英语语法精讲

现代英语语法

第一部分：引言

《现代英语语法》是由李基安先生编写，全国高等教育自学考试指导委员会指定的全国

高等教育自学考试教材。

关于这门课程的考试要求，可参见该教程第425所附录的《英语语法自学考试大纲》。大纲是方向、目标，广大考生必须仔细了解。

英语语法是关于英语语言结构的理论知识。通过该课程的学习，学员能够比较系统地认识英语从词，句到语篇的构造，从而提高他们应用英语的规范性。

在学习该教材时，学员普遍存在两种倾向：一是，由于该教材都是用英文编写，里面又涉及很多专业术语，许多学员觉得高深、难懂；二是，有些学员认为，自己从学英语开始就在学习英语语法，没有必要在这门功课上花太多的精力，所有的语法书都大同小异，自己稍做准备就能对付过去。

其实，两种看法都失偏颇。现代语法的发展与传统语法已经存在比较明显的差异，例如：传统语法认为，英语有九种（甚至十六种）时态，该教程则采取的是‘a system of two tenses and two aspects‘—-—-—-两时两体体系。另外对phrases, clauses 的概念也有不同的定义。书中提到的一些其他语言现象，如：外位[extraposition], 分隔[discontinuity], 分裂句[cleft sentence]等都是一般语法书所不提及或者阐述不同。该教材也并非高深莫测，毕竟多数语言现象还是我们日常英语学习中所耳濡目染的，只不过我们许多英语学习者没有考究过它们形成的理论根据，来龙去脉而已。

所以，为了使自己的英语更加规范，让自己能用英语更准确、有效地传递信息、表达思想，英语专业的学生还是很有必要把这门课程学好。

现在我们就结合《现代英语语法》教材，近几年英语语法专业考试试题，讲述英语语法考试中考生容易忽略的测试要点或难点。

我们先通过几道语法题来检测你现有的现代语法水平，接着探讨一下该教材的学习方法，最后把教材各章的要点、难点归纳给大家。在整个讲解过程中，我们力争多采用教材里的素材以及往年试题中的一些经典考题，以便学员在学习、归纳语法现象的同时使自己的备考收效最大化。

先测试一下自己的现代语法水平(同时了解一下英语语法考试的题型、结构；每年考试形式基本相同，有些部分稍有调整。为了节省篇幅，这里各部分只选取几个样题)

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The Pre-course Quiz

I、单项选择题（本大题共20小题，每题1分，共20分） Choose the best answer from the choices given: 1. In the end, he __________.

a. got invited b. gets invited c. was invited d. was to be invited

2. Do what I tell you --__________!

a. or else b. or so c. and that d. and do

3. __________ , he managed to remain among the top 5% of his class. a. To work hard as he did b. Working hard as he did c. Work hard as he did d. Worked hard as he did

4._____ there be life on Mars? (p171)

a. May b. Can c. Might d. Ought

5.Stay _____ have dinner with us, will you?(p263) a. to b. or c. and d. here

6.You _____ be shocked at the news.(p168)

a. should well b. must well c. may well d. can well

7. You have to wait a minute, ______? a. haven't you b. do you c. don't you d. shouldn't you

8. Staying in hotel cost ________ renting a room in a dormitory for a week. a. twice as much b. twice as much as c. as much as twice d. twice than

9. I don't think she meant_________ you. (p206)

a. hurt b. to hurt c. hurting d. be hurt

10. ___ I worked hard at school, I ___ this kind of work now. a. Had... wouldn't have done b. Had... wouldn't be doing c. If... wouldn't do d. If... wouldn't be doing

II.多项选择题（本大题共5小题，每题2分，共10分） Fill in the blanks with one of the items given below: a, the, any, some, all

1. __________ of us decides what to take into the future and what to leave behind. That's

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why__________ arrival of the Year 2000 has become such a personal moment.

2. be, is, was, are ,were, will be, shall be, has, have had

a. She is one of these girls who _______ trouble running around.

b. This one of the many houses here which _______ destroyed in the earthquake.

3. seem, seems, me, I, mine

Your politics _____ to be entirely different from _____. (p59)

4. less, less of, than, as, like

Mr. Smith is _____ a politician ______ Mr. Lee. (p237)

III.填空题（本大题共20小题，每题1分，共20分）

Fill in the blank with an appropriate coordinator or subordinator: 1. It was an island __________ name I have forgotten.

2. He carried his luggage all the way home, __________ was actually unnecessary. 3. He soon made it clear __________ he had asked for a meeting. 4. The police arrived, after __________ the situation became calmer.

Fill in the blanks with proper words:

5.I like Australia best _______ all the English-speaking countries.

6.I made a comparison _______ the major English speaking countries.(p251)

IV.改错题（本大题共8小题，每小题1分，共8分） Correct errors in the following sentences:

1. Francis Bacon wrote that reading made a full man.

2. Go and get some fresh air! You were sitting here all morning.

3.The all of Paris welcomed the general. (p79)

4. I've got five brothers, and every of them is quite different from the others.

5. None of my parents are interested in my idea. (p344)

V.改写句子（本大题共14小题，每题2分，共28分） Rewrite the following sentences as required:

1. Combining the sentences into one that contains a relative clause: You sent my son an English-Chinese dictionary. Thank you very much.

2. Combining the sentences into one that contains a relative clause:

Twenty horses were put into the corral. They were to be trained for riding.

3.Combine the sentences into one that contains a relative clause:(p289)

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My boss is a very considerate person. His predecessor was not a considerate person at all.

4.Rewrite the following sentence using whatever cohesive device is appropriate: A: Is John trying to enter Harvard Law School?

B: No, I don't think John is trying to enter Harvard Law School. He hates lawyers.

5. Use discontinuity:

Excessive exposure to violence on TV is more harmful than expected to children.

VI.名词解释（本大题共2小题，每小题2分，共4分） Define the following terms with examples: 1. Non-finite verbs 2. Determiners

VII.简答题（本大题共5小题，每小题2分，共10分） 1. What are inherent adjectives?

2. Can HOW - exclamations be used to highlight the noun? If not, what can HOW - questions highlight?

Key to the pre-course quiz

I. 单项选择题（每小题1分，共20分）

1、a 2、a 3、b 4、b 5、c 6、c 7、c 8、b 9、b 10、b

II. 多项选择填空题（每小题2分，共10分，）

1. Each, the （共2分，一格1分） 2. have, were（共2分，一格1分） 3. seem, mine（共2分，一格1分） 4. less of, than（共2分，一格1分）

III. 填空题（每题1分，共20分） 1. whose 2. which 3. why 4. which 5. among 6.between

IV. 改错题（每小题1分，共8分） Correct errors in the following sentences:

1. Francis Bacon wrote that reading makes a full man.

2. Go and get some fresh air! You have been sitting here all morning.

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3.The whole of Paris welcomed the general.

4. I've got five brothers, and each of them is quite different from the others. 5. Neither of my parents are interested in my idea.

V. 改写句子（每题2分，共28分）

1. Thank you very much for the English-Chinese dictionary you sent my son. 2. Twenty horses that were to be trained for riding were put into the corral. 3. My boss is a very considerate person, which his predecessor was not at all. 4. No, I don't think so. He hates lawyers.

5. Excessive exposure to violence on TV is more harmful to children than expected.

VI. 名词解释（每题2分，共4分）

1. The non-finite verbs are verbs that are not marked for tense or for subject-verb concord.

2. Determiners refer to words which are used in the pre-modification of a noun phrase and which typically precede any adjectives that pre-modify the head word.

VII. 简答题（每小题2分，共10分）

1. Generally speaking, adjectives denoting inherent qualities characterize the referent of the noun. e.g. A big house refers to a house whose size is big.

2. No, they can't. They can highlight the adjectives, adverb or verb.

第二部分：教材的学习与使用

一． 首先，仔细研读教材后面所附录的《高等教育自学考试英语语法自学考试大纲》，做

到学习重点、考试要求了然于心。 二． 由于教材涉及的术语较多，考试时所有的考题均用英文表述，学员必须熟记这些术语。

可参照书后《课程内容与考核目标》所列出的主要概念中英文对照。如：词素（morphemes），词缀法(affixation), 修饰性状语(adjunct) ，评注性状语(disjunct)等。 三． 对于每个概念，术语，都要做到能用简单的英语解释，最好能用书中的定义进行解释。

语法考试中就有一部分要检查考生对概念的理解及记忆。如：（1）Morpheme(p4): A morpheme is the minimal distinctive grammatical unit, and is the lowest unit in grammatical hierarchy. Morphemes are actually abstract elements of analysis. What occurs is an orthographic form in writing termed ―morph‖ which realizes the morpheme.(词素是语法的最小区别性单位,即最低一级的语法单位.词素的语音或拼写法的体现叫形素.词素是抽象的形式成分，在不同的环境中由若干不同的形素来体现) （2）Mass nouns(p57): Those nouns that can not take plural forms are mass nouns, such as butter, cheese, homework music, etc. (没有复数形式的名词叫物质名词)

四． 在理解的基础上，熟记教材上的例句。从以往的试卷分析来看，很多考题就是教材上

的原句或略作变动。例如：在全国2003年4月高等教育自学考试英语语法试题第Ⅱ.

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2) You be patient. (Emphatic effect, or to light a contrast) 3) Do be patient. (To reinforce a command)

4) Be patient, please! (To smooth away abruptness) 5) You be patient, please! (This sentence is incorrect!)

So the following sentences are also commands: 1) Someone take out the rubbish. 2) Anybody help him! 3) Everyone freeze!

二、重要概念

1. Alternative questions: Those questions that suggest two (or more) alternatives and

usually imply that one of them could be true.

2. How-exclamations: Exclamations that are led by the adverb ?how‘. It highlights the

adjective, adverb, or verb in exclamations.

三、典型考题

I. 选择题

1. You have to wait a moment, ______? A. haven't you B. do you C. don't you D. shouldn't you

2. \ A. Yes, she wasn't B. No, she was C. Yes, she was D. She wasn't Key: 1. c 2. c

II.

简答题

1. What are the verbs which transferred negation often occurs with?

What is their shared semantic feature?(转移否定经常与哪些动词同现?它们有什么共同的语义特征?)

The verbs which transferred negation often occurs with are：think，believe，suppose，imagine and expect．They are the verbs that express ―opinion‖．(转移否定经常与think，believe，suppose，imagine和expect等动词连用。这些动词都是表示“意见”的语义。) 2. What are the two major types of exclamations?(感叹句的两大类

型是什么?)

The two major types of exclamations are WHAT—exclamations and HOW-exclamations．The former is followed by a noun phrase；the latter is followed by an adjective or adverb．感叹句分为WHAT- 感叹句和HOW-感叹句。前一种后接名词词组，后者接形容词或副词。

III．完成下列句子

1. You‘d rather we didn‘t go there,_______ 2. I don‘t think he will come,________? 3. They must have lost their way,_____? 4. Let‘s talk about it later,_____?

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5. Everyone is here,________?

Key: 1.hadn‘t you 2. will he 3. mustn‘t/ didn‘t they 4. shall we 5.isn‘t here/aren‘t they

Chapter 3

Noun and Noun Phrase (1):

Noun and Number

(第三章 名词和名词词组(1)：名词和名词的数)

一、 难点、重点

1. The functions of noun phrases: In function, a noun phrase can play

such grammatical roles as subject, object, complement, modifier and even adverbial. 名词词组的功能，可以作主语、宾语、补语、修饰语（a tea table），有些的甚至可以作状语(yesterday, last week)。 2. Noun classes

名词可以以多种方法分类,如具体名词(table, water)与抽象名词 (happiness, hatred),可数名词(table, girl)与不可数名词(water, money),有生物名词(boy, monkey)与无生物名词(table, water)等.但名词 通常按以下方式分类:

名词-----|专有名词Proper nouns

(nouns) |可数名词----------|普通名词(common nouns) (c. nouns) |物质名词(mass nouns)

我们在可数名词和物质名词中还可以再划分具体名词和抽象名词: 名词--|专有名词

|普通名词--|可数名词--|具体名词(concrete nouns) (common n.)| |抽象名词(abstract nouns |物质名词--|具体名词(concrete nouns) |抽象名词(abstract nouns)

3.缩略词：加-’s，-s，双写或零形式复数，首字母缩略词，

加-?s或-s：

MP(议员) MP’s／MPs

POW(战犯) POW’s／POWs VIP(要人) VIP’s／VIPs laser lasers

缩略词加-s，双写或用零形式复数： 缩略词加-s

Dr．(医生) Drs．

hr(小时) hrs．(或hr．) yd．(码) yds．

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Yr. (年) yrs． 双写:

ex．(例子) exx． gal．(加仑) gall． 1. (行) ll． p．(页) pp

或用零形式复数 ft．(英尺) ft kg．(公斤) kg． km．(公里) km min．(分) min． sec．(秒) Sec

4.熟记教材（P65）单位名称表

二、 重要概念

1. Proper noun: Proper nouns are nouns referring to specific person,

place or thing,such as Smith, Mark (persons), Washington D.C., London (places), NATO, United Nations (things)(专有名称是特指人,地方或事物的名词)

2. Mass noun: Those that can not take plural are mass nouns, such as

butter, cheese, homework music, etc. (没有复数形式的名词叫物质名词)

3. Unit noun: It is also called \

of words that is used to specify the quantities measures and shapes of the modified noun such as: piece, batch, bunch, item, etc. (单位名词亦称 ―部分词‖用于说明所修饰名词的量、大小和形状等)

4. Foreign plurals：They are words borrowed from some other languages

which still take their original forms of plural，Most often，they are from-Latin，French，Greek：alumna--alumnae，index--indices，plateau--plateaux，analysis—analyses，etc．(外来词复数是指从外语中借来尚保持原来复数形式的复数名词，多是拉丁语、法语和希腊语等)

三、典型考题 I. 选择题

1. _________ plastics are made in this chemical plant. A. Many kind of B. Many kinds of C. Many kinds D. Many kind

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2. \ \ A. many new furniture B. much new furnitures C. much new furniture D. many new furnitures

3. Michael took _______ as to what he should do. A. his friend's advise B. his friend's advises C. his friend advice D. his friend's advice

Key: 1. B 2. C 3. D

简答题

1. Collective noun: These are generally countable nouns, but even in

the singular they refer to groups of people, animals or things, such as family, class, team, government, committee, etc. (集体名词一般是可数名词,但就是单数,也指人, 动物或事物的群体)

2. singular invariables: They are proper nouns like country names,

personal names and mass nouns like those denoting sciences, subjects, diseases, and games. For example: the United States，the United Nations，Black，Jones，classics，physics，bronchitis，bowls，et。．(单数名词指的是某些国家名称，人名和表示学科、疾病和运动项目等形式上有以—s结尾的名词，一般用作单数)

3. plural invariables：They are 1)names of tools and articles of dress

consisting of two equal parts：binoculars，compasses，jeans，shorts，etc．2)some collective nouns：cattle，people，police，etc．3)geographical names of mountain ranges，waterfalls，groups of islands：the Rockies，the Balkans，Niagara Falls，etc．4)other nouns ending in-s：archives，arms，etc．(复数名词指由两部分构成的工具或服饰；某些集体名词；山脉、瀑布、群岛等地理名词以及其他以-s结尾的名词，用作复数)

III. 其他题型

Supply the appropriate unit noun from the list below:

company collection troop herd bundle drop piece ray swarm can school pack fleet crew

1. a ______ of ships 2. a ______ of lies 3. a ______ of firewood 4. a ______ of whales 5. a ______ of sailors 6. a _____ of bees

7. a ______ of tourists 8. a _____ of crude oil 9. a ______ of cattle 10. a _____ of music 11. a _____ of monkeys 12. a _____ of coins 13. a _____ of blood 14. a _____ of sunshine

II.

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Key:

1. fleet 2. pack 3. bundle 4. school 5. crew 6. swarm 7. company 8. can

9. herd 10. piece 11. troop 12. collection

13. drop 14. ray

Chapter 4

Noun and Noun Phrase(2)： Determiner and Genitive

(第四章 名词和名词词组(2)：限定词和属格)

一、 难点、重点

1. The constraints that the double genitive is subject to:

The second noun in the double genitive almost always refers to persons， never to objects，and the first noun usually has indefinite reference (typically premodified by the indefinite article) and the second noun is always definite．(双重属格的第二个名词指人，不指物，第一个名词不确指，通 常用不定冠词，第二个名词必须确指)

a window of the house‘s / a page of the newspaper‘s

the friend of that reporter‘s /the friend of a teacher‘s [以上表达均有错误！]

2.Group genitive集体属格 集体属格是指把’s加在后位修饰词组或并列名词词组后面的属格，如： someone else‘s car，an hour and a half‘s test(一个半小时的测试)，a week or so‘s break(一个星期左右的休息)。

但集体属格不用于含有后位修饰分句(限定分句和非限定分句)的名词词组中： * the lady living next door‘s hat

* the children killed in the war‘s pictures

3. Genitive :

Generally, of-phrase is not used with first names, but would be acceptable with full names:

* The bike of Tom

The car of George Bush

4. Determiners

The pre-determiners or central determiners are mutually exclusive: * all half the employees (two pre-determiners) * all the his employees (two central determiners)

5. The difference between ‘all’ and ‘whole’ when they modify a proper name: All Beijing was excited at the news of winning the bid.

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3. What we can do now is to wait.

4. You might try to cut it with a knife. 5. He will do whatever he can help us. Key:

1. There is no point to arguing with him. 2. He began to like English at the age of 5. 3. What we can do now is wait.

4. You might try cutting it with a knife. 5. He will do whatever he can to help us.

Chapter 9

Adjective Phrase and Comparison (第九章 形容词词组和比较)

一、 难点、重点

1. The four features of adjective: Attributive function, predicative

function, pre-modification by the intensifier ?very‘ and comparative/superlative forms

形容词具有四个特点：即定语特点、补语特点、用强调词very前置修饰的特点及比较级和最高级特点。

2. 只有极少数的单个形容词可作后置修饰语：

(1)the minister designate(尚未上任的部长)

the president elect(当选的主席)

He has friends galore. (他有许多朋友。)

(2)broad(广阔的)，deep(深的)，high，long，old，tall，thick，wide等词

必须用在数量名词后，表示大小、持续时间、事物的年代及人的年龄：

six feet tall three meters wide

(3)concerned(担心的[前置],有关的[后置]),involved(复杂的[前置],涉及的[后

置] present (目前的，现在的[前置]；出席的，到场的[后置])；proper(适合的，适当的[前置],严格意义上的，本身的[后置])responsible(认真负责的，尽责的[前置]；有责任的，应负责任的[后置])等这些形容词用在名词前或后，其意义有所改变：

the mother concerned(所提到的母亲) the concerned mother(焦虑的母亲)

the man responsible(应负责任的人，负有责任的人) the responsible man(认真负责的人，有责任心的人)

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(4)affected(受影响的；假装的，做作的)，available(可得到的，可达到的)，

required(需要，要求的)suggested(建议的)等这些词可用在名词前或名词后，意义没有变化：

available information

information available (可获得的信息) suggested improvements

improvements suggested (建议的改善方法)

3.形容词sick和healthy可以用作定语，而i11和well则通常用作补语，如：

What‘s the matter with Mr. White?——He‘s a sick man． Tom was very ill，but he‘s now a healthy man．

How are you?——I’m very well，thank you．／I’m fine，thanks．

4. 比较级结构

注意当所比较的两个称呼不属于同层次时，修饰语不能前置,如，

Mr. White is a professor much more learned than his students． *Mr. White is a much more learned professor than his students． There are a lot of women more intelligent than John． *There are a lot of more intelligent women than John．

三、典型考题

I. 简答题

1. What are attributive adjectives and predicative adjectives?

定语形容词和补语形容词各指什么?

An attributive adjective refers to an adjective that modifies a noun and stands either before or after the noun in a noun phrase. An

predicative adjective refers to an adjective that can modify a noun by way of serving as a subject complement or an object complement．(修 饰语形容词指用来修饰名词,可放名词前或名词后的形容词。补语形容词指通 过用作主语补足语或宾语补足语来修饰名词的形容词。)

2. When adjectives are used in the dynamic sense, what are their

syntactic and semantic features? 当形容词表示动态意义时，其句法特征和语义特征是什么?

When adjectives are used in the dynamic sense，their syntactic features are to denote subjective measurement or suggest a temporary state; and their semantic features are that the qualities denoted by the adjectives can be controlled or restricted.(当形容词用作动态意义时，其句法特征是表示主观评定或暂时情况，其语义特征是形容词表示的特征能被控制或限制。)

3.What are restrictive adjectives and non-restrictive adjectives? 限制性形容词和非限制形容词各指什么?

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A restrictive adjective helps identify the referent of the noun by describing its distinctive qualities．Whereas a non—restrictive adjective merely provides some additional information which is usually not essential for the identification of the referent．(限制性形容词通过描述与众不同的特征来识别名词所指的对象.非限制性形容词仅仅提供一些额外信息，而这些信息不是识别名词所指对象的根本。)

Chapter 10

Preposition and Prepositional Phrase

(第十章 介词和介词词组)

一、 难点、重点

1. The major functions prepositions:

Apart from the spatial and temporal relations，prepositions call be used to indicate a manner in which an action is done，an instrument with which a task is fulfilled，or a purpose that is aimed at and so on．介词除了表 示空间和时间外，还可表示动作进行的方式，完成任务所使用的工具，以及瞄准的 目标等。 Examples: In Beijing (space), on Monday (time), leave without a word (manner), listen

to the radio (instrument), pray for peace (purpose)

2. between和among用法比较

a. between表示两者之间，among表示三者或三者以上之间： She sat between the two children． She sat among the three children．

b. between表示两者之间的关系，作“在?之间”解，可以表示位置、时间、 顺序、距离、数量等。而among表示“在?中间；被?所围绕”：

Our house stands between a school and a supermarket． He lost his son when the film was over and found him among the people outside the cinema．

电影散场时，他找不到儿子了，在电影院外人群中找到了他。 c. between表示: ―介于?之间‖,among表示“在?之中”；其中之一(与最

高级连用)：

A good teacher must be neither too strict nor too weak；his manner

must be between these two．

好教师既不能太严厉又不能太软弱；其举止必须介于两者之间。

Among his many good qualities， punctuality is the most impressive

one．

在他众多优秀品质中，守时给人留下了最深刻印象。 He made a comparison between the major English speaking countries. I like New Zealand best among all the English speaking countries.

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d. We always use ?between‘ when we speak of clear and exact locative

positions:

The village is between three mountains.

Ecuador lies between Colombia, Peru, and the Pacific Ocean.

二、 重要概念

Preposition: In some languages, a word placed before a substantive and

indicating the relation of that substantive to a verb, an adjective, or another substantive, as English at, by, in, to, from, and with.

介词在一些语言中放在一实词前，用于表示这一实词与动词、形容词或另一实词的

关系，如英语中的 at, by, in, to, from和 with

三、典型考题

I. 选择题

1. Some people show an indifference _____ changes in the weather. a. to b. for c. with d. by

2. Doesn't Jack have any sympathy ______ the crippled boy? a. at b. for c. in d. of

3. The president refused to accept other people's opinions ___ careful

thought.

a. for b. in c. of d. without

4. University graduates have an advantage ____ others in getting a job. a. of b. over c. above d. for

5. Mr. Smith has the capability _____ doing first-rate work. a. in b. from c. on d. of

6. Our factory is located _________ three mountains. a. among b. over c. between d. inside

Key: 1. a 2. b 3. d 4. b 5. d 6.c

II. 简答题

1. 解释表示空间关系的介词静态及动态使用方法?

We use prepositions to indicate the place where someone or

something is，or the place where an action occurs．This distinction may also be regarded as one between the static use and the dynamic use of prepositions，the former related with static location and the latter with movement with respect to an intended direction．(我们用介词表示某人或某

物所在的位置，或者某个动作发生的位置。其区别在于介词的静态使用和动态使用。

介词静态使用指与静态位置有关，动态使用指与所指方向有关的运动。)

2．指出表示持续时间和非持续时间介词的例子。

(1)He was ill for a week，and during that week he ate little．

他病了一周，这一周，他吃得很少。(for，during表持续时间)

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(2)The airplane left Japan at seven in the morning。 飞机早晨7点离开日本。(at表非持续时间)

3. The syntactic functions of a prepositional phrase: a post-modifier in the noun phrase, an adverbial and a complement.介词词组，在句子中作后置修饰语、状语、补语等。E.g. a girl in white, handle it in a proper way, be interested in cooking. III. 其他题型

Correct the following sentences:

1. The culture in Iraq is very different than that in the U.S. 2. Come in the room, please.

3. A man of words and not of deeds is as a garden full of weeds. Key: 1. than ---- from 2. in-----into 3. as----like

Chapter 11

Coordination and Subordination

(第十一章 并列与从属)

一、 难点、重点

1. Coordination and subordination are two important ways in which two or more units are combined into larger and more complex units, even sentences. Coordination is typically realized by coordinators (also termed as coordination conjunctions) which join units at the same level, whereas subordination, realized by subordinators (also termed as subordinating conjunctions, involves the linking of units at different levels so that they form a hierarchy.

并列和从属是连接句子的两个手段。并列是靠并列连词(coordinating conjunctions)实现的，它把同一层次的几个单位连接起来。从属是靠从属连词(subordinating conjunctions)实现的，它把不同层次的几个单位连接起来，从而形成了一个等级(主从关系)。

2. And具有多种功能,如：

a. The professor went into the classroom，opened his notebook，and started the

lecture．教授走进教室，打开笔记本，然后开始讲课。 (and表示先后顺序，然后，其后)

b. He heard his dog bark at door，and he looked out of the window only to find

that his house was surrounded by a large crowd of angry people．他听到狗冲门叫，于是朝窗外看，发现他的房子被愤怒的群众包围了。(and = therefore表因果)

c. Work harder and you‘ll pass the test．如果努力学习，考试就会及格。 (= If you work harder，you‘11 pass the test．and表条件)

d. Liz is talkative and her husband is reserved． (and = but表对照) e. English is difficult to learn，and so is French． (and表相似性)

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