采矿专业英语第一二章

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Unit 1 Geology, Surveying and Feasibility Studies

地质、测量及可行性研究

1.1 Mineral Exploration 地质勘探

Mineral exploration is the process undertaken by companies, partnerships. orcorporations in the endeavour of finding ore ( commercially viable concentrations of minerals) to mine. Mineral exploration is a much more intensive, organised and professional form of mineral prospecting and though it frequently uses the services of prospecting, the process of mineral exploration on the whole is much more involved.

Stages of mineral exploration are includes ： 1. Area Selection

Area selection is a crucial step in professional mineral exploration. Selection of the best, most prospective, area in a mineral field, geological region or terrain will assist in making it not only possible to find ore deposits, but to find them easily, cheaply and quickly.

Area selection is based on applying the theories behind ore genesis, the knowledge of known ore occurrences and the method of their formation, to known geological regions via the study of geological maps，to determine potential areas where the particular class of ore deposit being sought may exist. Oftentimes new styles of deposits may be found which reveal opportunities to find lookalike deposit styles in rocks and terranes previously though unprospective，which may result in a process of of leases in similar geological settings based on this new model or methodology.

This process applies the disciplines of basin modeling, structural geology. geochronology, petrology and a host ofgeophysical and geochemical disciplines to make predictions and draw parallels between the known ore deposits and their physical form and the unknown potential of finding a “lookalike” within the area selected.

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prospecting for tungsten mineralisation. 4. Remote Sensing

Aerial photography is an important tool in assessing mineral rxploralion tenements, as it gives the explorer orientation information—location of tracks, roads, fences, habitation, as well as ability to at least qualitatively map outcrops and regolith systematics and vegetation cover across a region.

Satellite based spectroscopes allow the modem mineral explorationist, in regions devoid of cover and vegetation, to map minerals and alteration directly. Improvements in the resolution of modem commercially based satellites have also improved the utility of satellite imagery. For instance, IKONOS satellite images can be generated with a 30cm pixel size.

5. Geochemical Methods

The primary role of geochemistry, here used describe assaying or geological media，in mineral exploration is to find an area anomalous in the ommodity sought，or in elements known to be associated with the type of mineralisation sought.

Regional geochemical exploration has traditionally involved use of stream sediments to target potentially mineralised catchments. Regional surveys may use low sampling densities such as one sample per 100 square kilometres. Follow-up geochemical surveys commonly use soils as the sampling media,possibly via the collection of a grid of samples over the tenement or areas which are amenable to soil geochemistry. Areas which are covered by transported soils, alluvium, colluvium or are disturbed too much by human activity ( roads，rail，farmland)，may need to be drilled to a shallow depth in order to sample undisturbed or unpolluted bedrock.

Once the geochemical analyses are returned，the data is investigated for anomalies (single or multiple elements) that may be related to the presence of mineralisation. The geochemical anomaly is often field checked against the outcropping geology and in modem geochemistry, normalised against the regolith type and landform to reduce the effects of weathering, transported materials and landforms.

Geochemical anomalies may be spurious, or related to low-grade or subgrade mineralisation. In order to determine if this is the case, geochemical anomalies must be drilled in order to test them for the existence of economic concentrations of mineralisation, or even to determine why they exist in the place they exist.

The presence of some chemical elements may indicate the presence of a certain

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mineral Chemical analysis of rocks and plants may indicate the presence of an underground deposit. For instance elements like arsenic and antimony are associated with gold deposits and hence, are example pathfinder elements

sampled for pathfinder elements in order to help locate deposits. 6. Resource Evaluation

Resource evaluation is undertaken to quantify the grade and tonnage of a mineral occurrence. This is achieved primarily by drilling to sample the prospective horizon,

lode or strata where the minerals of interest occur.

The ultimate aim is to generate a density of drilling sufficient to satisfy the economic and statutory .standards of an ore resource. Depending on the financial situation and size of the deposit and the structure of the company，the level of detail required to generate this resource and stage at which extraction can commence varies.

For small partnerships and private non-corporate enterprises a very low level of detail is required whereas for corporations which require debt equity ( loans) to build capital intensive extraction infrastructure, the rigor necessary in resource estimation is far greater. For large cash rich companies working on small ore bodies，they may work only to a level necessary to satisfy their internal risk assessments before extraction commences.

Resource estimation may require pattern drilling on a set grid, and in the case of sulfide minerals，will usually require some form of geophysics such as down-hole probing of drillholes, to geophysicallyi delineate ore body continuity within the ground.

The aim of resource evaluation is to expand the known size of the deposit and mineralisation. A scoping study is often carried out on the ore deposit during this stage to determine if there may be enough ore at a sufficient grade to warrant extraction; if there is not further resource evaluation drilling may be necessary. In other cases,

severalsmaller individually uneconomic deposits may be socialised into a “miningcamp” and extracted in tandem. Further exploration and testing of anomalies may be

required to find or define these other satellite deposits. 7. Reserve Definition

Reserve definition is undertaken to convert a mineral resource into an ore reserve,which is an economic asset.The process is similar to resource evaluation,except more intensive and technical,aimed at statistically quantifying the grade continuity and mass.

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Reserve definition also takes into account the milling and characteristics the ore，and generates bulk samples for metallurgicaltestwork, involving crushability,floatability and other ore recovery parameters.

Reserve definition includes geotechnical assessment and engineering studies of the rocks within and surrounding the deposit to determine the potential instabilities of proposed open pit or underground mining methods. This process may involve drilling diamond core samples to derive structural information on weaknesses within the rock mass such as faults, foliations, joints and shearing.

At the end of this process, a feasibility study is published, and the ore deposit may be either deemed uneconomic or economic.

Vocabulary prospecting n. 探矿 terrain n. 地形，地面，地域，地带 target generation 靶区圈定 structural geology 构造地质学 geochronology n. 地球年代学 petrology n. 岩石学 geophysical adj. 地球物理学的 geochemical adj. 地球化学的 mapping n. 素描 alluvium n. 冲积层，淤积层 gravity n. 万有引力；地心引力；重力 magnetism n. 磁性，磁学 electromagnetism n ?电磁，电磁学 airborne magnetometer 机载磁强计 magnetite n. 磁铁矿 pyrrhotite n. 磁黄铁矿 ilmenite n. 钛铁矿 geophysical prospecting 地球物理探测法 ultraviolet adj. (光）紫外的 remote sensing 遥感，遥测 regolith n. 风化层，土被 apectroscope n. 分光镜

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pixel n. 像素 sediment n. 沉淀物 colluvium n. 崩积层 bedrock n. 基岩 landform n. 地形 low-grade 低品位 arsenic n. 砷 antimony n. 锑 strata n. 地层 warrantvt. 使有必要；使恰当；保证；担保 fault n. 断层 foliation n. 页理，生叶 joint n. 节理 shearing n. 剪切，切割 1.2 Mine Valuation Studies 矿床资源评佔 As noted in the introduction to this section, the term mine valuation implies the assigning of a dollar or other currency value to the worth of a mine or mining project and provides a measure of the desirability of ownership of that property. As such, several types of value may be encountered in performing a mine valuation study. These are ：

(1 ) Market value. (2) Full cash value. (3 ) Salvage value.

(6) Replacement value. (5 ) Capitalized value. (1) Book value. { 7 ) Assessed value. (8 ) Insured value.

Each of these has a specific meaning that can he applied to determine a monetary amount in a specific situation.

Of interest in this paper is the broader question of “what is the value of the

mine?\“What is the mine worth?” in this context the value of interest is the market

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example here is with ad valorem property taxes, levied by most state and local governments. The difficulty with value estimation of a mineral property for taxation purposes is that a single value is required for property worth.

Most states have enacted tax provisions that attempt to approximate the value of amineral property through a formula or other mechanism that rarely serves as an adequate measure of property value for an actual sale. These mechanisms are seldom based on strong economic foundations and only serve as a convenient proxy for mineral property values. As a result，significant discrepancies can occur between the appraised value of a property for tax purposes and the value as perceived in the marketplace. (7) Financing

The mode, mechanism, and magnitude of financing new mining properties or ventures are functions of the estimated property or project value. Certainly, the risk of default must also be considered in mining and must be assessed in regard to the perceived intrinsic value of the property. This aspect is becoming increasingly important in view of the popularity of international joint ventures as a means of dispersing project risks.

The fundamental concern of lending institutions is not whether a specific rate of return is achieved by the project owner, but rather that the project will generate adequate cash flows to service the acquired debt. Thus lenders approach mine valuation studies from a different perspective. (8) Regulatory Requirements

Even the federal government has found it necessary to the problems

iated with estimating the value of federally controlled mineral lands. This results from the fact that the leasing of federal lands for some mineral commodities is through the competitive bidding process, and the government is obligated by law to accept no bid that is less than the fair market value of the mineral occurrence. As a result，the federal government is often required to estimate the value of certain leases prior to competitive bidding in order to assure that bonus bids and royalty provisions represent fair market value and are therefore acceptable. The federal government is faced with a similar valuation problem when determining or negotiating royalty provisions on other leased minerals.assoc

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Vocabulary duress n.强迫,监禁 salvage value剩余价值 replacement value 折旧后价值 capitalized value 资产总值 book value资产原值 insured value账面价值 pertain vi. 关于；有关；存在；适用 acquisition n.并购；获得；得到 transpire vi(事实，秘密等）被人知道，泄露，显露；发生 valorem] adv.按价，按照价格（价值）；计税 (9) Mine Feasibility Studies 矿山可行性研究 Feasibility studies are the heart of the mine evaluation process. A feasibility study of a mining project represents an engineering/ economic appraisal of the commercial viability of that project. As such，it is the result of a relatively formal procedure for assessing the various relationships that exist among thefactors that directly orindirectly affect the project in question. In essence, the objective of a feasibility study is to clarify the basic factors that govern the chances for project success. Once all the factors relative to the project have been defined and studied, an attempt is made to quantify as many variables as possible in order to arrive at a potential value or worth of the property.

As a mining project progresses from raw exploration through to the time when a management decision is made to develop and mine the property，a number of analyses will be conducted on the property，each of which will be based on increasing amounts of data, will require increasing amounts of time ( and therefore expense) to prepare, and will have increasing degrees of accuracy. For example, as exploration occurs on a mining property, the intersection of mineralization by a few drillholes typically triggers lhe need for some type of initial analysis to assist with necessary decision making. Ihesetypes of studies are identified by various names, but in each case they are designed to answer questions pertaining to ：

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1) 2) 3) 4)

What magnitude of deposit mightexistrather than what is known to exist Should further expenditures be incurred to look for what might exist Should the project be abandoned.

What additional effort and/or expense is necessary before making any ofthese decisions?

Assuming a favorable decision for continuation of the project ,the next sequence ofdecisions must be predicated on studies utilizing much more detailed information. Theseso-called prefeasibility studies or intermediate economic studies are based on increasingamounts of data pertaining to geologic information，preliminary engineering designs andplans for mining and processing facilities, and initial estimates of project revenues andcosts. They are constructed to support a continuum of decisions relating to the next majorspending requirement. Intermediate economic studies of this type typically contain thefollowing information and analysis (Gocht et al.1988)：

(1) Project description：geographic area, existing access routes, topography, climate，project history，concessionary terms，schedule for development of mine and any processing facilities.

(2) Geology：regional geology, detailed description of the project area，preliminary reserve calculations, plans for detailed target evaluation.

(3) Mining：geometry of the ore body，proposed mining plan ( and alternatives)，required plant and equipment.

(4) Processing：technical descriptions of the ore and concentrate, processing facilities.

(5) Otheroperating needs：availability of energy, water, spare parts, and equipment (diesel oil, explosives, replacement parts，etc.)

(6) Transportation：description of the additional, necessary transportationfacilities (roads，air strips，bridges, harbors, rail lines)

(7) Towns and related facilites：housing for workers, school for children of workers,medical facilities, company offices.

(8) Labor requirements：estimates of work force broken down according to qualifications (skills) and local availability.

(9) Environmental protection：plans to reduce or minimize environmentaldamage，description of relevant environmental legislation.

(10) Legal considerations：review of mining laws, taxation, foreign-investment

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regulations and political risk.

(11) Economic analysis ： cost estimates for plant and equipment，infrastructure ’materials, labor, market analysis, including production, consumption, and price formation for the relevant minerals, revenue forecasts based on expected production and mineral prices, cash flow and net present value analysis, sensitivity analysis.

Assuming the project continues to appear favorable throughout the intermediate economic studies, as these studies progressively focus more on engineering and economic aspects and less on geologic parameters, the project must be formally assessed through a comprehensive feasibility study. The feasibility study represents a detailed analysis of all the parameters contained in the intermediate economic studies, along with other pertinent factors relating to political and legal aspects affecting project viability. Specific data requirements for incorporation into feasibility studies are contained in the following segment of this paper； however, in general, the study contains analyses of the project’s geology and deposit characteristics，mineralogy, mineral processing characteristics，designs and plans for mining and processing equipment requirements, construction schedules, investment requirements and timing, estimates of revenues and costs, marketing plans, cash flow calculations, sources and methods of financing, and risk and sensitivity analyses of important project variables. As stated previously，the purpose of the feasibility study is to assess the technical and economic viability of the project and to assist the organization in making the “go/nogo” decision regarding project development.

Although there is no prescribed format for reporting the results of a project feasibility study, the final report must fulfill the following essential functions ( Taylor, 1977)

(1) Provide a comprehensive framework of established and detailed facts

concerning the mineral project.

(2) Present an appropriate scheme of exploitation complete with plans, designs,

equipment lists, etc.，in sufficient detail for accurate cost estimation and associated economic results.

(3) Indicate the most likely profitability on investment in the project，assuming the

project is equipped and operated as specified in the report.

(4) Provide an assessment of pertinent legal factors，financing alternatives，fiscal

regimes, environmental regulations, and risk and sensitivity analyses on important

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needed.

Mining properties range from very small to extremely large, and from those involving only surface operations to those involving extensive underground workings. Active mines undergo constant change，necessitating continual updating of the surveys.

The differences in the character of the deposits, the scale of mining, and the mining methods result in large differences in the surveyor’s activities and techniques, but many of the problems involved are common to most mines.

The surface work of the mine surveyor is very similar to that of the plane surveyor in that control points are established by triangulation，trilateration，and traversing.The Detail is taken by direct measurement, by stadia, and by aerial photography. The equipment used, the techniques, and the methods of processing the resulting data are likewise very similar. However, underground work is quite different ：

(1) The lines of sight frequently must be carried through constricted openings，often

involving short lines of sight and awkward setups.

(2) The lighting generally is poor, requiring illumination of the backsights and

foresights, and the crosshairs.

(3) The ambient conditions often are difficult，including falling water，high

temperatures, poor visibility, and heavy traffic through the area being surveyed. (4) The surrounding rock may be unstable, resulting in movement or loss of the

surveying stations, as well as hazard to the surveyors.

(5) The points to be measured often are difficult or impossible to reach.

(6) Steep, vertical sights often are necessary，requiring the use of special

equipment.

(7) Many working levels commonly are involved，requiring the transfer of position

and orientation to each with a high level of precision.

2. Mine Coordinate System

A system of coordinates is essential for all permanent mining operations. It is very desirable that all mining operations in a given area be tied into the same system，as this minimizes problems of boundaries and connections. Wherever possible，this system should be tied into and made part of the state or regional grid system.

Commonly the elevations will be based on sea level, as taken from established stations. In most cases, all the mine workings will be above sea level so that all the

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paramount adj. 最高的，至上的；首要的， tortuous adj. 弯弯曲曲的 brass n. 黄铜

spad n. 矿山井下测量用钉

damp adj.潮湿的，不完全干燥的

galvanic adj. 流电的，抽搐的，以流电所产的 corrosion n. 腐蚀；受腐蚀的部位 loose-leaf活页

facilitate vt.使便利，减轻…..的困难 meticulously adj.极仔细的；一丝不苟的 neatness n.整洁，干净

graphics n.图样；图案；绘图；图象 plotter n.绘图仪，绘图机

perpendicular adj垂直的；成直角的 fireproof adj.耐火的，防火的 vault n.拱顶，地下室

microfilm n.(拍摄文件等用的）缩微肢卷

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Unit 2 Surface Mining 露天采矿 (9) Introduction 简介

Surface mining is the predominant exploitation procedure worldwide，producing in the United States about 85% of all minerals, excluding petroleum and natural gas. Almost all metallic ores (98% )，about 97% of the nonmetallic ores, and 61 % of the coal in the United States are mined using surface methods ( U. S. Geological Survey, 1995 ； Energy Information Administration, 2000 )，and most of these are mined by open pit or open cast methods. In open pit mining, a mechanical extraction method, a thick deposit is generally mined in benches or steps, although thin deposits may require only a single bench or face. Open pit or open cast mining is usually employed to exploit a near-surface deposit or one that has a low stripping ratio. It often necessitates a large capital investment but generally results in high productivity, low operating cost, and good safety conditions. The open pits views are showed in Fig. 2.1. Fig_ 2.1 Open-pit views ( Photos were obtained from www. google, com) The aqueous extraction methods depend on water or another liquid ( e. g. dilute sulfuric acid, weak cyanide solution, or ammonium carbonate) to extract the mineral. Placer mining is used to exploit loosely consolidated deposits like common

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Other factors that can influence pit limits are existing surface infrastructures, such as townships,river,etc ,

In order to enhance the stability of a slop within the pit and for safety reasons berms may be left. A berm is a horizontal shelf or ledge within the ultimate pit wall slope. The berm interval, berm slope angle, and berm width are governed by the geotechnical configuration of the slope. The overall pit slope angle is the angle at which the wall of an open pit stands, as measured between the horizontal and an imaginary line joining the top bench crest with the bottom bench toe.

For the duration of open pit mining, a haul road must be maintained into the pit. A spiral system is an arrangement whereby the haul road is arranged spirally along theperimeter walls of the pit so that the gradient of the road is more or less uniform from the top to the bottom of the pit. A zigzag system is an arrangement in which the road surmounts the steep grade of a pit wall by zigzagging，generally on the footwall side of the pit. The choice of spiral or zigzag is dependent upon the shape and size of the ore body, truck economics, and pit slope stability.

Haul road width is governed by the required capacity of the road and type of haulage unit. The grade may be defined as the the road in terms ofdegrees from the horizontal or percentage of rise to the horizontal.

The angle ofrepose or angle of rest is the maximum slope at which a heap of loose material will stand without sliding.

The suboutcropdepth represent the depth of waste that has to be removed before any ore is exposed. This waste is often referred to as preproduction stripping.

Vocabulary

open pit露天坑 bench n. 平台

stripping ratio aqueous adj. 剥采比 dilute adj. 水的，水成的

cyanide n. 贫化的稀释的冲淡的氰化物 ammonium carbonate碳酸铵 placer mining淘洗采矿 hydraulicking水力采矿

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erosive adj. 侵蚀性的，腐蚀性的 solution mining 溶浸釆矿 chloride n. 氯化物 leaching n. 堆浸 waste rock 废石 scheduling n. 进度计划 crude adj. 天然的，未加工的 slope n. 边坡，斜坡，斜面 terminology n. 专门用语，术语 shovel n. 铲子；锹，铲运机 bench slope 平台 toe n. 脚趾；足尖部 crest n. 顶，峰 pit limits 采坑境界 berm n. 台阶 berm slope angle 台阶坡面角 geotechnical adj. 岩石力学的 haul vt.&vi. 拖，拉，运输 Spiral adj. 螺旋形的 gradient n. 道路的斜度，坡度 zigzag adj. 锯齿形的，之字形的，Z字形的 haulage n. 货运业，运费 (10) Open Pit Blasting Technology 露天爆破技术 Drilling and Blasting is by far the most economical means to fragment and move material. The initial blast design depends mainly on the hardness of the rock, the geologic structure of the rockmass, the location of the mine relative to vibration sensitive structures, available drilling equipment and the excavation rate and capacity of the mining equipment. A high level of field controls must be continuously maintained in order to gain reliable quantitative data that can then be used to refine the blast design.

To begin，a well-designed blast consists of a quantity of explosives placed into a series of blastholesdrilled into a rockmass. The amount of explosive energy generated by the explosives must be adequate to overcome the tensile strength of the rockmass.

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This series of blastholes must then be detonated in a controlled sequence as to control the burden and spacing dimensions between adjacent holes. A well-designed blast will efficiently utilize the explosive energy in order to result in optimum fragmentation and

burden movement. One of the negative impacts of blasting is ground and air vibration. Proper burden spacing design dimensions maintained through accurate field controls typically will yied reduced ground vibrations as the energy is used to fragment and move rock and not to create excessive ground vibrations through energy over- confinement. A well designed blast is showed as Fig. 2.2.

1.Surface Blast Design

Surface blast designs require the selection of hole spacing S，burden B, charge weight W or powder factor PF, top-hole stemming length T, and subgrade drilling depth J. Design parameters are shown in Fig. 2. 3. Borehole patterns are drilled square (S/B = 1) or rectangular (S/B> = 1) on center or offset ( staggered ) ? The sequence of hole initiation timing, S/B ratio, actual timing between charge detonations, and number of blasthole rows determine the shape of the broken rock pile as well as the degree of rock fragmentation.

An empirical approach is taken in blast design as blasting is a never-ending process of fine-tuning and modifications. This approach is necessary due to the many factors that cannot be controlled, such as geology and explosive loading conditions.

Borehole diameter and burden are perhaps the most important factors used in design. Burden values should be selected based on geology and explosive energy output. Usually hole diameter is set by the drill rig capacity, which is matched to the range of hole depths anticipated for the job. It is desirable to select a size that will provide an adequate powder factor (the ratio of explosive quantity used to the yield ofrock breakage) for breskage while distributing the explosive evenly throughout the hole depth.

Fragmentation and particle size distribution are a function of hole diameter and burden.The capacity of the excavation equipment dictates the required fragmentation.Thecharge length to charge diameter ratio for a cylindrical charge should be five or

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Fig.2.3 Blasthole section view (A) showing termionlogy used in design and ( B) pattern array for layout of holes

greater.

Many blast designs use decked charges formed by dividing the explosive column into two or more individual charges, initiated on the same or different time delays, separated by inert stemming material. Decking is employed to ①conserve explosive use adjacent to weak rock zones, faults, or clay seams ；②reduce the charge quantity detonated on one time delay, lowering ground vibrations ；or (3) bring the powder column up higher in the hole to assure good breakage near the collar. Decked charges should be separated by stemming materials at a length beyond which two adjacent decks do not affect one another. If interdeck stemming is too small，the deck designed to initiate on the earlier time delay may prematurely initiate the second deck. This situation is referred to as sympathetic detonation and may lead to excessively high ground vibrations or flyrock. A rule of thumb for the design of interdeck stem length is to employ the hole radius dimension in feet.

2.Hole Loading Practice

Once drilled, all holes should be plugged or covered to prevent rocks and drill cuttings from filling the hole. Prior to loading, the driller’s log should be checked for

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hole depths, subdrilling, and indications of hard or soft seams, voids, and the presence of water. The blaster must check each hole for any change in conditions prior to final design. This is to ensure that all safety precautions, are considered. Abandoned

holes must be filled with cuttings to prevent flyrock.

Transporting the blasting crew and explosives to the blasting site is done once the site has been identified with markers and the site cleared of all personnel not involved in hole loading. Initiators，cap-sensitive explosives，and noncap-sensitive agents must be transported in accordance with regulations in approved vehicles，carrying classification signs. Proper tools for loading include a cloth measuring tape, a wooden tamping pole, a pair of wire cutters and strippers, a mirror, grappling hooks, and a powder punch. If the blastholes are filled with water, and a water-resistant explosive of a density greater than one is not used，the holes must be pumped or blown free of excess water.

Once the delay sequence is designed, in-hole or surface delays are placed adjacent to respective holes. Each hole is then loaded after it is measured for correct depth. If primers are used for noncap-sensitive explosives, they are made up at the time of loading. Caps or detonating cords are inserted and wrapped around the primer in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations.

A small amount of main charge is added to the hole bottom, then then the primer carefully lowered. The main charge is poured (for free-running explosives) or carefully lowered (if packaged) , while measuring the loading depth to ensure that each deck or column rises to the designed length (based on known loading density) 3. Surface Delay Blasting

Delay blasting techniques are employed to improve fragmentation, control of rock movement, overbreak, and to reduce ground vibrations. Delays are incorporated into the blast design using electric or nonelectric caps or delay connectors with detonating cord. The delay patterns used in design will determine the sequence of hole os desk initiations，thereby，dictate the overall direction of blasted rock movement and resulting fragmentation. Depending on the S/B ratio, the actual timing (in millisconds) between detonating charges will determine muck pile displacement height and distance from the bench. Fig. 2. 4 shows variations of timing patterns used for surface blasting.The effective spacing is the distance between holes in a row defined by adjacent time delays (e.g. delays by rows). Effective burden is the distance in the direction of resultant.

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mass movement. The V and echelon (diagonal) patterns are used when rock placement is restricted. Designs using two free faces usually provide improved fragmentation an throw control over those using a single face.

The design of initiation timing for multiple-hole blasting is critical to the blasting effectiveness. If the interhole delay is too short, the movement of row burdens is restricted and fragmentation is poor. High ground vibrations result, and backbreak- along the new highwall may persist, jeopardizing the stability of the slope. If interhole delays are too long, cutoffs of surface delays may occur. The minimum time for design is controlled by the stress wave travel distance in order for radial cracking to begin to develop, contributing to the detachment of the rock mass in the vicinity of the hole. This detachment forms an internal free face (or relief) to which successive detonations will interact with the reflection of stress waves.

Vocabulary

explosive n. 爆炸物，炸药 vibration n. 震动

hardness n. 硬，硬度，艰难，难度 fragmentn.碎片；片断

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blast hole n. 炮孔，炮眼 tensile adj. 拉力的，张力的 detonatevt.& vi. (使）爆炸，引爆 Burden] n. 抵抗线 chargevt. 装药 powder factor 单位耗药量，炸药比 stemming n. 填塞物，堵塞物 subgrade n. 地基；路基 fine-tuning 精调谐，微调 Borehole n. 钻孔 rig n. 装备；钻探设备 Breakagen. 破损；破坏 Dictate n. 指示；命令 deck adj. 分层的 sympathetic adj. 赞同的，支持的 flyrock n. 飞石 rule of thumb 凭感觉的方法；单凭经验的方法 subdrilling n. 超深 initiator n. 引发剂，起爆药 cap-sensitive adj. 雷管感度的 primer 火帽；雷管，起爆具 wrapvt. 包，裹；卷 overbreakn. 超爆，超挖 jeopardize] vt. 危及，损害 detachment n. 分离，分开，超脱 2.3 Stripping and Pit Development 露天矿剥离与生产 1. Surface Mining Method Select

The subject of surface mine development is large. This section covers the fundamental concepts involved in both the open pit mining of thick or steeply dipping deposits as well as the strip mining of thin，shallow，and relatively flat-lying seams or beds.

The surface mining method selected for a specific property is generally keyed to the overburden removal system, since this unit operation usually involves the greatest

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capital and operating cost components. Once the stripping method and complementary equipment have been selected, compatible equipment systems are selected for the other unit operations ( Fig. 2. 5).

Standard engineering practice dictates that various alternatives be investigated， not only for the stripping system, but also for the other unit operations. The goal is to provide maximum resource extraction at a minimum cost including both capital and operating cost considerations.

2.Pit Development

(2) Clearing and grubbing. This involves clearing the property of trees and shrubs and then removing the stumps and roots to insure a homogeneous topsoil. Grubbing is often done with rake-like grubbing attachments on agricultural tractors or dozers.

(3) Topsoil removal. Regulations dictate that the topsoil be removed and ultimately replaced upon graded spoils. Topsoil can either be stockpiled at the side of the pit area for later redistribution or hauled immediately to the graded area for redistribution.

In the latter case，the topsoil can either be hauled around the pit or across the pit on spoil bridges. The decision is made on the basis of economics considering topsoil quantities and haul distances.

Self-elevating scrapers are the most common means of removing and redistributing topsoil, although loader/truck or wheel excavator/belt systems find application where topsoil quantities are large and/or haul distances are long.

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Topsoil thicknesses are usually determined by auger drilling, and the regulations dictate that a minimum of 150 mm of material be removed. In cases where multiple soil horizons (i. e. A，B, and C) exist, these layers must be removed separately and stockpiled and redistributed to maintain the integrity of each horizon. Topsoil storage, if longer term, must be revegetated to prevent water and wind erosion.

(11) Mine drainage and erosion and sediment control. For many years，it has been good operating practice to divert surface water from active pit areas to eliminate in-pit water problems. Diversion ditch systems were utilized to deflect the water and direct it into natural drainages.

①Under current regulations, this practice has been expanded to include the following：

(4) Surface drainage from disturbed areas must pass through a sediment pond. 3 Effluent from the ponds must meet limitations of pH, iron, manganese, total suspended solids, etc.

4 Sedimentation ponds must be constructed to standards on capacity, detention- time ,dewatering, location, slopes, etc. ； these standards, particularly the capacity standards, have been contested by industry.

(5)Discharge compliance must meet 10-year, 24-hour precipitation events. 6 Treatment is required, if necessary to meet effluent standards.

General design measures taken to meet these standards economically include minimizing the disturbed area, stabilizing backfill,diverting overland flow around or through disturbed areas to reduce pond size, revegetating immediately to reduce sediment load, and separating pit water from other water to minimize treatment. (12) Regrading,Regrading or striking-off the spoil is usually accomplished with large-horsepower dozers，and final grading is done with large graders. Regulations provide a number of general guidelines including：

①Restoration to approximate original contour,2 Elimination of high walls. (5) Restoration of natural drainages to the extent possible. ④Constmction of final slopes not exceeding original slopes. (13) Productivity equal or greater than premining productivity. In addition, the regrading must be done within 180 days or with regrading kept within four spoil ridges of the active pit.

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(5 ) Topsoil replacement or redistribution. As previously discussed, scrapers, dozers，or loader/trucks are utilized in this operation with topsoil replaced continuously or from stockpile. Some preparation of the graded spoil, plowing, etc. is usually done to stabilize the topsoil bed. Traffic patterns are designed to prevent over-compaction of the bed.

(6) Revegetation. Planting is accomplished either by hydroseeding or with conventional farm equipment and must be done as soon as practical with seed selection based on postmining land use. Success is usually judged by comparison with a reference area，with production rated as some percentage of that area. Erosion must be controlled so that gullies or rills more than 276 mm in depth do not develop.

vocabulary

overburden n. 浮盖层；覆盖层；表土

compatible adj. 可以并存的，相容的，协调的 grub vi. 挖土，掘土 Shrub n. 灌木

Stump n. 树桩，树墩 Homogeneous adj同性质的，同类的

topsoil n. 表土(层）;耕作（层) stockpile n. 贮存，堆放，储备 scraper n. 平土机，铲土机 ditch n. 沟，渠

drainage n. 排水，放水 sediment n. 沉淀（物），沉积 precipitation n. 沉淀，析出

regrade v. 重整坡度，重新分类 hydroseeding n. 水力播种 gully n. 溪谷

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value of the property. Market value is the value (price) established in a public market by exchange between a willing buyer and a willing seller when neither is under duress to complete the transaction. Thus the term market suggests the idea of barter.

The term market value is often used synonymously with the term fair market value. The courts have come to accept the legal definition of fair market value as the amount in cash, or in terms reasonably equivalent to cash, for which in all probability the property would be sold by a knowledgeable owner willing but not obligated to sell to a knowledgeable purchaser who desired but is not obligated to buy. Therefore, the determination of market value of a specific mining properly can only be made by the market through an actual sales transaction. in accordance with the foregoing caveatspertaining to the absence of duress on the part of either the seller or the buyer.

Typically, mineral economists, appraisers, and government tax officials, among others, are concerned with the estimation of market value for mineral properties. This estimated market value must be based on the time arid conditions existing as of a specified date. Consequently, market value is a dynamic property that constantly changes as market conditions and expectations change. Following is a discussion of the approaches most often utilized to estimate the market value of mining properties.

There are many reasons for conducting studies on estimating the value of a mining property. Regardless of the specific purpose for estimating the value of a mining properly, the ultimate objective of the study is to arrive at a monetary value or worth for the property in question. A specific value, or range in values, for a specific properly is often required for one or more of the following purposes.

1、 Acquisition

The acquisition of mineral properties may transpire at any point in time between a raw prospect and an actual operating mine. Obviously, the actual amount of data available on a properly will depend upon where it lies within this spectrum. Depending upon the state of development of the property, the purchaser is acquiring assets with varying levels of risk. As such, the estimated value of the property must reflect not only the potential of the mineral deposit but also the relative risks associated with these assets. Certainly the distribution of value estimates for an existing operating mine would be expected to have a rather low variance as contrasted to that for a raw prospect.

2、Taxation

Mineral properties must also be valued for taxation purposes. Perhaps the classic

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technical, economic. political, and financial variables affecting the project.

(5) Present all information in a manner intelligible to the owner and suitable for presentation to prospective partners or to sources of finance. The document musl be “bankable.”

Vocabulary

Preliminaryadj.初步的，預备的，开端的 processingn. 选矿

topography n. 地形，地貌，地势 concessionary adj. 特许的，让步的

pertinent adj. 有关的，中肯的，恰当的.相宜的 regime n.政治制度.组织方法，管理体制 1.4 Mine Surveying 矿山测量

Mine surveying prarlit.es at underground and surface mines are based on plane surveying methods dating back to the time of the ancient Egyptians. These practices were refined and improved as new equipment was developed and the demand for

Of major importance in the field of mine surveying is the introduction and use of computer and laser technology for common surveying practices. Theodolites and electric distance measuring (EDM) instruments are rapidly replacing the transit and tape measures. Computers with plotters and CAD capabilities are replacing the old manual methods of planimetries and contouring. These advancements have not fully displaced all older methods, but their use is becoming more commonplace as the technology becomes more cost competitive. better accuracy is demanded, and more personnel are trained to use such technology.

1.Uniqueness of Mine Surveying

The functions of the mine surveyor are to ①provide a network of points of accurately known position. covering the entire mine property; 2、obtain the required data for the preparation of useful maps and sections ；③provide position and directional control for the guidance of the operations；④measure the progress of* the work; (5)measure the movement of rock masses and ⑥make miscellaneous surveys as

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that are too small, irregular, and/or deeply buried to be* extracted economically by surface mining methods. Furthermore，even where mineralization extends to a greater

depth in open pit mines, the rapidly increasing amount of overburden to be handled imposes economic limits beyond which mining must either be abandoned or converted from surface to underground operations. The conclusions, although valid，are sometimes outweighed by a new set of factors that arise from differences in the physical character of mineral deposits available for future exploitation and from changes in technology, markets, and public policy.

Open pit design is conducted in several stages. They consist, technically, of devising a scheme or set of alternative schemes, followed by an evaluation and selection of the optimum scheme. The most economic final pit design often depends on factors that are largely outside the mining engineer's control, such as the geometric outline of the ore body, the distribution of ore within the ore body topography., maximum allowable slope angles, etc. The economics of the mining program, however,

depends upon the choice of mining ratio, production rates, and equipment9all of which are

determined by the mining engineer.

2、Open Pit Terminology

Persons closely associated with open pit mines have coined terras or phrases for certain operations or for defining commonly occurring geometric parameters in open pit mining.The following are terms that commonly occur in open pit mine planning.

A bench may be defined as a ledge that forms a single level of operation above which mineral or waste materials are mined back to a bench face. The mineral or waste is removed in successive layers, each of which is a bench. Several benches may be in operation simultaneouslyin different parts of, and at different elevations in the open pit mine. The bench height is the vertical distance between the highest point of the bench, or the bench crest, and the toe of the bench.

The bench height is normally governed by the specifications of operating machines, such as drills and shovels, and by government mining regulations.

The bench slope is the angle, measured in degrees，between the horizontal and an imaginary line joining the bench toe and crest .

Pit limits are the vertical and lateral extent to which the open pit milling may be

economically conducted. The cost of removing overburden or waste material vs. the mineable value of the ore is usually the prime factor controlling the limits of the pit.

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sand and gravel or gravels containing gold, tin, diamonds, platinum, titanium, or coal. Hydraulic king utilizes a high-pressure stream of water that is directed against the mineral deposit (normal]) but not always a placer) undercutIing it, and causing its removal by the erosive actions of the water. Dredging performed from floating vessels, accomplishes the extraction of the minerals mechanically or hydraulically. Solution mining includes both horehole mining, such as the methods used to extract sodium chloride or sulfur, and leaching, either through drillholes or in heaps on the surface. Placer and solution mining are among the most economical of all mining methods but can only be applied to limited categories of mineral deposits.

1. Introduction

An open pit mine is an excavation or cut made at the surface of the ground for the purpose of extracting ore and which is open to the surface for the duration of the mine's life. To expose and mine the ore, it is generally necessary to excavate and relocate large quantities of waste rock. The main objective in any commercial mining operation is the exploitation of the mineral deposit at the lowest possible cost with a view of maximizing profits. The selection of physical design parameters and the scheduling of the ore and waste extraction program are complex engineering decisions of enormous economic significance. The planning of an open pit mine is, therefore, basically an exercise in economics, constrained by certain geologic and mining engineering aspects.

Several factors are significant indicators of economic and technological trends in surface mining. Among these are increasing production, a shift in emphasis from underground to surface mining, a decline in ore grade and quality of some crude materials, and, with few exceptions, an increase in productivity of labor. Increasing production is the result of a growing demand for more mineral commodities, induced by an increase in population and per capita consumption.

Paradoxically, productivity has increased even with declining grade and quality, which is indicative of the rapid technological improvement taking place in open pit mining techniques. This pattern of change has permitted production from many formerly uneconomic mineral resources occurring near the surface at a time when higher-grade ores are inadequate to meet increasing demand.

It is generally conceded that surface mining is more advantageous than underground mining in terms of recovery, grade control, economy, flexibility of operation, safety, and the working environment. There are, however, many deposits P19

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clarity are essential attributes of a good calculation book.

5. Maps and Sections

Formerly all mine maps were hand-drawn. Now, however, with the ever- increasing use of computer graphics, many maps are produced by plotters. Even so, there is continual need for updating maps manually.

Great care should always be taken in laying out the original grids to make sure that the horizontal and vertical lines are exactly perpendicular and that the lines are exactly spared. Only if this is correctly done can the subsequent work be plotted properly.

Each map should be numbered and the master tracing indexed and filed for easy reference and recovery. Storage should be in a fireproof vault. Very important maps should also be microfilmed and the films stored in a different location for greater security. Working copies are easily reproduced or copied as needed. surveying [ ss'veiiq] n. llieodolite [ 0ifodalait] n. plani meter [ plae'niraitd] n. contouring [ ksn'tugrig ] n. Vocabulary 测量 经纬仪 测面器，求积计 作等值线，作悝值线（法〉； 外型修整 测量鉴定人 方向的 不同种类的，多种多样的； 三角测量，分成三角形 三边测量（术） 导线测量 视距，视距仪器 空气的，空中的 照明；强度；彩灯，灯饰 十字准线，交叉丝?，瞄准器 周围的，包围着的 子午圈，子午线 垂直的；成直角的 纬度 surveyor [ &a'veia] n. directional [ di'rekjanal] adj. miscellaneous [ imisi'leinps] adj. Iriangiilation [ traijaerj^jii'leiJon] n. frilateration [ txaijl^to'reijon n. travelling [ .trsevasin」n. stadia [丨steidjd] n. aerial [ 'eari^l, adj. iilimiination [ ijjuimi'neij'an j n. crosshairs [ knjslicaz] n. meridianLma'ridian ] ri. peipendirular [ tp3：pQn'dikjulo] adj. latitude [ ?lastitjuid] n. ambient [ 'a^mbiant _ adj. P18

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elevations will be positive.

A level surface is considered to be a plane, and the meridians are considered to be parallel and

perpendicular to the lines of latitude. These simplifying assumptions are entirely satisfactory for

compact mining operations, but may not be adequate for distances exceeding several miles. In such cases，the principles of geodesy must be invoked. 3 underground traversing

The traverse is of paramount impottance in inderground surveying. Since mine

workings provide the only access to a given point, all lines must be carried through them. If these workings are narrow and tortuous, the traversing will be difficult and less accurate. However, modern mechanized mining commonly requires more space, making surveying operations easier. Even so, traversing is the only practical means of carrying line and grade to the headings.

Stations Underground traverse stations should bo located in the back or on the roof，behind the working faces wherever possible. This prevents their being disturbed or destroyed by current mining operations. The positions of these stations should be selected with care so as to afford convenience in setting up under them and good lines of sight in all directions.

Station identification Each station should be identified by a permanent marker. This can be of metal, usually brass or plastic. If of metal, the tag should not be in contact with the spad, particularly in wet or damp locations, as galvanic auction can cause accelerated corrosion that will destroy the station. A wide variety of tags in different sizes, shapes, and compositions is available. 4. Calculations

The mine surveyor should develop the habit of making all his calculations in a bound workbook, except for those that are required in loose-leaf form for convenient filing. As these books become filled, they should be indexed and filed for easy back reference.

If the work involves computer printouts or calculator tapes, it is wise to attach these in appropriate fashion. The goal is to facilitate the work, to be meticulously accurate, and to leave a record so complete that subsequent readers will have no difficulty in understanding what was done and in checking the work. Neatness and P6

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Area selection is also influenced by the commodity being sought，exploring for gold occurs in a different manner and within different rocks and areas to exploration for oil or natural gas or iron ore. Areas which are prospective for gold may not be prospective for other metals and commodities.

Area selection may also be influenced by previous finds, a practice affectionately named nearology, and may also be determined in part by financial and taxation incentives and tariff systems of individual nations. The role of infrastructure may also be crucial in area selection t because the ore must be brought to market and infrastructure costs may render isolated ore uneconomic.

The ultimate result of an area selection process is the pegging or notification of exploration licenses，known as tenements. (14) Target Generation

The target generation phase involves investigations of the geology via mapping, geophysics and conducting geochemical or intensive geophysical testing of the surface and subsurface geology. In some cases, for instance in areas covered by soil, alluvium and platform cover, drilling may be performed directly as a mechanism for generating targets,

(15) Geophysical Methods

Geophysical instruments play a large role in gathering geological data which is used in mineral exploration. Instruments are used in geophysical surveys to check for variations in gravity, magnetism electromagnetism (resistvity of rocks) and a number of different other variables in a certain area.The most effective and widespread method of gathering geophysical data is via flying airborne geophysics.

Airborne magnetometers are used to search for magnetic anomalies in the Earth's magnetic field. The anomalies are an indication of concentrations of magnetic minerals such as magnetite, pyrrhotite and ilmenite in the Earth's crust. It is often the case that such magnetic anomalies are caused by mineralization events and associated metals.

Ground-based geophysical prospecting in the target selection stage is more limited, due to the time and cost. The most widespread use of ground-based geophysics is electromagnetic geophysics which detects conductive minerals such as minerals within more resistive host rocks.

Ultraviolet lamps may cause certain minerals to fluoresce, and is a key tool in

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