大学英语跨文化交际unit2 - 图文

?Homework of Unit 1: What are stumbling blocks（障碍物；绊脚石） in intercultural communication? How to overcome these blocks? 什么是跨文化间的交际，如何跨越这些障碍。

Unit Two Culture and Communication I.

Warm Up

Please read the story on page 38, then answer the questions: 1. Why was Tom considered a rude host by his visitors?

2. How can you explain the fact that Tom is misunderstood when he actually wants to be kind and friendly to the visitors? II. Reading

1. Read the article of ―What Is Culture‖. What can you learn about culture from it? Please answer the questions followed? ? Supplement:

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory (p41)

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What is culture?

1. Origins of culture in English and Chinese

(1) ―Culture‖ is a loan word from Latin meaning ―cultivating or tilling the land‖. It was originally associated with physical activities and production of food. Later, its meaning was extended to include mental, moral, aesthetic, educational and intellectual activities. In contemporary English its original meaning is still retained. (2) ―文化‖ is a native word in Chinese. ―文‖ and ―化‖ were used together in the Warring States. ―人文‖ in ―观乎人文，以化成天下‖ refers to the interwoven relationships between the monarch and his subjects, fathers and sons, husbands and wives, brothers and friends, and ―化‖ means ―changing and/or cultivating‖. When used together, ―文‖ and ―化‖ mean ―以文教化‖. They were combined into one word in Han Dynasty, with its meaning contrasted with ―nature‖ on one hand and ―primitiveness‖ and ―savage‖ on the other hand. So ―文化‖ was originally associated with mental activities. 2. Definition

The term ―culture‖ does not correspond perfectly with ―文化‖. For examples:他没有文化(He is illiterate.)

―What really binds men together is their culture--- the ideas and the standards they have in common.‖

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— R. Benedict According to The Concise Oxford Dictionary, culture is ―the arts and other manifestations of human intellectual achievement regarded collectively‖.

Defining Culture from the Anthropological Perspective:

? ―Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and especially their attached values‖. -----Kroeber and Kluckhohn Defining Culture from the Psychological Perspective

? culture is \collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one category of people from another\

----Geert Hofstede Defining Culture from the Sociological Perspective

? ―Culture is defined as a pattern of learned, group-related perception — including both verbal and nonverbal language attitudes, values, belief system, disbelief systems, and behavior‖. Defining Culture from the Intercultural Perspective

? ―Culture is a system of shared beliefs, values, customs,

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behaviours and artifacts that are transmitted from generation to generation through learning.‖

----[Bates and Plog]

There are altogether no less than 250 definitions of culture by scholars from several different fields. Despite so, almost all scholars agree that culture has two senses: the broad sense and the narrow sense. A. Culture in its broad sense

Culture is the attribute of man, or, whatever distinguishes man from the rest part of the world is culture. Based on this, Prof. Lin Dajin provides a Chinese counterpart definition: 文化是人类区别于动物的综合特征. It may include the following components:

①Materials man has got to satisfy his needs, including science and technology, such as space shuttles, airplanes, and cars;

②Social institutions and organizations man has established, including socioeconomic institutions, politico-legal institutions, and religious organizations;

③Knowledge about nature and man himself and artistic development, including various subjects such as mathematics and education, and artistic forms such as literature, painting, music and dance;

④Language and other communication systems such as gestures and facial expressions;

⑤Customs, habits and behavioral patterns;

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⑥Value systems, world views, national traits, aesthetic standards and thinking patterns.

Culture in this sense is also called ―large C culture‖ or academic culture or culture with a big C(大写字母的文化). It‘s culture in general, culture of all nationalities and ethnic groups. But we know there are specific cultures such as Chinese, American and British. According to this sense, specific culture can be defined (by Prof. Lin Dajin) as the comprehensive features that distinguish one group (be it a nation, a race or any section of people) of people from another (一个民族区别于另一个民族的综合特征). ﹡ Dominant culture and subculture/co-culture

? Culture is subdivided into dominant culture(主流文化), mainstream culture, and subculture(s)（亚文化）, which coexist within each culture.

? A subculture resembles像；类似于 a culture in that it usually encompasses a relatively large number of people and represents the accumulation of generations of human striving. However, subcultures have some important differences: they exist within dominant cultures and are often based on economic or social class, ethnicity, race, or geographic region.

Today the tendency is to say ?co-culture‘ and sub-groups to avoid prejudice.

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B. Culture in its narrow sense

It's called ―small c culture‖ or anthropological culture or culture with a small c (小写字母的文化). It can be defined as life way of a population, Culture in this sense emphasizes what characterizes the way of life of a people, including components ②, ③, ④, ⑤ and ⑥, with components ②, ④, ⑤ and ⑥ as the central part.

Some scholars are interested in ―large C culture‖ while others in ―small c culture‖, depending on the purpose of investigation. We shall focus on culture in its narrow sense. ﹡Cultural Identity文化认同

? Cultural identity refers to one‘s sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic种族的 group. People consciously identify themselves with a group that has a shared system of symbols and meanings as well as norms for conduct. 3. Properties of culture (1) It is human specific.

(2) It is a social phenomenon (contrast between society and nature). It is the embodiment of human knowledge, skill and cooperative labor.

(3) It is a national phenomenon for each nature has its own culture. (4) It is a historical phenomenon. Each culture has some history and each generation contributes to it. But culture won‘t necessarily

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remain the same. (5) It is general and abstract.

2. Culture can be viewed as an iceberg. Nine-tenths of an iceberg is out of sight. The part of the cultural iceberg that is above the water is easy to be noticed. The other part that is hidden below the water and is outside of conscious awareness. It is sometimes called ―deep culture‖. But what are the things in a culture that can be said to be above or below the water – within or out of our awareness? The Structure of Culture

A. Overt Culture(公开文化层) Exposed Material Culture, Visible and Easily DescribedB. Covert Culture(隐蔽文化层) Hidden in the material culture, Soft or Spiritual culture

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3. Read the article on page 45-48:

From this article, we can learn there are three characteristics of culture – coherent, learned, the view of a group of people; and there are three things culture does – culture ranks what is important (or cultures teach values or priorities), culture furnishes attitudes, and culture dictates how to behave.

4. Decide whether the following are examples of communications or not? Why?

1)You complain to your instructor about your course credits through telephone.

2) Two blind people exchange ideas in Braille.

3) A German businessman negotiates, through an interpreter, with his Chinese counterpart.

4) A farmer gives instructions to his ploughing cow. 5) A programmer issues commands to a computer. 6) Tom talks to himself while flourishing his toy gun. 7) You send an e-mail message to an American friend. 8) Jane lies in bed reading a novel. The Basics of Communication:

Communication occurs if: 1. two or more people; 2. contact; 3. a

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shared language; 4. an exchange of information.

5. Read the article of ―Elements of Communication‖. What are the elements of communication?

? Context: four aspects (the physical setting, historical aspect, psychological aspect, culture aspect)

? Participants: three variables (relationship, gender, culture) ? Messages: meanings, symbols, encoding and decoding. ? Channels: the method used to deliver a message (sound, sight, smell, taste, touch, or any combination of these)

? Noise (干扰): a term used for factors that interfere with the exchange of messages, including external noise, internal noise and semantic noise. Noise is inevitable.

? Feedback: the response of a receiver to a sender‘s message Please answer the questions followed. ? Supplement: What Is Communication?

There are altogether 126 definitions of communication. Among them the most accepted one defined by L. A. Samovar, et al. Definition:

? ―Communication may be defined as that which happens whenever someone responds to the behavior or the residue of the behavior of another person.‖

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---- L. A. Samovar, et al

A few key points about this definition:

① The behavior includes verbal behavior and non-verbal behavior. For example, you meet an acquaintance in the street. You smile and nod to each other without uttering a word. Then your behavior is non-verbal, and your communication is also non-verbal. So according to this, communication can be divided into verbal communication and non-verbal communication.

② As to the meaning of ―behavior residue\leave a note before you go out, and your roommate sees it when coming back and will make certain response. Then this note is your behavior residue. In this case, whether your roommate does something about or just ignores the note, as long as he receives the note, communication happens, but it is non-simultaneous. Therefore, communication can also be divided into simultaneous communication and non-simultaneous communication.

③ A behavior, whether intentional or unintentional, conscious or unconscious, once is received, communication occurs. For example, when you are giving a speech, you may blush (unintentional) or repeat the same movement (unconscious), which gives your audience a message that you are nervous.

④ Feedback is not a prerequisite of communication. So there may be

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one-way communication. Hu Wenzhong of Beijing Foreign Studies University once said translation is in fact a kind of (intercultural) communication, because when one is translating, one is in fact communication interculturally with the writer of the original work. In deed, written translation is in most cases one-way communication. 2. Factors Affecting Communication Eight specific ingredients of communication:

① the source (行为源): a person who has a need to communicate ② encoding (编码): an internal activity in which a source creates a message through the selection of verbal and non-verbal symbols (行为源组织信息的内心活动).

③ message (信息): the result of encoding, once spoken out and received, becomes a message.

④ channel (渠道): the physical means by which the message is transmitted.

⑤ the responder (反应者): the person who intercepts the message and as a consequence becomes linked to the source.

⑥ decoding (译码): the internal activity of the receiver‘s information processing.

⑦ response (反应): what a receiver decides to do about the message. ⑧ feedback (反馈): feedback and response are clearly related. Response becomes feedback when received by the source.

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? Of the eight ingredients, the source and the responder, encoding and decoding, are the most important because they are related to persons.

Some personal factors may affect communication effectiveness: ① sex

② age

③ temperament (e.g. introverted and extroverted) ④ occupation (e.g. businessman, officers, etc.) ⑥ knowledge structure

⑦ life experience

⑤ social status

Uncertain factors, varying at different time:

① intention: though disgusted, you nod or smile for politeness. ② mood: someone tells you that it is useless to live in this world. You might have different responses.

③ status at that time: you, as a guest, can‘t ask the host to help himself to some dish. Objective factors:

① time: you never say ―Good morning‖ in the evening. ② place:

③ occasion: you never say ―节哀顺便‖ in a wedding ceremony. 3. Communication Types

① based on symbols used: verbal and non-verbal ② based on media: direct and indirect ③ based on feedback: two-way and one-way

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④ based on numbers of the sources and responders: one/group-to-one and one/group-to-group

⑤ based on set responder: directed and non-directed

⑥ based on the source‘s intention: intentional and unintentional ⑦ based on the responder‘s activeness: active and passive ⑧ based on time: simultaneous and non-simultaneous

4. Characteristics of Communication (Essentials of Human Communication) p68-73

① Communication is dynamic. It is an on-going, never-changing activity. We are sure to be influenced by other‘s message, whether gradually or radically.

② Communication is symbolic: Symbols are central to the communication process because they represent the shared meanings that are communicated. A symbol is a word, action, or object that stands for or represents a unit of meaning. People's behaviors are frequently interpreted symbolically, as an external representation of feelings, emotions, and internal states.

③ Communication is systematic: Communication does not occur in isolation or in a vacuum, but rather is part of a larger system. We send and receive messages not in isolation, but in a specific setting. Setting and environment help determine the words and actions we generate. Dress, language, topic selection, and the like are all

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adapted to context.

④ It involves making inferences. ⑤ It has a consequence.

⑥ It is interactive (interpersonal communication). ⑦ It is irreversible. ⑧ It is contextual.

⑨ Communication is self-reflective: Human beings have a unique ability to think about themselves, to watch how they define the world, and to reflect on their past, present, and future.

6. Match each of what the first speaker says on the left with what the second speaker says on the right to form a dialogue that will make sense, and then decide what is possibly meant by the second speaker in the dialogue. (p57)

7. Read the passage of ―Communicating or Communicating Effectively‖ and try to explain why we sometimes find it very difficult to communicate effectively with others, and then suggest what we can do about it.

III. Case Study: Students are required to read the cases given

carefully and try to analyse them from the viewpoint of IC.

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