Current Opin Envir Sustain-Bennet et al. 2015

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Linkingbiodiversity,ecosystemservices,andhumanwell-being:threechallengesfordesigningresearchforsustainability§ElenaMBennett1,WolfgangCramer2,AlpinaBegossi3,4,

′az6,BenisNEgoh7,36,GeorginaCundill5,SandraD?

IlseRGeijzendorffer2,CorneliaBKrug8,SandraLavorel10,

′pez13,14,′n-LoElenaLazos11,LouisLebel12,BertaMart?

PatrickMeyfroidt15,16,HaroldAMooney17,JeanneLNel18,UnaiPascual19,20,21,KarinePayet2,22,

′rezHarguindeguy6,GarryDPeterson23,NataliaPe′le`nePrieur-Richard9,BelindaReyers18,Anne-He

PeterRoebeling24,RalfSeppelt25,26,27,MartinSolan28,PetraTschakert29,TejaTscharntke30,BLTurnerII31,

PeterHVerburg32,ErnestoFViglizzo33,PiranCLWhite34andGuyWoodward35Ecosystemserviceshavebecomeamainstreamconceptfortheexpressionofvaluesassignedbypeopletovarious

functionsofecosystems.Eventhoughtheintroductionoftheconcepthasinitiatedavastamountofresearch,progressinusingthisknowledgeforsustainableresourceuseremainsinsuf?cient.Weseeaneedtobroadenthescopeofresearchtoanswerthreekeyquestionsthatwebelievewillimproveincorporationofecosystemserviceresearchintodecision-makingforthesustainableuseofnaturalresourcestoimprovehumanwell-being:(i)howareecosystemservicesco-producedbysocial–ecologicalsystems,(ii)whobene?tsfromtheprovisionofecosystemservices,and(iii)whatarethebestpracticesforthegovernanceofecosystemservices?Here,wepresentthesekeyquestions,therationalebehindthem,andtheirrelatedscienti?cchallengesinagloballycoordinatedresearchprogrammeaimedtowardsimprovingsustainableecosystemmanagement.Thesequestionswillframethe

activitiesofecoSERVICES,formerlyaDIVERSITASprojectandnowaprojectofFutureEarth,initsroleasaplatformtofosterglobalcoordinationofmultidisciplinarysustainabilitysciencethroughthelensofecosystemservices.

4Addresses1DepartmentofNaturalResourceSciencesandMcGillSchoolof

Environment,McGillUniversity-MacdonaldCampus,21,111LakeshoreRoad,St.Anne-de-Bellevue,Quebec,CanadaH9X3V92′diterrane′endeBiodiversite′etd’EcologiemarineetInstitutMe

′,CNRS,IRD,Avignoncontinentale(IMBE),AixMarseilleUniversite

′,Technopo?leArbois-Me′diterrane′eBa?t.Villemin–BP80,Universite

F-13545Aix-en-Provencecedex04,France3UNICAMP(CAPESCA/NEPA),Campinas13083-852,SP,Brazil

′sGraduac?oFisheriesandFoodInstitute(FIFO),andProgramadePo?a

emEcossistemasCosteiroseMarinhos(ECOMAR),Universidade

′lia(UNISANTA),Santos11045-040,SP,BrazilSantaCec?

5DepartmentofEnvironmentalScience,RhodesUniversity,Grahamstown6140,SouthAfrica6′aVegetal,(IMBIV-CONICET)andInstitutoMultidisciplinariodeBiolog?

′rdoba,Casilla24deCorreo495,FCEFyN,UniversidadNacionaldeCo

′rdoba,Argentina5000Co

7EuropeanCommission–JointResearchCentre,ViaE.Fermi,2749,I-21027Ispra(VA),Italy8′matiqueetbioDISCOVERYof?ce,Laboratoired’Ecologie,Syste

?timent362,Universite′Paris-Sud11,91405OrsayEvolution(ESE),Ba

Cedex,France9′umNationald’HistoireNaturelle(MNHN),DIVERSITAS,c/oMuse

57RueCuvier–CP41,F-75231ParisCedex05,France10′cologieAlpine(LECA),CNRS–Universite′GrenobleLaboratoired’E

Alpes,BP53,38041GrenobleCedex9,France11′nomaInstitutodeInvestigacionesSociales,UniversidadNacionalAuto

′xico,Cd.Universitaria,04510Coyoaca′n,Me′xico,D.F.,MexicodeMe12UnitforSocialandEnvironmentalResearch,FacultyofSocialScience,ChiangMaiUniversity,ChiangMai50200,Thailand13DepartmentofGeosciencesandNaturalResourceManagement,

UniversityofCopenhagen,Rolighedsvej23,1958FrederiksbergC,Denmark14Social-ecologicalSystemsLaboratory,AutonomousUniversityofMadrid,Madrid28049,Spain15GeorgesLemaitreEarthandClimateResearchCentre,EarthandLife

′CatholiquedeLouvain,1348Louvain-La-Neuve,Institute,Universite

Belgium16FondsdelaRechercheScienti?queF.R.S.–FNRS,1000Brussels,Belgium17DepartmentofBiology,StanfordUniversity,Stanford,CA94305,USA18CouncilforScienti?candIndustrialResearch(CSIR),POBox320,Stellenbosch7599,SouthAfrica19BasqueCentreforClimateChange(BC3),AlamedaUrquijo4–4a,48008Bilbao,Spain

§Thewritingteamforthisarticlewasco-ledbyElenaBennettandWolfgangCramer.

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Biodiversity,ecosystemservicesandhumanwell-beingBennettetal.77

20′azdeHaro3,IkerbasqueBasqueFoundationforScience,MariaD?

48013Bilbao,Spain

21DepartmentofLandEconomy,UniversityofCambridge,Cambridge,UnitedKingdom22?leArbois-Me′diterrane′e,ecoSERVICESof?ce,c/oIMBE,Technopo

F-13545Aix-en-Provencecedex04,France23StockholmResilienceCentre,StockholmUniversity,Stockholm10691,Sweden24CESAM–DepartmentofEnvironmentandPlanning,Universityof

′riodeSantiago,3810-193Aveiro,PortugalAveiro,CampusUniversita

25DepartmentofComputationalLandscapeEcology,UFZ–HelmholtzCentreforEnvironmentalResearch,04318Leipzig,Germany26GermanCentreforIntegrativeBiodiversityResearch(iDiv),04103Leipzig,Germany27InstituteofGeoscience&Geography,Martin-Luther-UniversityHalle-Wittenberg,06099Halle(Saale),Germany28OceanandEarthScience,NationalOceanographyCentre,UniversityofSouthampton,WaterfrontCampus,EuropeanWay,SouthamptonSO143ZH,UnitedKingdom29DepartmentofGeography,EarthandEnvironmentalSystemsInstitute(EESI),322WalkerBuilding,PennsylvaniaStateUniversity,UniversityPark,PA16802,USA30¨ttingen,Georg-August-University,Grisebachstr.6,D-37077Go

Germany31SchoolofGeographicalSciencesandUrbanPlanning&SchoolofSustainability,ArizonaStateUniversity,Tempe,AZ,USA32FacultyofEarthandLifeSciences,VUUniversityAmsterdam,DeBoelelaan1087,1081HVAmsterdam,TheNetherlands33INTACentroRegionalLaPampa-CONICET,Environmental

ManagementProgram,Av.Spinetto785,6300-SantaRosa,LaPampa,Argentina34EnvironmentDepartment,UniversityofYork,YorkYO105DD,UnitedKingdom35DepartmentofLifeSciences,ImperialCollegeLondon,SilwoodParkCampus,BuckhurstRoad,Ascot,BerkshireSL57PY,UnitedKingdom

servicesthatbene?tsociety[1??].Severalresearchandassessmentapproacheshavebeenproposedtobetterunderstandthepotentialoftheecosystemservicecon-cepttoimprovemanagementofecosystemsforhumanwell-being[e.g.,2,3??,4??,5,6].Theseframeworksmostlybuildontheprinciplesofsustainabledevelopmentandincludeaspirationalgoalstoenhancebothecosystemfunctioningandhumanwell-being.Yet,despiteexten-siveworkonecosystemservicesinrecentdecades,ourunderstandingoftheirecologicalfoundation,theirimpactsonhumanwell-being,andourknowledgeabouthowtogoverntheirbene?tsremainsinsuf?cient[7–9].

Thereareseveralexplanationsforthesegaps.First,thevastamountofknowledgeaboutecosystemservicesisfragmentedintomanydisciplinarystudies,mostlyinthenaturalsciencesandeconomics,makingitdif?culttosynthesizeit[10].Also,mostpublicationsaboutecosys-temservicesareconceptual(i.e.,notincludingempiricalmeasurementsofecosystemservices[11])orcoveronlyoneaspectoftheinteractionbetweenecosystemsandpeople[12].Toadvance,weneedtostrengthenthesciencebehindtheproduction,distribution,andgover-nanceofecosystemservicesandthebene?tstheyprovide[13].Inthispaper,wedescribethreekeygapsinourunderstandingofecosystemservices,andpresentare-searchstrategytojointlyaddressthesegaps.

Correspondingauthor:Cramer,Wolfgang(wolfgang.cramer@imbe.fr)

36Currentaddress:SchoolofAgricultural,EarthandEnvironmentalSciences,UniversityofKwaZulu-Natal,PrivateBagX01,Scottsville3209,SouthAfrica.

CurrentOpinioninEnvironmentalSustainability2015,14:76–85

ThisreviewcomesfromathemedissueonOpenissue

EditedbyEduardoSBrondizio,RikLeemansandWilliamDSolecki

Received22December2014;Accepted27March2015

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2015.03.0071877-3435/#2015ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved.

Introduction

Theconsequencesofanthropogenicenvironmentalchange,thefundamentalneedtoimprovethewell-beingofpeoplearoundtheworld,andthedesiretoconservebiodiversityattheplanetaryscaletogetherrequiremorefocusedattentiononhowecosystemscanbemanagedtosustainably,ef?ciently,andequitablyproduceecosystem

Althoughweknowthattheproductionofecosystemservicesisaresultoftheinterplaybetweensocialandecologicalsystems[14??],theprecisecombinationsofsocialandecologicalcontributionsrequiredtoproduceservices,andhowthesecombinationsaffecttheresil-ienceandsustainabilityoftheprovisionofservices,remainsunclear.Forexample,agriculturalproductionderivesfrompropertiesandfunctionsoftheecologicalsystem,suchassoilqualityandnutrientcycling,aswellasfromhumaninterventions,suchasploughingandharvesting.However,theextenttowhichhumanma-nipulationofecosystemsaltersecologicalfunctionsinwaysthatchangethesustainablesupplyofservicesremainsuncertain[10,15??].Differencesintheroleandbalanceofecologicalandsocialcomponentsinthesupplyofservicesarelikelytoleadtocontrastingemergentsystempropertiesorunexpectedeffectsonlong-termsustainabilityofservicesupply[16].Forexample,asysteminwhichwateriscleanedthroughecologicalprocesses,suchasthoseoccurringinreten-tionponds,islikelytohavedifferentpropertiesfromoneinwhichwateriscleanedthroughtheuseof?lteringtechnology.Eachofthesesystemsmightbemoreorlessresilienttodifferentperturbationsormoreorlesssus-tainableoverthelongrununderdifferentconditions.Understandinghowalteringthemixofecologicalandsocialcontributionstoservicesaffectslong-termsus-tainability,isakeystepinimprovingmanagementofecosystemsandtheirservices.

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Second,wedonotyetunderstandenoughaboutthedriversofecosystemservicedistribution,preferencesoraccessacrossstakeholders,northespeci?csofhowser-vicesimpacthumanwell-being[17].Wehavetoolittleempiricalunderstandingaboutthediversityofstake-holders,theirmotivationsandpreferencesforvariousecosystemservices,andfurthermore,understandrelative-lylittleaboutthepotentialsocialcon?ictsandinequitiesarisingfromtheaccesstospeci?cecosystemservicesbydifferentindividualsandgroups.Withoutthisknowledge,evenifweunderstoodhowsocialandecologicalsystemsinteracttoproduceecosystemservices,wewouldnotunderstandhowvaryingtheamountofservicesprovidedislikelytoaffectthewell-beingofvariousstakeholdergroups.

Box1BoxonecoSERVICES

Finally,knowledgeabouthowgovernancein?uencesthesustainability,ef?ciencyandequitabilityofecosystemservicesupplyremainsscant[18??];andthereareveryfewinvestigationsoftheeffectivenessofecosystemser-vice-basedpoliciesrelativetootherinterventions[19].Issuessuchashowandwhenexistinggovernancestruc-turespreventorenhancesustainable,equitable,andef?cient?owsofbene?ts,andhowwetransformoutofdeeplyentrenchedsystemsofinequityandnon-sustain-ableusetofundamentallynewsystemsofgovernance,remaininadequatelyaddressed[20??].

In2004,DIVERSITAS—theinternationalprogrammeofbiodiversityscience(www.diversitas-international.org)—establisheditseco-SERVICESprojecttobridgethebroadlyrecognizeddifficultiesofcommunicationandengagementontheenvironmentandtoaddresskeychallengesbyfosteringinternationalcollaborativeresearchonbiodiversity,ecosystemfunctioningandecosystemservices[81].Between2005and2011,ecoSERVICESbroughttogethermulti-disciplinarygroupsinecologyandeconomicstoresearchthe

ecologicalprocessesunderlyingthesupplyofecosystemservicesandtoplaceaneconomicvalueontheseservices.Thegroupmadeanumberofwidelyrecognizedkeycontributionsinscience[e.g.,82–84].ActiveinvolvementofDIVERSITASscientistsinscience-policyactivitiesledtothedevelopmentofcrucialpolicyrelatedtotheimpactsofbiodiversitychangeonecosystemfunctioningand

services(mostnotablythetenthmeetingoftheConferenceofthePartiestotheConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD-COP10)[85]andpolicybriefsfortheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP)[e.g.,86,87]andfortheEarthSummitRio+20[88].

Acrucialfollow-ontotheseachievementsistheintegrationof

ecoSERVICESwithinFutureEarth,a10-yearinternationalscientificprogrammeonglobalsustainability(www.futureearth.org).FutureEarthemergedinresponsetocallsfromtheScienceandTechnologyAllianceforGlobalSustainability,includingtheInternationalCouncilforScience(ICSU),theInternationalSocialScienceCouncil(ISSC),researchfundingagencies,andpolicybodies(UNESCO,UNEP,WMO)foramajorglobalscientificinitiativethatstrengthenstheengagementbetweenpolicy,society,andscienceonthequestionsposedbytheurgentchallengesofsustainabledevelopment[76].FutureEarthisbuiltonthelegacyofthefourglobalenvironmentalchangeprogrammes,DIVERSITAS,IGBP,IHDPandWCRP.

Thesegapsinourunderstandinglimitthecapacityofecosystemserviceresearchtoinformpolicyandmanage-ment[3??,21–23].Theauthors,partoftheecoSERVICEScommunity(whichisitselfaprojectoftheDIVERSITASandFutureEarthglobalchangeprogrammes)aimtohelpguidetheagendaofnaturalandsocialscienceinapolicycontexttoaddresscrucialknowledgegapsandimplemen-tationofecosystemservicescienceinpractice(seeBox1).Torespondtothisobjective,theecoSERVICEScommu-nityhasidenti?edthreekeyresearchchallenges,illustrat-edandconceptualizedinFigure1.Here,weexplainthesechallengesinsequenceandthenpresentastrategytoaddressthemajorresearchgaps.Thegoalofthispaperistooutlinethesechallengesfortheecosystemserviceresearchcommunity,and,atthesametime,tohighlighthowtheecoSERVICESprojectaimstoaddressthem.

lessemphasishasbeengiventounderstandingtherela-tiveimportanceandinterplayofbiophysical,ecological,andsocialcomponentsovertimeandspace.Understand-ingofthisinterplaycanbeimprovedviafourkeyresearchavenues:

Challenge1:how,whenandwhereare

ecosystemservicesco-producedbysocial–ecologicalsystems?

Theseeminglysimplenotionthatecosystemservicesareprovidedbyecosystemsquicklybecomesrathercomplexwhenweaskhowthedynamicsofthebiologicalsystem,anditsinteractionwiththehumansphere,translateintotheactualstocksand?owsofservices.Thebodyofecologicalresearchinvestigatinghowstocksand?owsofspeci?cecosystemservicesaremoderatedtendstobeframedwithrespecttoeitherbiophysicalprocessesandcontext,ortheroleofhumaninterventions.Considerably

(1a)Identifytheroleofbiodiversityandotherformsofheterogeneityinmaintainingmultipleecosystemservices:Recentreviewshaveemphasizedthepivotalroleofbiodiversityforecosystemfunctions[e.g.,24–27],butonlyfewstudieshaveinvestigatedthelinkagebetweenbiodiversity,ecosystemfunctionandabroaderrangeofservices[27].Inparticular,weneedto(i)disentangletheeffectsofthedifferentdimensionsofbiodiversity(e.g.,speciesrichness,functionaldiversity,phylogeneticdiver-sity)onservicesatdifferentspatialandtemporalscales;and(ii)morecomprehensivelyaccountforresponsesofecosystemfunctiontomulti-dimensionalanthropogenicenvironmentalforcing.Asdataondifferentdimensionsofbiodiversityandecosystemservicesbecomemorereadilyavailable,weseehighpotentialtosystematicallyinvesti-gatethelinksbetweendifferentindicatorsofbiodiversitytovariousecosystemfunctionsandultimately,todiffer-enttypesofecosystemservicesthemselves.Informationlinkingbiodiversityandecosystemfunctionisrequired,forexamplebysimultaneouslyquantifyingstructuralandfunctionalcomponents,orbysimultaneouslymeasuringfunctionaltraitvariationandecosystem?uxeslikecarbon

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Figure1

Challenge 1. Services

Landscapeheterogeneity

Social-Ecological

System

Pathdependence

Biodiversitycomposition

Challenge 3. Governance

Institutions

Ecosystemservices

Socio-technicalmodification

Transformative

pathways

Decision

support

Challenge 2. Benefits

Use andbenefits

StakeholdervaluesSpatialpatternTemporalpattern

Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability

Thisfiguredepictstheconceptualframeworkusedtostructurethispaper.ItwillalsoserveastheconceptualframeworkoftheecoSERVICESproject.Itshowsthethreechallengestoimprovingourunderstandingandmanagementofecosystemservices:(1)Understandinghowservicesareproducedbysocial–ecologicalsystems,(2)understandinghowbenefitsaredistributedamongusers,and(3)understandinghowgovernanceactsasaninterfacebetweentheproductionofservicesandbenefitsreceivedbythosewhousethem.Ecosystemservicesaregeneratedbysocial–ecologicalsystems,inwhichfourcomponents(landscapeheterogeneity,biodiversity,socio-technicalmodification,andpathdependence)playakeyrole.Theservicesthemselvesaredistributedtopeopletouse,andthisuseisdrivenbystakeholdervaluesaswellasbythetemporalandspatialpatternsofbothpeopleandservices.Governance,throughitsinstitutions,iswhatdeterminestherelationshipbetweenservicesandtheiruse.

sequestrationornutrientcycling[28,29].Combiningempiricalsurveyapproacheswithmodelinganddirectexperimentalmanipulationsthenallowsscientiststomovefrominferencetoidentifyingmechanisms.

optimallysustaindesiredbundlesofecosystemservicesovertime[33,34].

(1b)Understandtheeffectoflandscapeandseascapeheterogeneityonecosystemservicesupply:Speciesmove-mentandbehaviorcanchangeinresponsetolocalizedresourceheterogeneityandsmall-scalevariationsinhabi-tatstructureandthatcan,inturn,in?uenceecosystemfunctioningandtheprovisionofecosystemservices[30,31].Bythesametoken,westilllackacomprehensiveassessmentlinkinglandscapeheterogeneitytothesupplyofmultipleecosystemservicesacrossterrestrial,freshwater,andmarinesystems.Determininghowtherela-tionshipbetweenbiodiversityandecosystemservicesupplycouldbestbeconservedwithinandamongland-scapes,takingintoaccountecologicalcontinuaandap-propriatespatio-temporalscales[32],willallowustobetterpredictandmitigatechangestothemagnitudeand?owofservices.Anotherchallengeconsistsoftestinghowinnovativelandsystems,spatialplanning,andpolicycanbeusedtoensurelandscapecon?gurationsthatmore

(1c)Assesstheroleofpath-dependenceandlegacyeffectsinthesupplyofmultipleecosystemservices:Theinter-actionsofecosystemservicesoverspaceandtimemaybelinearornon-linear,andmaycontainunexpectedthresh-oldeffects[16,35].Theremayalsobeimportantcross-scaleeffects,suchthatsomelocalorregionalchangescancascadeuptoaffectglobalscaleprocessesandthresholds[36].Ecosystemservicesarethemselvesthemanifesta-tionofcomplexinteractionsbetweenbiophysicalcontext,ecologicalprocesses,andhumaninterventions[37].Suchinteractionsatonepointintimecantriggerself-reinfor-cingsequencesandin?uencefuturetrajectoriesofeco-systemservices,potentiallyconstrainingoptionsfortheirsupplyinthefuture.Forinstance,decisionstoprioritizefoodproductiontodaymayconstrainourabilitytoprovidecleanwaterinthefutureifexcessnutrientsaccumulatedinthesoil,therebyincreasingtheiravailabilityforpoten-tialfuturerunoffthatcouldeutrophyaquaticsystems.Approachestoexplorepath-dependenceshouldbebasedonlong-termmonitoringofbundlesofecosystemservices

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acrossaseriesofsitesaroundtheworldwithvaryingmixesofservicesupply[e.g.,38].Observationsandhistoricaldatawouldallowquanti?cationofservicesupplyandhumaninterventions,andencourageassess-mentoftemporalvariationsinservicesupplyagainstkeypolicychangesortransformationsinlanduseandlandcovercompositionandcon?gurationovertime.

(1d)Understandthefunctionofsocialsystemsinecosys-temservicesupply:HumaninterventioninecosystemshasbeenthefundamentalfactordrivingthesupplyanddistributionofecosystemservicesintheAnthropocene[2].Peopleconsciouslyandunconsciouslyprotect,con-serve,use,contest,alter,exploit,destroy,change,andrehabilitateecosystems,fortheirownorsomebodyelse’sbene?t,withimplicationsforecosystemfunctionsandservices.Forinstance,withoutploughingandadditionoffertilizers,agriculturalproductionwouldbefarlowerthanitcurrentlyisinmostindustrializednations.Althoughsomeclaimthattherearelimitstotheroleofknowledgesystemsandtechnologyinthesupplyofservices[10],othershavearguedthatthesefarexceedwhatwecur-rentlyimagine[15??,39].Thereislittlesystematicunder-standingabouttheparticularcombinationsofdifferenthumanactionsandecologicalsystemsthatprovideeco-systemservicessustainably,ef?cientlyandequitablynowandinthefuture.Ourunderstandingoftheimplicationsofsuchinterventionsacrossspatialscalesisequallysparse.Researchaimingatbetterunderstandingtheopportunities,limitationsandimplicationsoftechnologi-calinterventionsinthesupplyofallkindsofservicesthroughtimeinmanydifferentlocationsandsituationswillimproveourabilitytomanageecosystemservicessustainably.

preferencesregardinguseofservices.Ourunderstandingofbene?tdistributionmustthenbeintegratedwithinformationaboutstakeholders’relationshipswithoneanotherandtheprevailingentitlementstructuresthatfosterorhinderequalityinaccessto,andbene?tsfrom,ecosystemservices[42].Togetherwithpeople’smulti-facetedreasonsforusing,valuing,ordisregardingecosys-temservices,thisinformationhelpsusunderstandsocialconstellationsthatcanleadtocollaborationorcon?ictbetweeninterestgroupswithrespecttoecosystemser-vicemanagement[43].Knowledgeaboutbene?tdistri-butionsandthemechanismsbehindthesedistributionscanalsohelpusunderstandthetrade-offsbetweencur-rentversusfutureneedsandrights,andproximateversusgeographicallydistantbene?tsthatareimpliedbydiffer-entmanagementstrategies[44].Understandingthesocialrelationshipsinvolvedindeterminingthe(in)equalityofaccessandbene?tsofdifferentstakeholdergroupstoecosystemservicesisfundamentaltoevaluatingmanage-mentoptions,theirimplicationsforlivelihoodsandwell-being,andtoestablishingacceptabletrade-offsinthecontextofequityandaccesstoecosystemservices[8,18??,45??,46].

Challenge2:whobene?tsfromtheprovisionofecosystemservices?

Identifyingthosewhobene?tfromecosystemservicesandunderstandinghowbene?tsaredistributedamongindividualsandstakeholdergroupsisanacknowledgedprerequisiteforeffectiveecosystemservicesassess-ments[8,40];howeveritremainslargelyunaddressedintheinternationalresearchagenda[41??].Tacklingthisgapmeansseekingtounderstandthediversityofsta-keholders,whytheyusevariousecosystemservices,andthepotentialsocialcon?ictsthatcanarisefromtheuseofspeci?cecosystemservicesbydifferentindividualsandstakeholdergroupsatdifferentspatial-temporalscales.Thiscanbeanalyzedthroughthreekeyresearchareas:

(2a)Understandthediversityofstakeholders,theirben-e?tsfromecosystemservicesandtheirpreferencesforvaluingservices:Understandinghowstakeholdersbene?tfromecosystemservicesentailsidentifyingthestake-holdersinquestionandcharacterizingtheirknowledgetypes,capabilities,rights,andvalue-systems,aswellas

(2b)Identifyspatialpatternsofecosystemservicesuseandbene?t:Trade-offsandsynergiesbetweenthebene?ci-ariesofdifferentecosystemserviceshelpdeterminewinnersandlosersatdifferentspatialscales[47].Whowinsandwholosesgenerallydependsonthelocationofstakeholders,theiraccessrightsandaccesstodecision-making.Additionally,spatialmismatchesbetweenareasofecosystemservicesupplyanddemand—e.g.,alongtherural-urbansupplyanddemandgradient,frommoun-tainstolowlands,orthroughgoodsexportedfromonecountrytoanother[48,49??]—meanthathumanactivitiesanddecisionsinoneareacanhavealargeimpactonsocial–ecologicalsystemsindistantlocations[50,51].Indeed,thecostsofconservationareoftenbornlocallyfornational,regional,orinternationalgain.Similarly,thedisproportionateconsumptionofcertainecosystemser-vices(e.g.,foodorfreshwater)byrichcountriesorurbansocietiesindevelopingcountriesimpliesecosystemdeple-tioninpoorercountries[52].Inaddition,poorpeopleandpoorcountriestendtobethosemostvulnerabletothemultipleeffectsofglobalenvironmentalchange[53].Understandinghowindividuals’consumptionofaparticu-larecosystemserviceinoneplacecanlimittheuseandenjoymentofthisorotherservicesbyotherpeopleelse-where,isthereforeamajorresearchpriority[52].Under-standingtheseinteractionsofcostandbene?trequiresustounderstandhowthespatialscaleofsupplyanddemanddiffersbetweenservicesandstakeholders[54],throughspatiallyexplicitquanti?cationsofecosystemservicesup-plyanddemandusingspatialmodels[55]orpublicpartici-patorygeographicinformationsystems[56].Italsorequirestheidenti?cationofwinnersandlosersatdifferentspatialscalesandindifferentregions[8,57].Althoughstudiesof

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trade-offsandsynergiesinprovisioningservicessuchasfoodandwaterneedtobeexpanded,researchshouldalsobeundertakenoninteractionsamongnon-provisioningservices,whichareseldomaddressed[butsee10].

(2c)Identifytemporaldynamicsofecosystemservicesuseandsupply:Understandinghowpastsocietiesadaptedtoexternaldriversandperturbationstomaintainthe?owofecosystemserviceswithoutadverseconsequencestotheirwell-being,canimproveourunderstandingofhowtodealwithcurrentdriversofchange[1,58].Historicalanalysisisonewaytounderstandthemechanismsbehindinterac-tionsamongecosystemservices[59–61].Additionally,studyinghistoryandtrendsinecosystemservicesupply,canhelpuslearnabouttypicalratesofchangeandtimelagsbetweenchangesinpoliciesorotherdriversandresultantchangesinecosystemservicesupply[62??].Analysisofhistoricalandcurrentdriversofchangeisneededtoidentifykeysocial–ecologicalfeaturesthathelpcopewithperturbations,whilemaintainingadiverseanddesiredsetofecosystemservice?owsforadiversityofbene?ciaries.Futurescenarioscanshowpossibletrendsinecosystemservices,theimpactofnewdriversandincreasedtelecouplingintheglobalsystemandtherelatedimpactsonthewell-beingoffuturegenerations[51,63].

assessmentsaddressoneprovisioningserviceonly.Syn-thesisofthisworkindicatesthattherearenoinstitutionalpanaceasforsustainableecosystemservices;rather,mul-tipleinstitutionsmayachievesustainableresults,craftedbythesocial–environmentalsysteminquestion[67].Theseresultssuggestthatattentiontothe‘institutionalandagentlandscape’isneededinwhichdifferentsocial–ecologicalsystemsareexaminedandcomparedtoidenti-fytheconditionsinwhichdifferentgovernancesystemsyieldrobustresults.Thisrequiresaconcreteunderstand-ingofthevaluesandsocialcapitaloftheagentsinplay,andthebene?tstheypreferandactuallyderivefromtheservices[72??].Addressingthischallengerequiresnovelhybridmethodsthatcancharacterizethestructuralandfunctionaldimensionsofinstitutions(e.g.,propertyrights,formalandinformalgovernancesystems),thepreferencesandcapacitiesofagents,andtheintegrationofbothwiththebiophysicalunderstandingofecosystemservices[73].

Challenge3:whatarethebestpracticesforthegovernanceofecosystemservices?

Broadlyinterpreted,institutionsrefertotheconventions,normsandformallysanctionedrulesofasocietythatfacilitateorhindergovernance,bothformalandinformal[64].Understandingtheseinstitutionsandtheactors,discourses,andpoliticsgeneratingthem,informsassess-mentsofbestpracticesforthemanagementofecosystemservices[65].Althoughmuchattentionhasbeengiventoinstitutionsregardingresourceprocurement-especiallyincommonpropertyregimes[67],andtointernationalaccords[68]-minimalattentionhasbeengiventothefullrangeofecosystemservicesandimplicationsforsustain-ability[69].Overallimprovementinunderstandingthewaysinwhichdifferentinstitutionalstructuresin?uencemoreequitable,sustainable,andef?cient?owsofeco-systemservicesandtheirbene?ts,andhowsocio-politicalprocessespromoteorhindertheemergenceandmainte-nanceofthisgovernanceisrequired,inordertoinformbestpracticesfordecisionmaking.Thisgoal,inturn,requiresimprovementinthetoolsandmethodsusedtoaddresstheformationandmaintenanceofrobustmecha-nismsofgovernance.

(3b)Identifytools,models,andprocessestosupportef?cient,equitable,andsustainabledecision-makingpro-cessesthataccountforfeedbacksincomplexsocial–eco-logicalsystems:Robustmethodsforsystematicassessmentsoftheeffectivenessofinternationalaccords(oneformofgovernance)areunderdevelopment,dem-onstratingthatoutput,outcome,andimpactmustbetreatedasthreedistinctstepsinacausalchain[68].Otherworkdemonstratesthatbalancingtradeoffsamonginfor-mationcredibility,salience,andlegitimacyisessentialforthedevelopmentofgovernancestructuresamongdiversestakeholders[74].Buildingfromtheseandotherworks,attentiontoenhancingtheapplicabilityoftoolsandmethodstoaddressknowledgegeneration(e.g.,assess-mentsandscenariodevelopment),collaborativeandtransformativelearning,androbustinstitutionformationisrequiredtoimprovethemanagementandgovernanceofecosystemservices[43,75].Apromisingresearchareainvolvestheadaptionofcost–bene?tanalysesandpartic-ipatorymulti-criteriaapproachestoaccountfordifferentpreferencesandvaluesamongstakeholders[43].Ade-quatelycapturingandrepresentingthediversityofknowledgesystems,institutionalstructures,governancesystemsandindividualstakeholder’sprioritiesisfunda-mentaltounderstandingthesetrade-offs,andhowtheymightbestbegoverned.

(3a)Characterizehowinstitutionsandagentsin?uencethesupplyanddistributionofecosystemservices:Sub-stantialattentionhasbeengiventotheinstitutionaldimensionsofcommonpropertyregimesandpublicgoods[70],althoughmuchofithasbeenconceptualandgametheoreticinkind[71],andalmostallcasestudy

(3c)Understandthesocio-politicalprocessesthatcreate,supportorconstraintransformativepathwaystowardsequitable,ef?cientandsustainablegovernanceofecosys-temservices:Institutionsandgovernancestructuresaimedatsustainabilityemergefromcomplexpolitical–economicstructuresandprocesses.Improvingourabilitytotransformecosystemservicegovernance—andtoknowunderwhatconditionssuchtransformationisneed-ed—demandsanunderstandingofhowinsightsfrominstitutionalandactoranalyses(3a),andbestpractices

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withvarioustechnicaltoolsandparticipatoryprocesses(3b),functiontoleadtotransformationinvarioussocio-politicalsettings.Giventhattheselinkagescrossspatio-temporalscales,researchisneededatmultiplelevelsofanalysis;frominternationalgovernanceandprevailingeconomicconditionstolocalinstitutionsandsocialconditions,withattentiontoscaleinteractions,includ-inghowpossiblechangesinecosystemservicesgovernancemayfeedbackonotherinstitutionsandlevelsofgovernance[73].Understandingthesedynam-icswillrequireapproachesthatcombineempiricaltoolsandmodelingthatfocusonidentifyingsocialandenvi-ronmentalvalues,experiences,expectations,andre-sponsibilitiesofdifferentactors.Understandinghowtodrawlessonsfromtheprocessesoftransformativechangesinonespeci?ccontext,toapplytoecosystemmanagementinothercontexts,presentsaparticularchallenge[76,77].

Asciencestrategyandbeyond

Wehavelaidoutabroad,andnecessarilytransdisciplin-ary,researchagendaforecosystemservicescienceinthecomingdecade.Beyondcontinuingtoadvanceoursci-ence,whatwillittaketorespondtothethreechallenges?Althoughwepresentedeachchallengeseparately,theyareinterconnected.Thatis,wecannotaddressissuesofgovernancewithoutathoroughunderstandingofhowsocialandecologicalsystemsinteracttoproduceservices.Similarly,wecannotfullygraspquestionsaboutbene?tsdistributionswithoutaclearpictureofinstitutionsandhowtheyimpactserviceprovision,socialrelationships,andbene?tsdistribution.

HowcanaFutureEarthprojectsuchasecoSERVICEScontributetothefurtherdevelopmentandapplicationoftransdisciplinaryandco-designedecosystemservicesci-enceinpracticeandpolicy?BuildingontheDIVERSI-TASlegacy(Box1),weaimtoadvanceresearcheffortsrespondingtoallthreechallengesthroughimprovednet-working,informationexchange,andco-designwithbothfundersandstakeholders.A?rststepwillbethefurtherconceptualelaborationofthechallengesandtasksmen-tionedabove,guidingtransdisciplinaryresearchonecosys-temservicesinthenextdecade.Additionally,thereisaconsiderableamountofscattered,butverygood,ecosys-temservicescienceinexistence.Usingapproachesthatbringmultipleacademicdisciplinesandstakeholdersto-gethertobetterintegratethisinformationintonewknowl-edgeaboutecosystemservices,willadvanceourabilitytomanageecosystemsforecosystemservices.Inparallel,wewilldevelopdeeperinteractionswithscience-policyinter-faces,including,butnotlimitedto,theIntergovernmentalPlatformonBiodiversityandEcosystemServices(IPBES)[14??];inordertoassureco-designofresearchandpolicy.Finally,whiletheurgencyofbettermanagementofnaturalresourcesmaybeself-evidenttosome,bettercommuni-cationisstillessentialformotivatingadvancesinpolicy,aswellasmakeachangetotheimpactofprivateactors’activitiesonthebiophysicalenvironment.

Acknowledgements

Thecoreofthisarticleisbasedonthediscussionsduringaworkshop,heldatICSU,Paris,inNovember2013,withmembersofthenew

ecoSERVICESScientificCommittee,aswellasanumberofadditionalexperts.Wethankallparticipantsforveryconstructiveparticipation,ICSUforhostingtheworkshop,andDIVERSITASforfinancialsupportto

ecoSERVICES.Wealsothanktheeditorsandtwoanonymousreviewersforveryusefulcommentsthathelpedusimprovethepaper.

Withthisinmind,atleasttwokeyimprovementsinthewaywedoscienceareneededtomakeprogresshere.First,moreintegrativecollaborationacrosssocialsciences,naturalsciences,andthehumanitiesisrequiredtoaddressthechallengesimpliedbythefactthatecosys-temservicesaresuppliedanddistributedbycomplexsocial–ecologicalsystems.Thisgoeswellbeyondmulti-disciplinaryperspectivesontheecosystemservicescon-cept,andrecognizestheneedfortrulyintegrated,trans-disciplinaryapproachestostudyinginteractionsbetweensocio-economicandecologicalsystems.Second,thesci-enti?ccommunityworkingonecosystemservicesciencealonecannotprovideafullresponsetoallofthekeyneedsofpolicy-makersanddecision-makers[78].Instead,weneedco-productionofknowledgethroughresearchpro-grammesdesignedincollaborationwithdecision-makersandusersofecosystemservices,toensurethatinterven-tionsandpolicieshaveappropriateimpactandcanoper-ateacrossmultipletemporalandspatialscales.Inthissense,ourknowledgeshouldintegratelocalandtradi-tionalknowledgewithothersourcesofinformation[79],recognizingthediversityofmodesbywhichmultiplestakeholdersandusersinteractwithecologicalsystems[80].

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