 57 九、中医治疗方法 ·················································································································· 57 十、针灸推拿学科 ·················································································································· 57

1、经络的研究 ················································································································ 57 2、腧穴的规范化研究 ····································································································· 58 3、针灸推拿机理研究 ····································································································· 58 4、针灸推拿学临床研究 ································································································· 58 十一、中医临床疗效评价体系研究 ······················································································· 58 十二、中医药疗效机制研究 ··································································································· 59 十三、几点想法 ······················································································································ 59 第十二篇 开 题 报 告 ················································································································ 60

一、概念 ································································································································· 60 二、主要内容 ························································································································· 60 三、注意事项 ························································································································· 60 四、课题论证 ························································································································· 60 第十三篇 医药科技论文的写作 ··································································································· 61

一、撰写科技论文的目的 ······································································································ 61 二、对科技论文的要求 ·········································································································· 61 三、资料的处理 ······················································································································ 61 四、材料的表现方法 ·············································································································· 62 五、撰写论文 ························································································································· 62

(一)医药科技论文的种类 ································································································ 62 (二)对医药科技论文的评价 ···························································································· 63 (三)医学论文的一般格式 ································································································ 63 (四)撰写过程 ··················································································································· 63 (五)临床病例分析············································································································ 67

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观 书 有 感

半亩方塘一鉴开 天光云影共徘徊 问渠那得清如许 为有源头活水来

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------朱熹

第一篇 概 论

一、进入研究生学习阶段的几个转变

由学习型向创新型的转变

1由学习知识（输入）型转为创造知识（输出）型

2由知识积累型转为能力掌握与提高型

能力包括：思路新颖独特，方法正确可行；逻辑（科学）思维能力，实验动手能力，语言文字表达能力，人事组织协调能力，应变能力和忍耐力等。

3知识增长方式的转变：知识增长由算术均数增长型转变为几何均数增长型。 4由封闭型人才向开拓型人才的转变 开拓型人才的特点： --竞争性；

--外向性（善于表达，善于交流）； --经济性（市场化）; --资源配置合理性; --创造性。

5由注重智商向注重智商和情商的全面发展 由“高智商型”转变为“高智商+高情商型”

二、科学研究

科学研究是一种探索未知，创造新知识和新技术的活动。

三、科学研究的方法与过程

选题→形成假说→定题→文献检索→科研设计→实验→数据收集→数据整理统计→分析、总结→科研论文、报告、答辨、发表、专利、推广→奖励→下一个选题。

四、医学科学研究

1．特点： --对象特殊 --方法困难

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--内容复杂

2．类型

2.1根据研究性质分

一般可分为基础性研究、应用性研究和开发性研究。 2.1.1基础性研究

2.1.1.1定义：在医学科学领域中是指阐明人体内在运动的基本规律以及健康与疾病相互转化的规律等。

2.1.1.2特点：所研究的课题着重于知识的深度；特异性及针对性不明显；所需研究时间较长；研究成果短期内效益不显著；但对学科的根本性进步影响深远。

2.1.1.3细胞结构的研究，核酸性质的研究；血液动力学的研究，中医藏象研究；证的研究；诊法、治法研究等。

2.1.2应用性研究

2.1.2.1定义：在医学科学领域指解决防病治病中有待解决的各种实际问题或具体问题的研究。

2.1.2.2特点：研究的课题着重于应用的广度；特异性和针对性较强；课题研究周期较短；效益显著或立竿见影地解决问题；需要基础理论研究成果做为指导，形成新方法和产品，如新药，新仪器等。

2.1.2.3如：某种疾病诊断的研究；一种新疗法的研究；某病发病率的调查；中药栽培、炮制等，新药的研制及研究。

2.1.3开发性研究

2.1.3.1定义：对应用研究成果的进一步扩大或转化，它是运用基础研究和应用研究及实验知识，为推广新材料、新产品、新设计，新流程与方法等进行研究。

2.1.3.2特点：推广新的应用。 2.1.3.3举例

探索核酸本质及其结构——基础性研究；进一步探索基因重组，基因调控、基

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因移植的可能性，达到改变遗传性状的目的——应用性研究；将上述基因工程技术引入不同学科领域，如用于农业转基因农作物，植物品种改良，中药新品种的诞生，转基因动物等——开发性研究。

颜色的数值化——色度学研究——基础性研究；颜色测定的研究——应用性研究；舌色测定仪——开发性研究。

2.2根据创新程度的不同分

一般可分为探索性研究和发展性研究

2.2.1探索性研究

2.2.1.1定义：在现有知识的基础上开拓新的研究领域。

2.2.1.2特点：这种研究是在众多实践的基础上产生的，但又较少有前人的系统经验可资借鉴；需要良久的独立思考，思维活动水平较高；探索的时间也许是漫长的，而且风险较大；一旦成功可获得重大成果或突破性进展，常可为一个新的学科领域奠定基础；但亦可以一无所得而告终。

2.2.1.3举例：（最早的）细胞膜受体的研究；（当初的）胃肠道激素的研究；（目前的）人体经络实质的研究。

2.2.2发展性研究

2.2.2.1定义：深化探索性研究或其他研究的初步成绩，进一步验证、巩固、发展和扩大已有的成果。

2.2.2.2特点：有前人的研究基础，或多或少都有成功的经验可资借鉴；研究的周期较短，把握性较大；基本上都能获得结果，但创造性不大；仅有探索性研究而无发展性研究也难以推动科学的不断进步，因而后者是前者的“继往开来”。

2.2.2.3举例：（与前述探索性研究举例相对应的）细胞膜受体分类的研究，又一种胃肠道激素的检出等。不少发展性研究题目中均带有“进一步评价”、“深入探讨”、“理论验证”、“内容补充”、“方法改良”之类的字样。

2.3从认识的深度分

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一般可分为描述性研究和阐述研究两大类 2.3.1描述性研究

2.3.1.1定义：提供现象与事实。

2.3.1.2特点：收集与积累事实材料，描述现象的外部联系，解决感性认识问题。

2.3.1.3举例：对一种新的疾病或综合征的临床记述，如近年发现的军团菌肺炎、艾滋病的初期报告等；偶然发现的药物适应证在其作用机制未被阐明前的记述，如心血管药物噻吗心安对单纯性青光眼有缓解作用的报告，亦属此类。

2.3.2阐述性研究

2.3.2.1定义：正确阐明某一事物的本质及其规律性。

2.3.2.2特点：运用既有知识，对大量的描述性资料进行深入加工，去粗取精，由此及彼，通过思考或必要的实验而建立理论；解决理性认识问题，由表及里，指出某一事物外部现象或特征之间的内在联系的本质。

2.3.2.3举例：某病的病因学或发病机理的研究；某种药物或疗法的疗效机制研究；某一学说或理论的建立。

2.4根据研究方式的不同分

一般可分为经验性研究和理论性研究两大类，前者重在实践，后者则以推论为主。

2.4.1经验性研究

2.4.1.1定义：亲手进行某一项科学实验或直接观察某一种现象，从而获取经验性的事实材料。

2.4.1.2特点：从单一的问题出发，实验一项证实一项，为系统理论研究提供基础；实验或观察的内容较为集中，思维活动的领域及概括范围小；周期较短，易出成果，结论可靠。

2.4.1.3举例：石炭酸杀菌效能的研究；四环素抑菌作用的研究；中西医结合治疗某病的研究；病床设置分科比例的研究（并参照比较下述理论性质研究举例）。

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2.4.2理论性研究

2.4.2.1定义：根据已有的经验事实，研究者通过自己的思维，从中探索与发现普遍原理或在总结他人实验结果的基础上建立系统理论。

2.4.2.2特点：综合众多的经验事实，通过融会贯通，深入进行思维加工；要求有广泛的知识基础与高度的判断推理能力；需要大量的资料与较长的时间；所付出的劳动比之经验性研究更加艰辛，但所取得的成果对指导实践更具有普遍意义；除个别问题需进一步验证外，一般不再需要亲自动手进行实验或观察。

2.4.2.3举例：（对照前述经验性研究的四个举例，此时可相应为）消毒灭菌法的研究；抗生素疗法的研究；创立中西医结合的新医学的理论研究；医院管理学的研究。

2.5根据研究范畴的大小分

一般可分为分解性研究和综合性研究两大类，前者重在局部，后者着眼于总体。 2.5.1分解性研究

2.5.1.1定义：将研究的范围局限化，研究对象是从总体联系中分解出来的一个系统、局部或层次，并可随着认识的深入进行再分解，如人体（总体）→系统→器官→组织→细胞→亚细胞→分子→亚分子等。

2.5.1.2特点：研究的重点集中，认识的深度较大，便于横向扩展（如细胞研究中对不同种类的细胞相互比较）：所认识的事物往往是局限的、孤立的、片面的、总体观念常不够完整；可为综合性研究提供更深刻的基础。

2.5.1.3举例：脾的生理功能研究；柱状上皮细胞超微结构的研究。

2.5.2综合性研究

2.5.2.1定义：将研究对象的范围总体化，或将一些分解性研究结果组合起来给予系统认识，提示系统与系统局部与局部或层次与层次之间的相互关系。

2.5.2.2特点：与分解性研究逆向而行，但往往又需要大量分解性研究结果作为基础；研究范围广泛，总体观念性强；便于纵向联系（如各个系统、局部、层次

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之间的相互对立与统一的关系，而非其简单之总和）；研究对象通常是一个进行着复杂调节的庞大控制系统，常需着重研究每一个局部与整体的关系、全过程的信息效应及其运动规律。

2.5.2.3举例：人体某些机能相互关系的研究，医学控制论（medical cybernetics）或控制论医学（cybernetic medicine）的研究。

2.6从研究的时间上分

一般可分为回顾性研究与前瞻性研究两大类，以事件发生的时间划分两者的界限。

2.6.1回顾性研究

2.6.1.1定义：事件发生以后探讨导致该事件发后的可能因素，即从结果来分析和认识其原因，如某病之发生与某因素有否联系以及联系的程度等。

2.6.1.2特点：以已有的事实为基础，逆向探索其因果关系；为了突出和印证其最大的可能原因，常需比较仅单一因素不同其他条件完全相同的两个观察对象的结果，因此需要“配对”；配对之间的可比因素常不易控制，因而结果误差可能较大，所得结论的可靠程度较低；研究所需之时间较短，耗费较小。

2.6.1.3举例： ×××例畸形儿与母亲服用避孕药的关系的研究；肺癌病人与吸咽的关系——×××例肺癌患者的分析研究。

2.6.2前瞻性研究

2.6.2.1定义：与回顾性研究恰好相反，指有计划有步骤地观察某一因素可能导致事件发生的频度，以明确其因果关系，亦即从原因追踪结果。

2.6.2.2特点：主动性强，可预先作好计划，进行周密安排，有条不紊进行；容易比较和突出某一作用因素，可按理想要求进行配对；常以各种条件基本相同的“一代人”作为观察研究对象，经长期随访最后取得资料；所需时间较长，人力物力消耗较大，但误差较小，所得结论可靠性高；多用来验证回顾性研究所得出的初步结论。

2.6.2.3举例：服用与不服用避孕药母亲所产婴儿畸形发生率的比较，一代人

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吸烟与不吸烟肺癌发病率的研究；接触肝炎病人群体与无接触群体肝炎发病率的比较。

2.7据研究对象与场地的不同分

通常分为实验研究、临床研究、调查研究三大类。 2.7.1实验研究

2.7.1.1定义：通过实验手段，主动变革某一事物的自然状态或其过程，暴露出隐蔽在事物内部的真实情况，从而能较精确地回答或解释某一问题。改变某一事物的本质而创造出一种新的事物。

2.7.1.2特点：研究的场地主要在实验室内；使用的工具与材料主要为仪器、设备、动物、试剂或其他物品；可事先作好计划，能严格控制实验条件和各种影响因素；允许进行细致观察、多次重复、反复比较，因而自由度较大；涉及到有关人体问题 ，实验研究结果只具有参考价值。

2.7.1.3举例： 新药的合成及其临床前研究；医学动物模型的建立；各种动物实验、细胞培养、组织观察以及各种检验方法等的研究。

2.7.2临床研究

2.7.2.1定义：通过临床观察、病例分析或讨论以及各种临床试验等手段，了解疾病发生与发展的规律，深入探索疾病的本质，创建最佳的诊断治疗方法等所进行的认识活动。

2.7.2.2特点：研究的场地主要是病房或门诊，亦包括家庭随访；所获得的数据资料皆来自真实的研究对象——人体，此为其最大之优点；人的个体差异性及环境因素对疾病状态或治疗效果所产生的影响不易控制，乃其缺点；由于控制条件难以达到严格的程度，所得结果的精确度相对较小；若未能做到随机抽样并设立合理的对照 ，其意义将更加局限；在实验研究中，动物可全部服从实验要求的一切条件；而在临床研究中，各种试验和观察都必须服从病人的利益。

2.7.2.3举例：病例分析或讨论；疗效观察；诊断方法研究；临床试验报告。

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2.7.3调查研究

2.7.3.1定义：对客观自发的现象或状态进行考察和记录，以揭示其在人类群体中或一定区域内存在的形式或程度。

2.7.3.2特点：研究的场地常常是一定地区范围内的现场或社会；研究的对象主要为人群，包括健康人群或以健康人为基础的群体；亦包括其他的考察对象，如环境、食品、医学昆虫等；研究的主动性较强，可预先做好计划，有步骤地进行；调查和记录为取得资料的主要手段。

2.7.3.3举例：流行病学调查，社会医学调查；劳动作业环境调查；血型分布调查；某种医学昆虫的种属分布或密度调查。

2.8其 它 --多学科研究 --边缘学科研究

--跨学科研究或称科际研究 3．要 求

--科学、道德、有用、可能 --严谨、严格、严肃、标准 --广泛、广阔

五、中医科研的特点

--文献丰富。 --经验性研究数量多。 --植物药应用广泛。 --注重社会性。

--涉及多种学科（哲学、文学、气象学、数学等）。

六、中医科研的注意事项

--正确处理继承与发扬的关系。 --正确处理中医与西医的关系。

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第二篇 医学研究层次的基本方法

?观察法 ?实验法

一、观察法

?定义:

?观察法是对自然现象在自然条件下进行考察的一种方法,它是从自然发生的现

象中索取事实资料。

?不施加任何因素,不改变客体的内外环境的自然条件,直接观察人体生理现象与病理现象。

科学观察的特点

?有明确的目的性,同解决一定的科学问题相联系。 ?有严密的组织性和计划性,严格按照科研设计进行。

1.科学观察的任务

?系统、全面、客观地考察人体的生命活动和疾病过程,客观地描写记录研究对

象的某些现象特征,积累感性经验,搜集事实资料。

?避免主(研究者)、客(研究对象)观的心理暗示和偏倚。

2.科学观察的研究方法

?是古老的方法,基本的方法,历史以来,是医学形成、发展和检验医学理论的主要科学实践基础。

?实验方法不能取代观察法。 ?

3.直接观察常常是科学发现的源泉

二、实验法

?定义:实验法是研究主体主动变革研究客体的一种科学活动,研究者对自然现

象在实验条件下进行考察的一种方法,是从人为地发生在实验条件下的现象中索取科学资料的一种重要手段,为揭示隐蔽在事物内部的现象和现象之间的联系而采用的一种活动方式。

实验方法的特点 ?能动性质

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?它对事件的自然过程进行干涉

实验研究的基本构成

?实验的主体及其科学活动

?进行实验的手段(仪器设备,工具,试剂,药品等) ?实验研究的客体(患者或实验动物)

?实验研究的成熟程度取决于以上三方面的成熟程度

实验研究的目的

?绝对实验:研究对象的某个特征在某个实验条件下的绝对值的变化。

?相对实验:两个或两个以上的实验组,给与不同的处理,观察不同处的效应,每

组绝对值与他组决对值比较才有意义。

实验研究的分类 1.比较实验 2.预初实验

–①导向性实验

预先对少数研究对象进行小规模实验,初步掌握结果走向. –②观测性实验

在少数实验单位中搜集若干数据,以作正式实验设计的参考.

–③筛选性实验

用简单的方法从众多的研究对象中选出值得深入研究的对象.

–④练习实验

3.断决实验

在分解性研究之前,先用一些简单的方法在总体上判断一下研究因素的作用和假说是否成立.

4.正式实验

必须有严格的实验设计,必要的实验手段和成熟的实验技术. 重复再现是实验成功的最基本条件. 周密的对照对实验非常重要. 5.模型实验：

疾病及中医证侯模型

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第三篇 医学科学研究选题的种类

一、调查研究性质

多属于流行病、地方病、卫生学及社会卫生学等方面的研究。

二、实验观察性质

多用于解剖学、组织学、胚胎学、病理学、职业病及劳动卫生等方面的研究。

三、实验研究性质

四、资料分析性质

可用于人口死因分析、恶性肿瘤的种类分布等。

五、经验体会性质

老中医经验总结,临床病例讨论等。

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第四篇 选 题

提出问题是选题的第一步

提出问题是科学研究的关键

提出问题的同时就思考解决问题的方法

一． 选题的产生与来源

1． 来自自身实践的课题

实践中发现的难以解决的问题 难以解释的现象

提出：为什么？怎么办？

2． 来自他人实践的课题 别人提出的问题 他人的咨询 文献中的问题等

3． 来自客观要求的课题

4． 来自协作要求的课题

5． 来自上级指定的课题

6． 来自公开招标的课题 国家级课题

–国家基础研究规划项目（973） [几千万] –攀登计划 [几百万] –攻关计划 [1百万以下] –国家自然科学基金 重点；面上项目；青年基金 部级课题（行业）

–卫生部；国家中医药管理局 省级课题

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厅局级课题 单位招标

二． 选题的途径

单位或国家的任务 与现代科学结合选题

用现代科学理论和技术，解决中医药存在的问题。或用中医药理论和方法，解决其他学科的问题。

依据中医优势中选题 从中西医结合中选题 从中西医认识矛盾中选题 从单方验方中选题 从文献中选题

三． 选题的方法

1.假说形成法

假说是研究者对欲研究的事物、现象的本质和发生发展规律所作出的推测性的说明或假定性的理论解释。

２.移植法

–某一学科或领域所发现的新技术、新原理，应用或移植到其他学科或领域，开拓思路，解决这一领域所研究的问题。

３.旧题发挥法

–① 改变原来课题的组合，寻找新的课题。 –② 深化研究

–③ 重新用一种方法进行研究

四． 初选、筛选

１.指导思想：新颖．恰当．科学．可行(从易到难,从小到大)

２.方法适当：方向正确．社会需求．行情(本学科的进展情况)清楚．条件具备

五．定题

建立假说 科研构思 预实验

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方案论证

六． 选题的注意事项

选题要恰当，不能大而无当，力求解决一个问题。 水平要高，杜绝低水平重复。

七． 研究题目的表述

包含科学研究的三个要素：研究对象．处理因素．效果反映，越具体越好。 含蓄地体现假说容 附加限定成分

动名词结尾：研究．探讨．商榷．分析．调查抱告等。

如: XX方对XX药引起的XX动物XX脏器损伤的保护作用(研究)

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第五篇 中医科研的假说

一． 假说的定义

假说是研究者对欲研究的事物、现象的本质和发生发展规律所做出的推测性的说明或假定性的理论解释。 是联系已知和未知的纽带。

二． 假说的性质

相容性:与已知的科学原理和基本事实相符合。 完备性:能解释已有的有关事实与现象。 推演性:可以根据不完全、不充分的经验、事实推导出来，允许有一定的想象与推测。即推测性、假定性、或然性。

三.假说的作用

提出新的理论和新的实验目的，帮助研究者明确目的，发挥主观能动性，避免盲目和被动，促进科学理论的建立和发展。 一种指导研究实践的理性的认识。

建立新理论的桥梁，通向新理论的必由之路。

四． 假说的形成

三个阶段：孕育阶段，形成阶段，检验阶段

1．孕育阶段

解决问题的初步设想阶段，是最富创造性的阶段。

----要充分发挥想象力和创造性思维的作用 此阶段应遵寻四个原则

解释性原则：即假说与事实的关系，假说不与事实冲突。

应对事实做出统一的说明与解释（完备性）

但在开始提出假说时,可以不要求它说明全部事实,也可以回避一些难点,留以后解决。

对应性原则：即假说与已知理论的关系，假说不与已知理论矛盾（相容性）。

若发生矛盾，可通过增加辅助性假说或限制性条件方法进行修改或调整。 必要时可以不顾及假说的相容性。

简单性原则：以较少的假说说明较多的理论。

逻辑和数学形式上的简单，不是理论上的浅易。

但在开始提出假说时，可以不要求它立即形成完整的体系。

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可检验性原则：能用观察和实验的方法进行检验，以判断它的真伪。

2.形成阶段

在初步假说的基础上，进一步收集观察、实验的资料及理论依据，不断提炼、论证、修改、补充，形成一个完善的体系。

假说形成一般的逻缉方法

差异法：从事物与事实的差异中提出假说。 类同法：从事物与事实的的一致性中提出假说。

差异类同共用法：应用较多的一种方法 共变法：也叫伴随变异法，某事物的某种因素总是与某种现象伴随发生，提出改因素可能就是某种现象的可能原因。如：大量食用木耳，可引起出血，提出假说------木耳中有抑制血小板功能的成分。

类推法：根据已知事物和规律推论未知事物和规律。

剩余法：逐一排除可能引起的各种因素后，剩余的因素就是可能的原因。

五． 假说的检验

理论（逻辑）的分析。 实践检验

假说坚持与放弃的原则

–实验结果及观察现象与假说相反，放弃。

–原假说的矛盾论点给予补充后仍不能弥补，放弃。 –虽然失败，并不能否定假说的核心，坚持。 –难以证实，也难以否定，坚持。

六、假说的类型

推断型假说

根据科学的事实,按已知的事物联系方式,对事物本质作出的逻辑推断。 ①根据科学实验显示的联系提出假说

根据事实，用一定的思维逻辑（归纳、演绎）可做出推论。

尼科尔-----发现斑疹伤寒的传播途径。 盖都赛克----发现库鲁病病因。 伯内特----提出免疫耐受学说。

布莱克---B受体阻断剂治疗冠心病。

②逐步推进式假说

起始的假说指出进步探索的思路，或者对并存的各种假说不做出某种肯定或否定，而用一系列假说和推论连接起来，逐步接近结论。 地质板块说

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大陆漂移说 宇宙大爆炸理论 水猿学说

通里攻下法治疗急腹症的机制。

③以阶段性科研成果为基础提出的科学假说

一些关于普遍规律的的假说，只能一个阶段一个阶段的验证。

如：比德尔·塔达姆的“一个基因一个酶”的假说。 猜测型假说

用类比、猜想、想象、联想、灵感等思维方式所形成的科学假说,他籍以推论的事实根据不完全,推理的逻辑理由不充分,推论有很大的不确定性,形成的假说只是多种可能性之一,带有一定的随机性。

如：瓦格纳·约瑞格“间日疟疗法治疗梅毒性痴呆”的发明。

巧合型假说

由于种种巧合,有些假说得到了与自身相距甚远、意想不到的结果,甚至错误的假说也会导致有意义的结果。

如：维生素C化学结构的发现。

七、中医学中的假说

中医学中存在大量假说，如肺朝百脉等。

对中医的假说，不能固步自封，裹足不前，不求发展，也不能因为中医理论多为假说而怀疑中医的科学性。

对中医的假说要逐步验证，不断修改和发展。

八、确定假说的注意事项

假说水平要高，不能只停留于现象阶段。 具体、明确，避免大而空。 最好能检验、验证。

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第六篇医学文献的检索

一、文献检索的意义

记录知识或传递信息的有形载体,称文献。 医学科技文献:

–1.是古今中外医学工作者知慧的结晶。 –2.使科学研究有连续性和继承性。 –3.方便了多学科的相互渗透。

二、医学文献的特点

数量大、增长快

内容重复交叉,边缘学科多 文种繁多,类型复杂 代谢频繁,老化加剧 交流、传播速度加快 文献质量下降

三、医学文献基本情况

1.级别

一次文献:凡是以作者本人的研究或研究成果为依据而创作的原始文献,称为一次文献。

二次文献:对一次文献进行压缩、整理、加工编辑而形成的文献,称二次文献,如书目、索引、文摘、题录、简介等,通常又称之为检索工具。

三次文献:在充分利用二次文献的基础上,对一次文献作出系统整理和概括论述,并加以综合而编写出来的文献,称三次文献,如综述、评论、年鉴、手册、进展、指南、百科全书等。

四次文献:机读文献及其产生的磁带、磁盘形式的书目、索引,称四次文献。

零次文献:不需要通过文献载体而直接作用于人的感觉器官、未形成文字的知识,称为零次文献。

2.类型

印刷型:图书,期刊等。

缩微型:缩微胶卷,缩微平片等。

视听型:直感材料或声像资料,包括唱片、录音带、录像带、电影、幻灯片等。 机读型:供机算机阅读的文献形式,主要有磁带、磁盘等。

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四、医学文献检索

检索的基本任务是查找文献线索,提供原始文献和情报资料。 文献检索的主要内容: 制定检索策略 选择检索系统 提出检索语言 利用检索工具 索得原始编著

1.检索工具

检索工具的检索途径

字顺法 主题法 分类法

医学检索工具的类型

书目、目录 索引类 文摘类

综述和进展类

现期期刊目录----Clinical practices;Life sciences。 2.检索方法 常用法 顺查法 倒查法 分段法 追溯法 3.检索步骤

明确研究题目和检索要求 确定检索工具和检索策略 确定检索途径与标记 确定检索线索 熟悉馆藏情况 4.检索途径 主题途径

–检索语言选自主题词表

–确定二级主题(付主题)和三级主题(说明语) –主题词不宜过宽或过窄

–查找主题从名词着眼,过程为二级主题

–主题词: 名词在前,形容词在后,中间以逗号隔开。 –传记文献以人名检索:姓前名后

–“主题指南”或“索引指南”应利用 ?分类途径

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?书名途径 ?著者途径 ?关键词途径

五、计算机检索

?脱机检索

?联机检索:人机对话,以问答方式提出检索主题,不断修正提问。

六、中医文献检索

?现代文献:同上 ?古代文献:书籍

–书目:现代----全国总书目,全国新书目

–近代----中国丛书综录,中国近代现代丛书目录 古代中医专科书目 –医藏书目 –中国医籍考

–宋以前医籍考----日本·西风为人 编

–中国医学大成总目提要--曹秉章 辑,1936年出版 –四部总录医药编----丁福保等 编,1955年出版 –现有本草书录----龙伯坚 编 1957年出版 –中医图书联合目录----1961年 印

–上海中医学院中医图书目录----1980年 印 –三百种医籍录----贾维城 编,1982年出版

–中医学重要著作简介----邱德文 著,1984年出版 –中国医籍提要----1984年出版

–中国分省医籍考----郭蔼春 著,1984年出版

–中国针灸荟萃·第二分册----郭蔼春 著,1985年出版 书目的题例 ?前言与凡例 ?目次 ?正文 ?辅助资料

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第七篇中医文献综述的撰写

一、概论

–中医文献综述是文献资料的综合论述,指在收集大量文献资料之后,经综合分

析而写成的某一专题的学术论文。

–综述应反映某一学术领域、分支学科或重要专题的最新进展,最新的学术见解和建议,有关问题的新动态、新趋势、新水平、新发展、新原理和新技术。

二、目的和意义

?介绍学科的发展情况,为中医药科研人员提供信息。 ?是科研人员制定科研计划,选题和实验设计的基础。 ?可以培养检索、读书、写作能力,提高科研水平。

三、特点

?专题性强,不求面面具到

论题往往局限在一定范围内，不宜无限制地扩展。

?以第三人称形式叙述

作者从局外角度认识专题，进行综合评述，不可涉入其中，以保持公正性。

?持客观态度

尽量采用原文的观点，或直接引用原文，不把自己的观点强加到所引用的资料上，而是将有关资料的观点、实事、结论、巧妙地贯穿在一起，溶化为一体，来说明专题的研究动态、最新进展及发展展望。

四、内容分类

?动态性综述

写某一阶段的发展情况，特别是研究内容的时间先后顺序，重视该专题发展中的突破性进展。

?成就性综述

写某一专题的新成就、新技术、新进展，重点写有重大成就的学者的实验结果、方法及论文。

?展望性综述

专题今后的发展趋势。 ?争鸣性综述

五、结构

1.题目 2.作者

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3.内容提要,关键词 4.前言:

200字左右,文字精练,概括全文核心内容，明确有关概念，限定内容和范围，说明写作目的。扼要介绍有关问题的历史、现状、趋势和争鸣焦点。

?提出深入研究的意义与可行性。

5.正文

文章的核心与基础，要突出主题思想。

可分成若干问题或段落，层次由浅入深，由远及近，以论点带论据，不回避矛盾的论点。

6.总结

总结主要论点和论据，进一步得出结论。 7.参考文献 –形式:

?期刊: 作者.题目.刊名.年份;卷号(期号):页数.

?书籍: 作者.书名.版次.出版地:出版单位,出版年份:页数.

六、写作步骤

1.确定题目

2.搜集文献—检索 3.阅读文献

有计划阅读，先浏览摘要或总结，决定取舍。对符合要求者，先粗读一遍，有用的部分精读并作笔记，正确理会原文的叙述，将作者姓名、题目、刊载期刊名称、卷、期、页、和年份详细记录。

边读边思考、分析、对比。 4.制定、修改提纲

经阅读与思考，形成写作思路，制定写作提纲。 5.再次查阅文献 补漏 6.正式写作

胸有成竹后，下笔写作，一气呵成，不理细节。 7.修改---反复修改

七、注意事项

?原文要通读,不间接引用。 ?不要写成文献汇编或流水账。 ?引用文献要恰当。 ?避免错误(序号,人名)

?多修改,力求简明扼要,避免枯燥无味。

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第八篇 科研设计

一、概论

?定义:根据专业与统计学知识,针对每个实验而制定的合理安排与实施计划方案。 ?基本原理:科研的基本目的就是观察被试因素施加于受试对象而发生的反应,然后

根据反应的性质与大小判断它的作用或效果。 ? T+C=Et+Ec

–T为被试因素,C为非被试因素,Et为T引起的效果,Ec为C引起的效果。 –科研设计的基本任务就是设法使被试因素(T)引起的效应(Et)单独显示出来。 3.内容

科研设计又叫实验设计，其内容包括专业实验设计和统计学实验设计。

专业实验设计 统计实验设计

要求：运用专业知识进行设计 运用统计学知识进行设计 内容：选题、实验、方法、材料 选定设计方案，收集资料， 设备、环境和指标选择 确定统计方法、分析方法等 方向：探索实验观察结果的适用 探讨实验结果的可重复性和 性和独创性 高效率性

目的：回答和解决科研课题，验证 减少和排除误差，保证样本的

假说，保证科研成果的先进性 代表性和可靠性，提高效率，保证结果的

精确性、可靠性和可重复性

三个要素、五个原则

?三个要素:

处理因素,受试对象,效果反应。

?五个原则:

重复，对照,随机，盲法,均衡。

处理因素：

?定义:某种特定因素(生物,理化,心理,社会)或机体本身内环境因素对机体产生影

响,我们探讨这些因素对机体的影响,那么,这些因素称为实验处理因素。 关于处理因素

?1、寻找与确定处理因素

一般对药物作用、疗法疗效，处理因素较易确定。

病因探索、防治措施的效果、未知因素的发现需寻找与确定处理因素。

?2、确定处理因素的水平

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量的概念，包括浓度、强度、次级等。

?3、考虑多因素的相互作用

如存在二种以上的因素，要考虑多因素的相互作用，协同或拮抗。 病因探索也要考虑多因素相互作用。

如：克山病病因研究

患区水 +患区粮 -----Y1 非患区水+患区粮 -----Y2 患区水 +非患区粮-----Y3 非患区水+非患区粮-----Y4

Y1-Y2=Y5为患区水的作用；Y1-Y3=Y6为患区粮的作用； Y1-Y4=Y7为患区粮水的交互作用； Y7-Y5-Y6为患区水粮的协同或拮抗作用。

?4、因素强度与受试对象结合

因素的强度如剂量、浓度、温度要结合受试对象的敏感性、耐受性考虑强弱、蓄积、间隔时间等。

?5、处理因素标准化

标准物质（化学物质、道地中药、标准炮制） 标准给量 标准的时间

手术、手法熟练，个性差异小。

?6、处理因素的实施

保证处理因素能够实施 注意动物拒食

患者依从性不佳或自备药物。 受试对象：

?定义:是接受实验的人或动物或菌种、菌群等。

1.科研目的与受试对象 科研目的决定受试对象

2.受试对象的条件

?①必须对处理(被试)因素敏感 动脉粥样硬化---家兔 过敏反应-----豚鼠 遗传----果蝇 ?②反应必须稳定

有量--效关系，效果易于积累。

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?如：高血压病，一期不宜作为研究对象；二期可以。 ?患者不宜作为研究对象的情况：

并发症；危重状态；各种疗法无效；不能配合者。

3.受试对象标准化

患者：诊断标准；纳入标准；排除标准。 动物：标准物种及生理、病理状态。 细胞、菌种：标准。

4.受试对象数量计数方法

5.受试对象的集中性与代表性

力求一致，减少个体差异----集中性。 纯化对象，考虑构成的均衡性—代表性。

效果反应：

?定义:

处理因素作用于受试对象所产生的反应或效应,称效果反应。效果反应一般通过指标来反映。

?关于指标的一些要求:

1.指标的关联性----必须扣题

2.明确指标的性质、种类、数目与条件 计数、计量；主观、客观 数目适当；条件严格掌握。 3.指标客观化 主观指标客观化 4.指标标准化

观察、操作、时间记录---标准。 5.灵敏、精确、特异

灵敏----迅速反应变化，用不同样品校正。

精确----现象与本质数量相应，用同一样品校正。 特异----无关因素干扰少。

重 复：

?重现性:在同样条件下,能重复显示同样或类似实验结果的性质。 ?重复数:为使实验结论可靠,受试对象(样本)必须达到足够的数量。

重复的目的

–①使均数与差值逼真

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–②使实验误差(标准误)确定合理 –③使统计判断正确 –④排除偶然因素的干扰

决定重复数的因素

–①组间均数差值或百分率差值的大小 –②标准差的大小 –③反应指标的性质 –④显著性检验的要求 –⑤实验结果的可能性 –⑥实验设计类型

重复数的估计方法： ?经验法 ?临床实验

–难治性疾病:5-10例 –危重病症:30-50例 –一般性疾病:100-500例

–血清流行病学调查:300-600例 –一般流行病学调查:1000例以上 ?动物实验

–犬、猫等大型动物：5-20只 –兔、豚鼠等中型动物：10-20只 –大、小鼠等小型动物：15-30只

计算和查表法：

?两样本率比较实验的样本数

–

n=[(p1*q1+p2*q2)/(p1-p2)2 ]*(zα+zβ)2 –n为样本数

–p1、p2分别为两样本率的估计值 –q1=(1-p1),q2=1-p2)

–zα、zβ为正态分布曲线下面积的相应正Z值和负Z值

举 例

?两种中成药治疗乙肝病毒携带者HBsAg转阴率分别为50%、30%，拟取α=0.05、1-β(把握度)=0.9,问正式实验时每组所需病例数(双侧实验)。

?P1=0.5,p2=0.3,q1=1-0.5=0.5,q2=1-0.3=0.7,查表: zα=1.96, β=0.10, zβ=1.28

n=[(0.5*0.5)+(0.3*0.7)]*(1.96+1.28)2==121

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zα、zβ值表

----------------------------------- zα

α、β ------------- zβ 单侧 双侧

----------------------------------- 1% 2.32 2.58 2.32 5% 1.65 1.96 1.65 10% 1.28 1.65 1.28 20% 0.84 1.28 0.85 -----------------------------------

以计量资料为指标的实验样本数估计

?配对实验

n=(S/D)2 *(zα+zβ)2

S为标准差的估计值，D为差值的估计值

举 例

预实验某中成药治疗再生障碍性贫血可升红细胞2g/dl, s/D约2.75,拟取α=0.05、β=0.05,正式实验需多少例患者?

s/D=2.75, zα=1.65,zβ=1.65 n=2.752× (1.65+1.65)2=83

? 两组成组比较实验的样本数

n=2*(S/D)2 × (zα+zβ)2 +0.25× (zα)2

S为两组合并的估计值,D两组均数的差值(X1-X2) 举 例

预实验可知升血散治疗白细胞减少症可升高白细胞2000个/微升,对照药黄芪为1000个/微升,标准差为1800个/微升,拟取α=0.05(双侧)、β=0.10,问正式实验时各组例数?

S=1800.D=2000-1000=1000, zα=1.96 zβ=1.28 n=2*(1800/1000)2*(1.96+1.28)2+0.25*1.962=69

? 随机区组比较样本数

n=2*(Mse/D2 )*(Q+zβ) Mse为误差的均方 D为组间差值

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一般取β=0.05,zβ=1.65.

Q为两组均数在P=0.05时应为标准差的倍数,此外,可查Q值表

Q 值 表(α=0.05)

---------------------------------------------------------- 组数 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ---------------------------------------------------------- Q值 3.4 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 -----------------------------------------------------------

举 例

四种中成药降低血清转氨酶预实验得知误差均方为30单位/dl,组间差值8单位/dl, 取α=β=0.05.

Mse=30,D=8,查表Q=3.8, zβ=1.65 n=(30/82)*(3.8+1.65)2==28

实验组与对照组样本数的设置

t=ㄧX1-X2ㄧ/√Sc× (n1+n2)/(n1*n2)

n1=n2时检验效率最高

对 照：

?对照原则就是“齐同对比”原则,即除被试因素外,实验组与对照组其他条件尽

量相同。

1.对照的必要性 ?自然环境无法控制 ?疾病本身可以自愈 ?疾病存在波动性

?新出现的疾病，自然病程未确定。 ?有些疾病与休息、营养有关 ?心理影响

?治疗措施的不良反应和并发症

需要对照来抵消以上因素的影响。

2.对照的形式

?按时间 –同期对照

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–历史对照 ?按对照物 –空白对照 –实验对照 –标准对照 –参考值对照

按对照方式

?配对对照 ?交叉对照 ?相互对照 ?潜在对照

3.对照的选择

?根据实验目的选择对照形式

目的在于排除干扰

如：复方丹参方的疗效判定—与标准药物对照—硝酸甘油 注射剂疗效----与其他剂型对照 与速效救心丸比较----相互对照

?保证对照的可比性

均衡性是可比性的基础，保证均衡

?力求对照完善

随 机：

?1.目的

保证组间的齐同性,减少抽样误差

保证统计处理结果有显著性,随机是数理统计的先决条件 2.方 法

?简单法

–占阄,抽签,掷硬币等 ?随机表法 –二组样本分配 –多组样本分配

二组样本分配练习

?总数(N=)20,每组(n=)10

35

?任选随机数字表一行或一列,如第2--4列,去除大于N的数字,结果为

17 17 17 20 6 8 13 9 13 8 6 8 15 2 17 18 6 12 3 4 10 7

?根据编号依次对应随机数字,奇数为一组,偶数为另一组,如果其中一组已满,停止,余下的样本归另一组.

?结果:第4、5、6、10、11、12、14、16、17、18号归乙组，其余归甲组。

多组样本分配

?用总样本数N处随机数字表的任意一行或一列,余数为1—n(n为每组样本数)时归入第1组,余数为(n+1)--2n时归入第2组,余数为(2n+1)--3n时归入第3组,??余数为?—N时归入最后1组.

?各组例数不等时,仿此法均衡.

?如:将15名患者分为3组,N为15,n=15/3=5

?从随机数字表第16行第6个数字开始,以15处随机数字.得:

15例分3组的分配示例

------------------------------------------------------------------------ 病人编号 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 随机数字 33 35 72 67 47 77 34 55 45 70 08 18 27 38 90 15除后余数 3 5 12 7 2 2 4 10 15 10 8 3 12 8 15 初步分组 a a c b a a a b c b b a c b c

------------------------------------------------------------------------

?a组为第1、2、5、6、7、12号病人，6例，b组5例，c组4例

?用a组总例数6除下一个随机数字16余4，将a组第4例病人转至c组，各组均衡。

?随机排列表法 ?计算器法

–两组：按INV或 SHIFT RAN键，数字〉=0.500者归依一组,<0.500者归另一组. –多组:参见程序型计算器说明书

?计算机法

–各种统计软件均有随机方法

3.随机性检验

?当Z或U值<1.96,P>0.05时,是随机的. ?当Z或U值>1.96,P<0.05时,不是随机的.

盲 法：

?1.正确地选择对照物

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?2.双盲设计的确定 ?3.单盲设计的选择 ?4.非盲设计

均 衡：

?1.均衡与分层

–分层是增强均衡性的手段 ?2.分层的依据

–按主要影响因素分层,次要影响因素用随机来处理 ?3.均衡性检验 举 例

?中、西药治疗白血病对照实验已有17例分层情况(预定20例) ?----------------------------------------------- ? 性别 年龄 病 情 病 程 ? ------------------------------------ ? 男 女 中 青 轻 中 重 <=1年 >1年 ?----------------------------------------------- ?中药组 4 5 6 3 4 3 2 5 4 ?西药组 5 3 4 4 2 3 3 3 5 ?组差 1 2 2 1 2 0 1 2 1 ?-----------------------------------------------

?总组差=12,如来1男青年,病情重,病程1.5年,将其分入西药组,则总组差增至16,分入中药组则使之降为8.

医学科研设计的注意事项： ?1.合理地选择对照 ?2.正确执行盲法 ?3.适量安排重复 ?4.切实做到随机 ?5.认真搞好分层

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第九篇 常用实验设计方法

一、配对设计

?先将条件相同或相似的受试对象配成对子,而后按随机原则给于每对中的个体施

以不同的处理。

1.自身对照设计 –自身前后对照 –自身左右对照

2.异体配对对照

二、交叉(配对)设计

?组别 第1次实验 第2次实验 ?第一组 观察组 对照组

?第二组 对照组 观察组

?病情相对稳定

?实验间隔为药物代谢的6—8个半衰期

三、完全随机设计

四、随机区组设计

五、拉丁方设计

?三种疗法(甲、乙、丙）治疗某病实验设计

?---------------------------------------------------------- ?年龄 老年 中年 青年

?---------------------------------------------------------- ?急性 A B C ?亚急性 B C A ?慢性 C A B

?----------------------------------------------------------

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不完全拉丁方设计（乔敦方）

三种药物（甲、乙、丙）；每组动物给药二次

------------------------------------------------------------

分组 1组 2组 3组

------------------------------------------------------------- 第1次给药 A B C 第2次给药 B C A

六、正交设计

Lm （Kn ）

L 代表正交 ，m为实验次数 ，K未水平数 ，n为因素数。

L8(23)

------------------------------------------------------------- 因素及水平 次序

------------------------------- A B C

-------------------------------------------------------------

第1次 A1 B1 C1 第2次 A2 B1 C1 第3次 A2 B1 C2 第4次 A2 B2 C1 第5次 A1 B2 C1 第6次 A1 B2 C2 第7次 A1 B1 C2 第8次 A2 B2 C2

-------------------------------------------------------------

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七、析因设计

乙药

----------------------------------------------------------- 用 不用

用 用甲用乙 用甲不用乙 甲药

不用 用乙不用甲 不用甲不用乙

-------------------------------------------------------------

八、序贯设计

序贯图曲线方程求法 ?1.单向质反应试验 –U: Y=a+b*n – L: Y=-a+b*n ?2.单向量反应试验 –U: Y=a*δ+b*n

–L: Y=a*δ+b*δ*n，δ为标准差

? 3.双向质反应实验

–U: Y=a1+b*n M:Y=-a2+b*n

–L: Y=-a1+b*n M':Y=a2-b*n， M、M'为两者差异不显著的界限

? 4.双向量反应试验

–U: Y=a1*δ

+b*n M:Y=a2*δ+b*n

–L: Y=-a1*δ-b*δ*n M':Y=a2*δ-b*δ*n 其 中

?a=log[(1-β)/α]/(log[p1*(1-p0)]/[p0*(1-p1)])

?b=log[(1-p0)/(1-p1)]/(log[p1*(1-p0)]/[p0*(1-p1)])

? p1为接受水平,p0为拒绝水平。

?α为假阳性率水平,β为假阴性率水平,一般α=β=0.05或0.01

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