Integrated-hydroacoustic-flares-and-geomechanical-characterization-reveal-potential-hydrocarbon

Integrated hydroacoustic?ares and geomechanical characterization reveal potential hydrocarbon leakage pathways in the Perth Basin, Australia

Laurent Langhi a,*,Andrew Ross a,Emma Crooke a,Anrew Jones b,Chris Nicholson b, Charlotte Stalvies a

a CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering(CESRE),26Dick Perry Avenue,Kensington,Western Australia6009,Australia

b Geoscience Australia(GA),GPO Box378,Canberra,ACT2601,Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Received26June2013

Received in revised form

15November2013

Accepted27November2013 Available online10December2013

Keywords:

Seep

Hydroacoustic?are Geomechanics

Migration pathway

Perth Basin a b s t r a c t

Geoscience Australia(GA)and the Commonwealth Scienti?c and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO)conducted a marine survey including monitoring hydroacoustic?ares in order to understand the natural leakage pathways in the offshore northern Perth Basin.186hydroacoustic contacts were encountered and classi?ed and thirty two were interpreted as possible seeps or expulsion of gases from the subsurface.The contacts were typically distributed above areas of interpreted subsurface faulting.In the survey site Da(15km2),nine probable seeps and sixteen other contacts were interpreted and are aligned with a fault segment(A2)interpreted on2D seismic re?ection data.The segment A2is part of a major N e NNW trending fault system intersecting the sedimentary sequence from the near seabed to the Permian units,including the Kockatea Shale source rock located in the oil window.Evaluation of the stress state on the fault segment A2suggests that it is not critically stressed and therefore not likely prone to reactivation and dilation and vertical leakage under the modelled stress?eld.We propose that fault segment A2acts as a baf?e delimiting a migration pathway in the wall rock and permitting hy-drocarbons generated from the source rock to overcome capillary entry pressures of the overlying marginal seals.The interpreted seeps could therefore be associated with intraformational vertical migration in the wall rock focused by the faults.

Crown Copyrightó2013Published by Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.

1.Introduction

The Perth Basin comprises depocentres and structural features formed in an obliquely-oriented extensional rift system on Aus-tralia’s southwest margin during the Palaeozoic to Mesozoic breakup of eastern Gondwana(Crostella and Backhouse,2000; Jones et al.,2011).The basin has had a complex,multi-phase his-tory of extension and reactivation,and regional tectonic events that affected basin evolution and controlled sedimentation include:(i) Early to Middle Permian rifting followed by Middle to Late Permian uplift and Late Permian to Early Jurassic subsidence,(ii)Early to Middle Jurassic rifting followed by Middle to Late Jurassic subsi-dence,(iii)Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous rifting followed by Early Cretaceous uplift and Early Cretaceous to Cainozoic subsidence,(v)local Miocene reactivation and inversion(Jones et al.,2011;Rollet et al.,2013).

Exploration drilling in the offshore northern Perth Basin has discovered residual oil and gas accumulations(i.e.current accumulation with palaeo-oil column,Jones and Hall,2002; Kempton et al.,2011)and breached accumulations(i.e.dry closure with palaeo-oil column,Kempton et al.,2011)typically within Permian sandstone reservoirs overlain by the regional Triassic Kockatea formation source rock and seal.Kempton et al. (2011)validated the offshore extension of the Triassic petroleum system sourced from the oil-mature source(i.e.Early Triassic Kockatea Shale).The high incidence of palaeo-oil and residual columns,however,suggests that trap integrity and especially fault-seal represents an important risk factor for preservation of oil(Langhi et al.,2012).

In order to understand the natural leakage pathways a Geo-science Australia(GA)-Commonwealth Scienti?c and Industrial Research Organisation(CSIRO)survey was conducted in the

*Corresponding author.CESRE,PO Box1130,Bentley,WA6102,Australia.

E-mail address:0aedaea17fd5360cbb1adb19nghi@csiro.au(L.

Langhi).Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Marine and Petroleum Geology journal h omepage:ww w.elsevi 0aedaea17fd5360cbb1adb19/locate/marp

etgeo

0264-8172/$e see front matter Crown Copyrightó2013Published by Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved. 0aedaea17fd5360cbb1adb19/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2013.11.016

Marine and Petroleum Geology51(2014)63e69

offshore northern Perth Basin (Fig.1)aiming to identify and characterize natural hydrocarbon seepage through an integrated survey.This survey included characterization of acoustic signa-tures in the water column using echo sounder and side scan so-nar,sea ?oor bathymetry and acoustic backscatter,sub-bottom pro ?ling,water column and sediment sampling and ROV deployment.The survey extent encompassed an offshore area from 27.2151to 29.5194South latitude,112.7503e 114.7544East longitude with eight detailed survey areas (A e H,Fig.1).The Area D was selected to test for evidence of ?uid seepage at sites of sea ?oor seismic amplitudes brightening above large depocentre-bounding faults on the western margin of the Abrolhos Sub-basin where a possible stratigraphic trap was interpreted in a thick basinal succession of high amplitude continuous re ?ectivity interpreted as a lowstand clastic basin fan complex of the Don-gara Sequence (Rollet et al.,2013).Also,SAR anomalies where recorded in the area.

Many previous studies of hydrocarbon seeps have used acoustic methods to detect hydroacoustic ?ares in the water column indicative of expulsion of gases from the subsurface (e.g.,Greinert et al.,2006;Sahling et al.,2008;Talukder et al.,2013).In this sur-vey water column hydroacoustic ?ares were monitored using a split beam Simrad EK-500echo sounder operating at 38and 120kHz and a single beam Simrad EA-500echo sounder operating at 12kHz.This data was logged and processed using Echoview (Myriax,Hobart,Tasmania),with acoustic plume locations,

descriptions and interpretations exported to a database and geographical information system (GIS)on board the vessel.

During the survey of the eight areas (Fig.1),and including transits between them,186echo-sounder hydroacoustic ?ares were encountered and classi ?ed.Thirty-two of these ?ares were interpreted as possible seeps or expulsion of gases from the sub-surface.The interpretation was based on a number of prerequisite criteria such as;number of acoustic soundings,vertical orientation in the water column,morphology,spatial orientation to the sea ?oor and also relationship to sea ?oor morphological features typically associated with cold seeps (Talukder et al.,2013).Hydroacoustic ?ares were not ubiquitous in all areas however where observed they typically were distributed above areas of interpreted N e S subsurface faulting.

In this short communication we will present echo-sounder re-sults and investigating the relationship between the subsurface structures and the possible mechanism controlling the natural seepage in site Da,a NE e SW oriented c.15km 2survey area (29.4060e 29.4601DD South latitude114.3234e 114.3702DD East longitude).

2.Echo-sounder contacts

26echo-sounder contacts were imaged over an approximately 22h period over the survey site Da (Fig.2).Nine vertical hydro-acoustic ?ares from the seabed with vertical extents to for

greater

Figure 1.Structural elements of the study area in the offshore northern Perth Basin.Topography shown in the background.The GA-CSIRO survey route is shown with the grey dotted line;the eight detailed survey areas (A e H)are shown with grey boxes.

0aedaea17fd5360cbb1adb19nghi et al./Marine and Petroleum Geology 51(2014)63e 69

64

than 25m are interpreted as probable seeps using aforementioned classi ?cation criteria (Talukder et al.,2013).The remaining acoustic contacts are bottom contacts (5)that image acoustic ?ares found in the water column associated with the sea ?oor but with only limited penetration in to the overlying water column;near bottom contacts (4)that image acoustic ?ares whose vertical extend was only present in the water column near the sea ?oor but not directly linked to it,and mid-water contacts (7)that image acoustic ?ares whose vertical extent was only visible in the mid water column (Fig.3).When displayed in the GIS most of the echo-sounder contacts were closely oriented to a deep rooted fault system which extends to the near sea ?oor (Fig.2).This suggests (1)a leakage pathway exists between the subsurface and seafloor allowing seepage of gas into the water column and (2)the bottom,near bottom and mid-water contacts also likely represent seeps not completely intercepted and imaged by the sub-bottom pro-?les.To understand the possible origins of this gas further struc-tural geology investigations were warranted.

In site Da the contacts are at an average distance of 700m from a fault trace (Segment A2)projected on the seabed (Fig.2),mostly on the footwall.

3.Subsurface structure

20selected pro ?les from the Plum 2D marine seismic survey shot in 1992and covering the survey sites D and Da were used to map the subsurface structures.The lines strike SW e NE and NW e SE and the spacing is c.2km between SW lines and c.4km between NW lines (Fig.2).A seabed multiple is visible at around 100ms below the seabed (Fig.4A).

The echo-sounder contacts in survey site Da are aligned on a major N e NNW trending faults system (fault system A,Fig.2).The ENE-dipping faults forming the system have an average dip of 65 [60 e 75 ]and intersect the sedimentary sequence from the near seabed to the Permian units (Fig.4).

At the Late Permian reservoir level the fault segment under the survey site Da represents the southern tip of a splay (segment A2)connecting to a large fault segment A1(>10km)extending to the NNW (Fig.2).This area likely represents a breached relay ramp.Near the seabed the fault segment A2,associated with the echo-sounder contacts,strikes to the N e NNW (Fig.2).Subsidiary syn-thetic and antithetic faults associated with the main plane A2are observed in seismic data within the shallow sedimentary cover (<300ms)(Figs.2and 4).

The displacement pattern on the segment A2shows a maximum at the basement horizon,below the Permian sedimentary cover;the displacement decreases upwards (Fig.4B).Near the seabed the upper tip of segment A2shows a decrease in the displacement (Fig.4A).The fault can be con ?dently mapped up to c.200ms;between 200ms and 100ms the fault usually reaches the limit of seismic resolution with displacement reduced to half a seismic loop (c.6ms);above c.100ms fault displacements are sporadically observed although the re ?ectors become transparent and locally chaotic (Fig.4A).The poor quality of the seabed re ?ector prevents the mapping of the fault at the sediment e water interface (Fig.4A).The overall displacement pattern suggests that the fault segment A2was initially active during the Permian followed by a main reactivation during the Middle to Late Jurassic;from the Cretaceous onward the segment is sporadically active with movements in the order of tens of metres.This slip history is consistent with regional data from Langhi et al.(2012).4.Fault geomechanics

Critically stressed faults are widely cited as conduits for ?uid ?ow (e.g.Anderson et al.,1994;O ’Brien et al.,1999).In order to investigate the origin and mechanism of the seepage associated with the echo-sounder contacts,the stress state on the fault planes is evaluated using the slip tendency (i.e.,ratio of shear to effective normal stress acting on a fault plane using a 0e 1scale,Morris et al.,1996)and dilation tendency (i.e.ratio between the difference of effective normal stresses and effective main and least stresses using a 0e 1scale,Ferrill et al.,1999).These attributes can be related to the relative risk of reactivation and up-fault ?uid ?ow (Moeck et al.,2009)as higher tendencies are likely to correlate with enhanced structural permeability in the fault zone.A slip tendency of 0.6usually corresponds to the lowest frictional strength of a cohesionless rock surface,and can be used to esti-mate the stress state that would induce slip and therefore cause the fault to act as a ?uid conduit (Zoback and Townend,2001;Bretan et al.,2011).

We assessed the stress state on the fault planes around site Da based on present-day stress data modi ?ed from King et al.(2008)

.

Figure 2.Survey site Da with fault traces for the fault system A interpreted from 2D seismic (near seabed traces in black and top Permian traces in grey)and echo-sounder contacts.The 2D Plum seismic survey is shown in the background.Location on Figure 1.

0aedaea17fd5360cbb1adb19nghi et al./Marine and Petroleum Geology 51(2014)63e 6965

We considered a strike-slip regime close to a transition to a normal regime (SHmax Sv >Shmin).Below 300m the stress gradient used for the vertical stress Sv was 0.0217MPa/m and the gradients used for the horizontal stresses were set to 0.0212MPa/m and 0.0137MPa/m for SHmax and Shmin respectively.This resulted in a stress state at 1000m below sea level with Shmin ?15MPa,Sv ?22MPa and SHmax ?23MPa.The fault segment A2shows slip tendency values lower than 0.15(Fig.5A and B).The dilation ten-dency values are around 0e 0.1(Fig.5C).5.Discussion

With slip tendency values <<0.6and dilation tendency values around 0.1,the stress state calculated for the fault segment A2,adjacent to the echo-sounder contacts,suggests that the segment is not critically stressed and not likely prone to reactivation and dilation and vertical leakage under the modelled stress ?eld.Therefore the seeps interpreted form the contacts aligned on fault segment A2are unlikely to be attributed to hydrocarbon leaking from an underlying charged trap and using the fault zone as a pathway.

The fault system A is part of a series of N e NW trending fault systems delimiting the Abrolhos Sub-basin to the south-west (Figs.1,2and 4B).This sub-basin is likely to include kitchen areas for the Hovea Member source rocks at the base of the Early Triassic Kockatea Shale (TOC values of up to 5.7%and HI values up to 786mgHC/gTOC indicative of a Type II oil and gas prone source rock;Thomas and Barber,2004;Jones et al.,2011;Kempton et

al.,

Figure 3.Echo-sounder contacts in survey area Da.Line locations on Figure 2.A)38kHz (left)and 120kHz (right)NNW pro ?les showing two probable seeps.B)38kHz (left)and 120kHz (right)N pro ?le showing three probable seeps,a bottom contact and a near bottom contact.

0aedaea17fd5360cbb1adb19nghi et al./Marine and Petroleum Geology 51(2014)63e 69

66

2011;Grosjean et al.,2012).The rest of the Kockatea Shale has some limited potential for oil and gas generation (Jones et al.,2011).Using 1D burial history modelling,Jones et al.(2011)suggest that hydrocarbon generation from the Early Triassic Kockatea source rock occurred between the Late Jurassic and earliest Cretaceous;Gorter et al.(2004)propose that minor oil and gas are also expelled during the latest Cretaceous and Cenozoic.

The fault system A intersects the Kockatea Shale at a depth of about 2.2s (TWT)or about 3800m (Fig.4B).Using a thermal gradient of c.30 C/km (Ghori,2008),this represents a temper-ature of c.115 C (vitrinite re ?ectance c.1)which is in the oil window (Thomas and Barber,2004;Fig.6).If an effective Early Triassic source rock is present in situ ,production of hydrocarbon would occur adjacent to fault segment A2(Fig.6).The source rock would be expected to expel through primary migration and buoyancy into overlying strata and the fault segment A2,acting as a baf ?e,would delimit the migration route (Fig.6).The hy-drocarbon would be expected to migrate vertically along the baf ?e,in the host rock,and potentially be trapped by marginal intraformational seal(s)(Jones et al.,2011;Kempton et al.,2011)until the buoyancy pressure exceeded the capillary entry pres-sure of the seal and further vertical migration occurs up to the near Late Jurassic Unconformity (Fig.6).From that level upward,the displacement on the main fault plane A2decrease and several subsidiary faults developed within the c.200ms thick Cretaceous and Cainozoic sediment (Fig.4A).We propose that this structural framework (i.e.,development of a fault cluster in the shallow section above the Late Jurassic Unconformity),along

with vertical and lateral changes in sediment properties (e.g.,sediment cohesion,grain size and permeability)in the uncon-solidated shallow subsurface control seep occurrences and dis-tribution on the sea ?oor and explain the distribution of acoustic contacts in both the footwall and hanging wall of fault segment A2.Similar change of ?uid ?ow patterns in the subsurface from focused (deep)to diffuse (shallow,unconsolidated)have been observed in various basins (e.g.,Kobayashi,2002;Van Rensbergen et al.,2007;Chand et al.,2009;Talukder,2012).6.Conclusion

This preliminary study has shown that interpreted seeps in site Da in the offshore Perth Basin are aligned on a deep-rooted fault system intersecting the main source rock.This regional Kockatea Shale source rock is likely within the present-day window for oil generation in this part of the basin.The initial geomechanical assessment of the fault system A suggests that the fault segment A2,along which the probable seeps and acoustic contacts are observed,is not critically stressed and therefore likely not conductive for ?uid ?ow.Whilst acting as a baf ?e,fault segment A2can constrain the migration pathway and permit hydrocarbons generated from the source rock to over-come capillary entry pressures of the overlying marginal seal(s)(Fig.6).The interpreted seeps could therefore be associated with intraformational vertical migration focused by the faults.If cor-rect,the interpreted seeps are likely to re ?ect an active source rock rather than a leaking

trap.

Figure 4.Subsurface architecture in the offshore northern Perth Basin.A)Fault segment A2and location of echo-sounder contacts.Line location on Figure 2.B)Regional transect showing the distribution of the main sedimentary units including the Late Permian reservoir (Dongara)and the regional seal/source rock (Kockatea).Line location on Figure 1.

0aedaea17fd5360cbb1adb19nghi et al./Marine and Petroleum Geology 51(2014)63e 6967

Figure 5.Stress state on the fault system A.A)View of the slip tendency distribution and location of echo-sounder contacts.The fault segment A2correlates with slip tendency <0.15suggesting a low risk of reactivation and ?uid ?ow in the fault zone.B)Stereonet contoured for the slip tendency at 2500m below sea level.C)Stereonet contoured for the dilation tendency at 2500m below sea

level.

Figure 6.Schematic representation of a possible origin and mechanism for the seeps interpreted in site Da.Fault segment A2(baf ?e)can constrain the migration pathway and permit hydrocarbons generated from the source rock to overcome capillary entry pressures of the overlying marginal 0aedaea17fd5360cbb1adb19nghi et al./Marine and Petroleum Geology 51(2014)63e 69

68

Acknowledgement

The marine survey was funded by Geoscience Australia.CSIRO Wealth form Ocean Flagship funded CSIRO research crew for the marine survey.We thank and acknowledge the contribution of the National Marine Facility staff and crew in the completion of the marine survey.The authors wish to thank A.Talukder,N.Rollet and an anonymous reviewer for constructive remarks during the review of this paper.Badley Geoscience is thanked for providing Trap Tester licenses and support.

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