二语习得复习资料

Chapter 4

1. Language and the brain

1) 2) 3) 4)

Broca’s area, which is usually associated with the production of language, or language outputs .

Wernicke's area, which is associated with the processing of words that we hear being spoken, or language inputs

Lateralization: language activity is not localized, but core linguistic processes are typically housed in the left hemisphere and is present to some extent even in infancy

Critical Period Hypothesis: children had only a limited number of years during which they could acquire their L1 flawlessly; brain plasticity in childhood would allow other areas of the brain to take over the language functions of the damaged areas, but beyond a certain age, normal language would not be possible.

① How independent are the languages of multilingual speakers?

there are three possibility for how language relate in an individual?s mind ◆ Coordinate bilingualism: refers to parallel linguistic systems, independent of one

another ◆ Compound bilingualism : refers to a fused and unified system

◆ Subordinate bilingualism: refers to one linguistic system accessed through

another

② How are multiple language structures organized in relation to one another in the brain? Are both languages stored in the same areas?

◆ there is considerable variation among speakers. For at least some multilinguals, it

appears that L1 and L2 are stored in somewhat different areas of the brain, but both are predominantly in (probably overlapping) areas of the left hemisphere. However, the right hemisphere might be more involved in L2 than in L1.

③ Does the organization of the brain for L2 in relation to L1 differ with age of acquisition, how it is learned, or level of proficiency?

◆ The answer is probably “yes” to all three, with the strongest body of evidence

showing that age of acquisition influences brain organization for many second language learners

④ Do two or more languages show the same sort of loss or disruption after brain damage? When there is differential impairment or recover, which language recovers first? ◆ Brain damage results in the same or very similar patterns of loss or recovery for both/all

of most multilingual persons’ languages, but many exceptions have been reported. ◆ the last learned language would be the first lost, the next-to-the-last learned the second

to be lost, and so forth, with L1 the last to remain; recovery was speculated to be L1 first.

5)

2. Learning process

1) information processing (IP): are concerned with the mental processes involved in language

learning and use. These include: (1) perception and the input of new information; (2) the formation, the organization, and regulation of internal (mental) representation; (3) retrieval

and output strategies.

2) Information Processing has three stages Stages of Information Processing Input Central processing Output Production Perception Controlled-automatic processing Declarative-procedural knowledge restructuring 3) Controlled processing :

① requires considerable mental “space,” or attentional effort.

② Learners go from controlled to automatic processing with practice. Automatic processing

requires less mental “space” and attentional effort

③ Learning essentially involves development from controlled to automatic processing of

component skills, freeing learners’ controlled processing capacity for new information and higher-order skills

4) Input:◆ must be noticed by the learners before any processing takes place.

◆ heighten learner awareness of input and to structure attention has been a major

thrust in foreign language instructional design and pedagogy, so that successful intake can occur

Output: for SLA is the language that learners produce in speech/sign pr in writing. 5) restructuring:

◆ takes place during central processing makes mental representation more coordinated,

integrated, and efficient. ◆ involves qualitative changes, meaning that L2 development cannot be characterized as a

seamless continuum along which new forms are added to old, but as a partially discontinuous plane along which there is regular systemic reorganization and reformulation

6) U-shaped development: initially correct form, followed by incorrect form, and eventually

correct again 7) Theories regarding order of acquisition : ◆ Multidimensional Model :

①Learners acquire certain grammatical structure in a developmental sequence. ②Developmental sequences reflect how learners overcome processing limitations.

③Language instruction which targets developmental features will be successful only if learners have already mastered the processing operations which are associated with the previous stage of acquisition.

④ Processability Theory: has the aim of determining and explaining the sequences in which processing skills develop in relation to language learning ◆ Competition Model :

① assumes that all linguistic performance involves “mapping” between external form and

internal function. ② learning the system of form-function mapping is basic for L1 acquisition. SLA involves

adjusting the internalized system of mapping that exists in the learner’s L1 to one that is

appropriate for the target language. ③ is accomplished by detecting cues in language input which are associated with a

particular function, and by recognizing what weight to assign each possible cue ④ determinants of cue strength : Task frequency, Contrastive availability, Conflict

reliability P80

8) Connectionist approaches

① Focus on the increasing strength of association between stimuli and response rather than on the inferred abstraction of “rules” or on restructuring. From a connectionist perspective learning essentially is the change in the strength of these connections.

② connectionism approach within SLA is Parallel Distributed Process/ PDP: processing takes place in a network of nodes or units in the brain that are connected by pathways. As learner are exposed to repeated patterns of units in put, they extract regularities in the patterns; probabilistic associations are formed and strengthened. There associations between nodes are called connection strengths or patterns of activation.

3. differences in learners

1) Age children:

□ younger learners achieve ultimately higher level of L2 proficiency

□ children have only a limited number of years during which they can acquire their L1

flawlessly

□ younger learners develop more native-like grammatical intuitions is that they are in a

non-analytic processing mode. □ Younger learners are more successful in informal and naturalistic L2 learning contexts Older:

□ adolescents and adults learn faster in initial stages.

□ Older learners are advantaged by greater learning capacity, including better memory for

vocabulary 2) Sex:

□ female tend to be better L2 learners than males, but this probably primarily a social construct, base on outcomes which reflect cultural and sociopsychological constraints and influence □ Women usually outperform men in verbal fluency.

□ Reason: higher androgen level correlates with better automatized skills 3) Aptitude:

① Phonemic coding ability:

the capacity to process auditory input into segments which can be stored and retrieved. ② Inductive (归纳的) language learning ability and Grammatical sensitivity

account for further processing of the segmented auditory input by the brain to infer structure, identify patterns, make generalizations, recognize the grammatical function of elements, and formulate rules. ③ Associative memory capacity

is concerned with how linguistic items are stored, and with how they are recalled and used in output.

4) Motivation:

① Motivation largely determines the level of effort which learners expend at various stages

in their L2 development, a key to ultimate level of proficiency. ② Components of Motivation : 1) Significant goal and need;2) Desire to attain the goal;3)

Perception that learning L2 is relevant to fulfilling the goal or meeting the need;4) Belief in the likely success or failure of learning L2;5) Value of potential outcomes/rewards ③ Integrative motivation is interest in learning L2 because of a desire to learn about or

associate with the people who use it, or because of an intention to participate in or integrate with the L2-using speech community. Affective factors are dominant. ④ Instrumental motivation means perception of a practical value for learning an L2, such

as increasing occupational opportunities, enhancing prestige and power, accessing scientific and technical information, or passing a course in school. 5） Cognitive style : ⑤ Definition: refers to individuals’ preferred way of information processing and is closely

related to and interacts with personality factors and learning strategies. ⑥ Pairs of traits in cognitive style:

◆Field-dependent vs. field-independent (FD/FI)

? FD are also considered more global and holistic in processing new information; FD

learners are thought to achieve more success in L2 acquisition via highly contextualized interactive communicative experiences because that fits better with their holistic “cognitive style”

? FI are considered more particularistic and analytic and FI learners to profit more from

de-contextualized analytic approaches and formal instruction. ◆Deductive vs. Inductive;

? Deductive (演绎) or top-down processing begins with a prediction or rule and then

applies it to interpret particular instances of input.

? Inductive (归纳) or bottom-up processing begins with examining input to discover some

pattern and then formulates a generalization or rule that accounts for it and that then in turn be applied deductively ◆ Focus on form and on meaning

Exceptionally talented L2 learners possess a cognitive style whereby subjects are able to focus on form (in conjunction with meaning) better than on meaning (only).

◆ Differences in Children and Adults

□ Two options when adapting their existing categories of linguistic structure to adequately

represent the structure of the new language.

First, is extending the existing categories to include new instances from L2: in phonological structure, an L2 sound which is actually slightly different from a similar sound in L1 may be identified as the same as the L1 sound and pronounced with that value, resulting in a foreign accent.

Second, is creating new categories: in phonological structure, this would mean recognizing the slightly different L2 sound as phonologically different, and learning to keep it distinct from the similar (and often functionally equivalent) L1 sound

Adults tend to extend existing categories (not noticing differences)

Children notice differences and tend to create new categories accordingly.

◆ Sensory preference

□ L2 learners have different sensory preference for processing input: visual, auditory,

kinesthetic (movement-oriented), or tactile (touch-oriented) 6） Personality Higher anxiety tends to go with lower levels of success in L2 learning; Low anxiety and high self-confidence increase student motivation to learn and use L2. Introverts generally do better in school extroverts talk more. imaginative, creative, empathetic, and tolerant of ambiguity is advantageous in L2 learning

7） Learning strategies: Meta-cognitive strategy（元认知）: Strategies which attempt to regulate language learning by planning and monitoring.

Cognitive strategy makes use of direct analysis or synthesis of linguistic material Social/affective strategies involve interaction with others.

Chapter 5

1. Communicative competence

1) Communicative competence: basic tenet in the field of sociolinguistics defined as ?what

a speaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community’

2) Language community: a group of people who share knowledge of a common language to

at least some extent.

3) Four aspects of communicative competence:

(1) grammatical competence, (2) Sociolinguistic competence, (3) Discourse competence and (4) Strategic competence

4) FL: usually do so within the context of their own native culture and social structure.

SL: is generally learned and used within the context of a language community which

dominantly includes members who speak it natively; t is needed to participate in that community socially, academically, politically and economically

AL (auxiliary language) : Is learned in a context where it will function for political or

technological purpose, and when its use will generally be limited to these social domains 2. Microsocial factors

1) Variation in learner language: Which variable feature occurs in the production of any one speaker depends largely on the communicative contexts in which it has been learned and is used.

① Three communicative contexts:

◆ Linguistic contexts : Elements of language form and function associated with variable

element.

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