国际市场营销 名词解释 简答 及论述

国际市场营销

期末考试的题型及分值如下：

（1）单项选择题（15题*1分=15分） （2）判断题（15题*1分=15分） （3）名词解释（5题*4分=20分） （4）简答题（5题*6分=30分） （5）案例分析（2题*10分=20分）

Chapter 8 Developing a Global Vision Through Marketing Research

名解：

1. Marketing research

The systematic gathering, recording, and analyzing of data to provide information useful to marketing decision making.

2. Secondary data

Data collected already by some other agency, such as government statistics, NGO statistics, etc.

3. Primary data

Data collected specifically for the particular research project.

4. Expert opinion

The key in using expert opinion to help in forecasting demand is triangulation, that is comparing estimates produce by different sources.

5. Parallel translation

It is used to overcome the inaccurate translation, in which more than two translators are used for the back translation; results are compared, differences discussed, and the most appropriate translation selected. 6. Back translation

A questionnaire is translated from a language to another, a second party translates it back into the original, and the two original language versions are compared.

简答：

1. Discuss the problems of gathering secondary data in foreign markets.

Availability of data 资料的可获得性

The quantity and quality of marketing-related data is not available in many countries. Even in some countries, substantial data collection has been initiated （开始收集） only

recently.

Reliability of data 资料的可靠性

Official statistics(官方数据) are sometimes too optimistic(乐观的)，reflecting national pride rather than reality, while tax structures(税收制度) and fear of the tax collector often adversely affect data.

Comparability of data 资料的可比性

In some countries, data can be many years out of date or have been collected on an infrequent schedule.

Though some countries are now gathering reliable data, there are no historical data to compare with the current information.

2. What are some problems created by language and the ability to comprehend the questions in collecting primary data? How can a foreign marketer overcome these difficulties? P195

在收集原始资料时，由于语言和理解能力带来的困难有那些？外国营销人员如何克服这些困难？

? ? ? ?

Difficulties

Ability to communicate opinions 表达观点的能力 Sampling in field survey 实地调查中的抽样 Language and comprehension 语言与理解 Willingness to respond. 回答的意愿 Ways to overcome the problems

The researcher must possess a high degree of cultural understanding of the market in which research is being conducted.

研究人员应对所研究市场的文化有相当的理解。

A creative talent for adapting research methods is necessary. 必须有修正研究结果的创造性能力

3. Problems in international marketing research

? Stem from differences among countries

? Range from inability or unwillingness of respondents to communicate their opinions ? Inadequacies in questionnaire translation

4. The scope of international marketing research? Why is international marketing research generally broader in scope than domestic marketing research?

? ? ? ? ? ?

Economic and demographic

Cultural, sociological and political climate Overview of market conditions

Summary of technological environment Competitive situation

Because a country’s political stability, cultural attributes and geographic characteristics are some of the kinds of information not ordinarily gathered by the domestic marketing research department, but they are required for a sound assessment of a foreign market.

5. The process of international research?

? Define the research problem and establish the research objectives.

? ? ? ? ?

Determine the sources of information to fulfill the research objectives Consider the costs and benefits of the research effort

Gather the relevant data from secondary or primary sources, or both Analyze, interpret and summarize the results

Effectively communicate the results to decision makers

Chapter 9 Global marketing management: Planning and Organization

名解

1. Tactical planning

The process of taking the strategic plan and breaking it down into specific, short term actions and plans.( or pertains to specific actions and to the allocation of resources used to implement strategic planning goals in specific markets )

2. Corporate planning 公司计划

Corporate planning is essentially long term, incorporating generalized goals for the enterprises as a whole.

公司计划是长远的，包含整合公司的总目标。

3. Strategic planning

? An organization's process of defining its strategy, or direction, and making decisions on

allocating its resources to pursue this strategy, including its capital and people.

? Various business analysis techniques can be used in strategic planning, including SWOT

analysis, GE/McKinsey portfolio analysis, COPE analysis, PEST analysis, STEER analysis, and EPISTEL.

(or it is conducted by the highest levels of management and deals with products, capital, research and the long-and short-term goals of the company.) 4. Licensing 许可证协议

? A means of establishing a foothold in foreign markets without large capital outlays

是一种不需要大量资金支出就可以在国外建立一个立足点的办法。 ? A favorite strategy for small and medium-sized companies

对于中小公司来说是个最好的战略。

? Legitimate means of capitalizing on intellectual property in a foreign market ? 这是一种在国外市场利用知识产权获利的合法方式。

5. Franchising 特许经营

? Franchiser provides a standard package of products, systems, and management services 特许

方提供产品，系统和管理服务。

? Franchise provides market knowledge , capital, and personal involvement in management。被

特许方提供市场知识，资金和管理人员。

? Expected to be the fastest-growing market-entry strategy 有望成为发展最快的市场进入战

略 简答：

1. Discuss the benefits to an MNC of accepting the global market concept. Explain the three points that define a global approach to international marketing.（全球营销的好处，内容，程序，以及进入国际市场的方法 参照P204-P210）

1.The benefits of global marketing全球营销的好处:

2. The process of planning:

a. Preliminary analysis and screening-matching company and country b. Defining target markets and adapting the marketing mix accordingly c. Developing the marketing plan d. Implement and control

The International Planning ProcessP207 The entry methods: (P210 图)

Chapter 10 Products and Services for Consumers

名解：

1. Green marketing

Concerns the environmental consequences of a variety of marketing activities. 2. Diffusion 新产品扩散

The process by which innovation spreads. 革新扩散的过程。 3. Innovation 革新

From a sociological viewpoint, any idea perceived as new by a group of people is an innovation

从社会学角度看，任何概念只要被某一群人看做新颖的 就是一种革新。 4. Product homologation 产品同化

is used to describe the changes mandated by local product and service standards. 用来描述由当地产品和服务标准强制要求的改动。 5. Global brands

Ideally gives the company a uniform worldwide image and enhance efficiency and cost

savings when introducing other products with the brand name. 全球品牌使公司在全世界拥有一个统一的形象,同时在引进与这个品牌有关的产品时可以提高效率，节约成本。 ? The Internet and other technologies accelerate the pace of the globalization of brands ? Ideally gives the company a uniform worldwide image ? Balance

? Ability to translate

6. Product Component Model Core Components 核心成分

? Physical product——the platform that contains the essential technology

物质产品 即含有关键技术的平台 ? Design features 设计特性 ? Functional features 功能特性 Packaging Component 包装成分 ? Price价格 ? Quality 质量 ? Packages 包装 ? Styling 式样 ? Trademark 商标

? Brand name 商标名称

Support Services Component 支持服务成分 ? Deliveries 送货 ? Warranty 保证 ? Spare parts 零配件

? Repair and maintenance 维修和保养 ? Installation 安装 ? Instructions 指导

? Other related services 其他相关服务 7 Quality 质量

Quality can be defined on two dimensions:质量可以从两个方面来定义 ? Market-perceived quality 市场感知的质量 ? Performance quality 性能质量 8.COE(country-of-origin effect):

can be defined as any influence that country of manufacture, assembly or design has on a consumer’s positive or negative perception of a product.

简答：

1. What are the three major components of a product? Discuss their importance to

product adaptation.

? its core, the physical product and all its functional features

? the packaging component that includes the physical package in which the product is

presented, as well as the brand name, trademark, styling and design features, price and quality levels

? the support services component, which completes the product buyers receive and from

which the bundle of satisfactions received are derived.（P236） 2. Adaption文化适应含义及影响（文化适应和强制适应的含义及影响） ? Physical or mandatory adaptation

? Products may have to change in a number of ways to meet the physical or mandatory

requirements of a new market. eg. Legal, economic, political, technological, climate. ? Green marketing adaptation

? Green marketing concerns the environmental consequences of a variety of marketing

activities. Two critical issues of it are the control of the packaging component of solid waste and consumer demand for environmentally friendly products. ? Cultural adaptation

? A product is more than a physical item, it is a bundle of satisfactions(or utilities) that the

buyer receives like primary function, psychological attributes, norms, values, behavior patterns. ? Innovative products adaptation

? From a sociological viewpoint, any idea perceived as new by a group of people is an

innovation. 3. The characteristics and barriers of services for consumers? 服务业全球营销的特点及

障碍

Characteristics: ? Intangibility 无形性 ? Inseparability 不可分割性 ? Heterogeneity 不均匀性 ? Perishability 非持久性

Barriers: ? Protectionism

? Controls on transborder data flow ? Protection of intellectual property ? Cultural requirements for adaptation 4. Global Brands or National Brands?

Economies of scale Development costs

Promotion of a single brand product Building brand awareness Extensive media overlap Prestige image of the brand

5. What are the influences of Country-of-origin on brands? 原产地对品牌的影响有哪

些？

Country of Origin Effect (COE) can be defined as any influence that the country of manufacture, assembly, or design has on a consumer’s positive or negative perception of a product. .原产地效应被定义为产品的涉及，制造，装配国对消费者对产品的积极或消极的看法的影响。

? When the customer is aware of the country of origin, there is the possibility that the

place of manufacture will affect product/brand image. 当消费者了解到原产地的时候，该生产地可能会影响产品或者品牌的形象。 ? Consumers have stereotypes about specific countries and specific product categories

that they judges ”best”. 消费者对某些国家和某类产品存在着成见，认为他们最优秀。 ? Ethnocentrism can also have country-of-origin effects such as “buy local” effect..种族优

越感也有原产地效应,如买国货。 ? Countries are also stereotyped on the basis of whether they are industrialized, in the

process of industrializing, or developing.人们对国家也存在着成见，其依据是该国是工业化国家还是正在向工业化过渡的国家，还是发展中国家。 ? One final generalization about COE involved fads that often surround products from

particular countries or regions in the world.有关原产地效应的最后一个结论与时尚有关，这些时尚常常围绕世界上某些国家和地区的产品。

Chapter 11 products and services for business

名解：

1. Derived demand

can be defined as demand dependent on another source. P255

2. Price–quality relationship is an important factor in marketing industrial products.( A lack of universal standards is another problem in international sales of industrial products) P259 --P307 要自己看书上

3. ISO 9000s, P261 --P309 了解一下

a series of five international industrial standards (ISO 9000–9004) originally designed by the International Organization for Standardization in Geneva to meet the need for product quality assurances in purchasing agreements.

(The series describes three quality system models, defines quality concepts, and gives guidelines for using international standards in quality system)

4. Relationship marketing

a. Building long-term relationship with customers is a viable strategy for business- to-business marketing.

b. It shifts the focus away from price to service and long-term benefits.

c. The reward is loyal customers that translate into substantial long-term profits. d. Focusing long-term relationship building will be especially important in most international markets where culture dictates stronger ties between people and

companies.

简答：

1. Stages of development/industrialization?

a. The traditional society

The most important industrial demand will be associated with natural resources extraction. b. Preconditions for takeoff

Manufacturing is beginning. Primary needs will be related to infrastructure development. c. Takeoff

Manufacturing of both semidurable and nondurable consumer goods has begun. Goods demanded relate to equipment and supplies to support manufacturing. d. Drive to maturity

These are industrialized countries. Their focus is more on low-cost manufacturing of a varied of consumer and some industrial goods. They buy all categories of industrial products and services. e. The age of mass consumption

These are countries where design activities are going on and manufacturing techniques are being developed, and they are mostly service economies.

2. Why there are greater market similarities among industrial goods customers than

among consumer goods customers?为什么工业品用户之间与消费品顾客之间相比，具有更多的市场相似之处？

First is the inherent nature of the product: industrial products and services are used in the process of creating other goods and services; consumer goods are in their final form and are consumed by individuals and/or households

奇异是产品固有特性：工业产品和服务用于创造其他产品和服务；消费品是最终产品，为个人所消费。

Second, the motive or intent of the users differs: industrial consumers are seeking profits, whereas the ultimate consumers is seeking satisfaction.

其二是使用者的动机或者意向不同：工业用户追求利润，而最终消费者最求满足。 254 302

Chapter 12 International Marketing Channels

名解：

1. Agent Middlemen

Work on sales in the commission and arrange for sales in the foreign country but do not take title to the merchandise.

2. Merchant middlemen

Actually take title to manufacturers’ goods and assume the trading risks, so they tend to be less controllable the agent middlemen.

3. Export management company(EMC)

Is an important middleman for firms with relatively small international volume or those unwilling to involve their own personnel in the international function. 4. Complementary marketing

P283

5. Home-country middlemen 母国中间商

Or called domestic middlemen, located in the producing firm’s country, provide marketing services from a domestic base.

处于生产企业所在国的母国中间商或者国内中间商，从国内基地出发，提供营销服务。 6. Direct selling 直销

Sometimes called direct marketing, selling directly to the consumer through mail, by telephone, or door-to-door is often the approach of choice in markets with insufficient or undeveloped distribution systems.

通过邮寄，电话和上门推销的直接销售时分销系统不充分和不发达的市场的分销办法。 7. Distribution process 分销过程

Distribution process includes the physical handling and distribution of goods, the passage of ownership and the buying and selling negotiations between producers and middlemen and between middlemen and customers. 分销过程包括产品的运输和配送，所有权的转移，以及制造商和中间商及中间商和顾客之间的买卖谈判。

8. Distribution structure 分销结构

Each country market has a distribution structure through which goods pass from producers to users and within which there are a variety of middlemen. 每个国家市场都有分销结构，通过这一结构产品从制造商手里转到使用者手里，早这个结构中有各式各样的中间商。

9. Import-oriented or traditional distribution structure 进口导向的或者是传统的分销结构

In this structure, an importer controls a fixed supply of goods, and the marketing system develops around the philosophy of selling a limited supply of goods at high prices to a small number of affluent customers. 在这个系统中，进口商控制着固定的货源，其营销系统的发展思路是向少数富有顾客高价销售数量有限的商品。

10. Trading companies贸易公司

Trading companies accumulate, transport, and distribute goods from many countries. 贸易公司从许多国家购买 运输和分销商品。

11. Webb-Pomerene Export Associations ，WPEA韦伯-波默雷恩出口联合会 看书了解284

330

12. Motivating Middlemen 激励中间商 288 289 看书了解 13. Promotion 促销 297 339 看书了解即可 14. Complementary marketing补充营销

Companies with marketing facilities or contacts in different countries with excess distribution capacity or a desire for a broader product line sometimes take on additional lines for international distribution; though the formal name for such activities is complementary marketing, it is commonly called piggybacking.

在不同的国家拥有营销设施或渠道的公司，如果营销能力过剩或者希望扩大经营范围，优势在国际营销中会经营额外的产品。尽管这些活动按类别应称为补充营销，但是被俗称为顺带销售。 P283 简答：

3. 传统渠道和各种中间商特征（P275-P282）

Import-oriented distribution structure(or traditional distribution structure):

In this structure, an importer controls a fixed supply of goods, and the marketing system develops around the philosophy of selling a limited supply of goods at high prices to a small number of affluent customers.

1. 6C标准（P285—P287）/What are the factors affecting choice of channels?影响渠道选

择的因素有哪些？285 331 1. Cost 成本

The two kinds of channel cost are(1)the capital or investment cost of developing the channel and (2)the continuing cost of maintaining it.

渠道成本有两类：开发渠道的资本或投资成本，以及保持渠道畅通的维护成本。 2. Capital requirements 资本要求 3. Control 控制

The more involved a company is with the distribution, the more control it exerts. 公司对分销活动参与的越多，它对分销的控制越大。 4. coverage 覆盖面

Another major goal is full-market coverage to gain the optimum volume of sales obtainable in each market, secure a reasonable market share, and attain satisfactory market penetration.

另一个主要目标是全面战略市场以便在各个市场获得最佳销售额，获得适当的市场份额，并取得令人满意的市场渗透。 5. character 特点

The channel-of-distribution system selected must fit the character of the company and the markets in which it is doing business.

所选择的分销渠道体系必须与公司及其从事经营的市场的特点相符。 6. continuity 连续性

Channels of distribution often pose longevity problems. Manufacturers must attempt to build brand loyalty downstream in a channel.

分销渠道往往有个寿命问题。制造商必须力争在渠道的下游建立品牌忠诚。 4. 渠道管理内容(P287—P289)

a. Locating middlemen b. Selecting middlemen

Screening: Reputation, creditworthiness, market served, products carried, number of stores, store size agreement

c. Motivating middlemen d. Controlling middlemen e. Terminating middlemen

Chapter 13 Integrated Marketing Communications and International Advertising

名解

1. Integrated marketing communications（IMC）

Are composed of advertising, sales promotions, trade shows, personal selling, direct selling, and public relations—almost all are included in the Barbie campaign described in the Global Perspective. 2. Public relations

Creating good relationships with the popular press and other media to help companies communicate messages to their publics—customers, the general public, and governmental regulators—is the role of public relations. 3. Sales promotion

Are marketing activities that stimulate consumer purchases and improve retailer or middlemen effectiveness and cooperation 4. Crisis PR

The job of PR consists of not only encouraging the press to cover positive stories about companies, but also of managing unfavorable rumors, stories, and events.

简答:

1. Outline some of the major problems confronting an international advertiser.（国际广

告的障碍，不是很全面，要参考课本） ? Of all the elements of the marketing mix, decisions involving advertising are the ones most

often affected by cultural differences among country markets. Consumers reflect their culture, its style, feelings, value systems, attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions. Since advertising’s function is to ―interpret or translate the need/want satisfying qualities of product and services in terms of consumer needs, wants, desires, and aspirations,‖ the emotional appeals, symbols, persuasive approaches and other characteristics of an advertisement must coincide with cultural norms to be effective. ? Reconciling international advertising and sales promotion effort with cultural uniqueness of

markets is the challenge confronting the international or global marketer. The global advertiser is confronted with legal and tax considerations, language limitations, media limitation and production and cost limitations. These limitations must all be dealt with effectively if a company is to have an effective advertisement.

a. Legal constraints b. Linguistic limitations c. Cultural diversity d. Media limitations

e. Production and cost limitations

2. 国际广告的决策过程和步骤。

Steps of ad:

a. Perform marketing research

b. Specify the goals of communication

c. Develop the most effective messages for market segment selected d. Select effective media

e. Compose and secure a budget based on what is required to meet goals. f. Execute the campaign

g. Evaluate the campaign relative to the goals specified.

Process of ad:

a. An information source b. Encoding

c. A message channel d. Decoding e. Receiver f. Feedback g. noise

Types of sales promotion? a. cents-off

b. in-store demonstrations c. samples d. coupons e. gifts

f. product tie-ins g. contests h. sweepstakes

i. sponsorship of special events j. point-of –purchase displays

3. The international communications process consists of the following:国际沟通过程由以

下部分组成：

1 an information source 信息源 。 2 encoding 编码

3 a message channel 信息渠道 4 decoding 解码 5 receiver 接收者 6 feedback 反馈 7 noise 噪声

Chapter 14 Personal Selling and Sales Management

名解：

1. Expatriate 外派人员

P331 The expatriate salesperson may have the advantages of greater technical training, better knowledge of the company and its product line , and proven dependability.

外派人员可能接受过更多的技术训练，更加了解公司情况以及产品线，而且忠实可靠，经得起考验。

2. Separation allowance 分居津贴

If the family doesn’t go along ,the expatriates may get separation allowance for a short-term assignment.

如果外派人员的家属不能一起去，则外派人员执行短期任务可获得分居津贴 3. Virtual expatriates 虚拟外派人员

They manage operation in other countries but do not move there. 虚拟外派人员管理国外的工作 但是并不搬到那里去。 4. Repatriation 遣送回国

P342 385 简答:

1. Expatriate（外派人员）：With the increasing volume of world trade, the number of

companies relying on expatriate personnel is increasing as well

When products are highly technical, or when selling requires an extensive background of information and applications, an expatriate sales force is the best choice

The chief disadvantages of an expatriate sales force are:

? the high cost

? cultural and legal barriers and

? the limited number of high-caliber personnel willing to live abroad for extended

periods

The chief advantage of an expatriate sales of force are:

? Greater technical training

? Better knowledge of the company and its product line ? Proven dependability

? Employees are reluctant to go abroad for many reasons:

? Some find it difficult to uproot families for a two- or three-year assignment

? increasing numbers of dual career couples often require finding suitable jobs for

spouses and

? many executives believe such assignments impede their subsequent promotions

at home

2. Virtual Expatriates（虚拟外派人员）

The Internet and other advances in communications technologies are creating a new breed of expatriate, the virtual one.

3. local nationals：The historical preference for expatriate managers and salespeople from

the home country is giving way to a preference for local nationals

? This preference is because they can transcend both cultural and

legal barriers

They cost less to maintain than a staff of expatriates in some places

The disadvantages of hiring local nationals are:

? the tendency of headquarters personnel to ignore their advice.

? their influence is often reduced by their limited English, communication skills

and lack of understanding of home-office politics ? their lack of availability

4. third-country nationals

? The internationalization of business has created a pool of third-country nationals (TCNs), expatriates from their own countries working for a foreign company in a third country

? The TCNs are a group whose nationality has little to do with where they work or for whom

? American companies often seek TCNs from other English-speaking countries to avoid the double taxation costs of their American managers 5. Motivating Sales Personnel

Motivation is complicated because the firm is dealing with different cultures, sources, and philosophies

National differences must always be considered in motivating the marketing force A manager must be extremely sensitive to the personal behavior patterns of employees due to cultural differences

Individual incentives that work effectively in the United States can fail completely in other cultures.

6. Standard and matters needing attention of selecting expatriates .选择外派人员的标

准和注意事项。334 377 Standards

1. Maturity . They must work more independently than their domestic counterparts. 成熟。他们与国内同行相比，不许具有更加独立的工作能力。 2. emotional stability.稳定的情绪

3. breadth of knowledge. The ability to speak one or more other languages is always

preferable.知识面广。最好还会一门或者多门外语。 4. a positive outlook.积极乐观的态度。

5. a high level of flexibility.很强的适应能力。 6. the ability of cultural empathy .文化移情能力 7. be energetic and enjoy travel.精力充沛 喜欢旅行 matters needing attention

company should not overselling the assignment, showing the bright side of the picture, and not warning about the bleak side.

公司不应该夸大海外工作的好处，只谈有利的一面，而不提及不利的一面。

Chapter 15 Pricing for International Markets

名解：

1. Parallel market 平行市场

The possibility of a parallel market occurs whenever price differences are greater than the cost of transportation between two markets.

只要两个市场间的价格差异大于运输成本，平行市场就有可能存在。

2. Skimming 撇脂定价法

A company uses skimming when the objective is to reach a segment of the market that is relatively price insensitive and thus willing to pay a premium price for the value received. 当公司的目的是进入一个价格弹性小，消费者愿意为获得产品价值而支付高价的细分市场时，可以采用撇脂定价法 3. Cartel 卡特尔

A Cartel exists when various companies producing similar products or services work together to control markets for the types of goods and services they produce.

科特尔是生产同类产品的不同公司为了控制其产品的销售市场而进行的合作。 4. Administered pricing 管制定价

Is an attempt to establish prices for an entire market . Such prices may be arranged through the cooperation of competitions; through national, state, or local governments; or by international agreement.

管制定价试图为整个市场制定价格。这种价格可能是通过与竞争者的合作，或者通过一国的中央政府或者地方政府，或者通过国际性协议来制定的。 5. Countertrade反向贸易

Is a price tool that every international marketer must be ready to employ, and the willingness to accept a countertrade will often give the company a competitive advantage.

每一位国际营销者都必须随时准备采用反向贸易这一定价工具，乐于接受反向贸易常常会给企业带来竞争优势。 6. Price Escalation 价格升级

Excess profits exist in some international markets, but generally the cause of the disproportionate difference in price between the exporting country and importing country , here termed price escalation is the added costs incurred as a result of exporting products from one country to another.

在一些国家市场上，超额利润是存在的，但导致出口国与进口国之间价格不成比例的差异，这里称之为价格升级，通常是因为产品型一个国家出口到另一个国家的过程中附加了许多成本。

7. Exclusive distribution 专营

A practice often used by companies to maintain high retail margins to encourage retailers to provide extra service to customers, to stock lager assortments, or to maintain the exclusive-quality image of a product, can create a favorable condition for parallel importing. 专营是公司为鼓励零售商提供额外服务给顾客，增加存货，维护专营产品的质量形象而给予加大的零售差价的做法，这种做法为平行进口提供了便利。 8. Gray market 灰色市场

P353 397

9. Penetration Pricing: This is used to stimulate market growth and capture market share by

deliberately offering products at low prices

10. Variable-Cost Pricing: firms regard foreign sales as bonus sales and assume that any return

over their variable cost makes a contribution to net profit

11. Dumping: One approach classifies international shipments as dumped if the products are

sold below their cost of production

The other approach characterizes dumping as selling goods in a foreign market below the price of the same goods in the home market

Two approach classify dumping : 对倾销有两种解释：

1 The products are sold below their cost of production in international market 2 Selling goods overseas at a lower price than at home nation

12. A countervailing duty or minimum access volume (MAV), which restricts the amount a

country will import, may be imposed on foreign goods benefiting from subsidies whether in production, export, or transportation 13.

简答：

1. Discuss the major problems facing a company that is countertrading. （反向贸易的危

害） ? The critical problems confronting the seller in a countertrade negotiation is having the

expertise to determine the value and the potential demand of the goods offered. Frequently, there is inadequate time to conduct a market analysis. ? In fact, it is not unusual to have sales negotiations almost completed before countertrade is

introduced as a requirement. Barter houses, specialized in trading goods acquired through barter arrangement, are the primary outside source of aid for companies beset by the uncertainty of a countertrade. Barter houses, most of which are found in Europe, can find a market for bartered goods, but the time it may take can put a financial strain on a company which has to have its capital tied up for a longer period than normal. ? In the long run, if companies are going to be involved in countertrades, they should establish

personnel who can effectively evaluate the products to be traded.

2. 几种定价方法(P355)（Approaches to international pricing）

a. Variable-cost pricing b. Full-cost pricing c. Skimming pricing d. Penetration pricing e. Transfer pricing

3. What cause Price escalation and how to reduce that?

Causes:

a. Taxes, tariffs, and administrative costs

b. Inflation c. Deflation

d. Exchange rate fluctuations e. Carrying currency values

f. Middleman and transportation costs Reduce:

a. Lowering cost of goods b. Lowering tariffs

c. Lowering distribution costs

d. Using foreign trade zones to lessen price escalation e. dumping 4. Pricing Objectives

In general, price decisions are viewed in two ways:

a) Pricing as an active instrument of accomplishing marketing objectives, or b) Pricing as a static element in a business decision

The more control a company has over the final selling price of a product, the better it is able to achieve its marketing goals

It is not always possible to control end prices

Broader product lines and the larger the number of countries involved, the more complex the process of controlling prices charged to the end user

5. How to reduce price escalation ? 如何降低价格升级?

lower costs of goods 降低制造成本 lower tariffs 降低关税

lower distribution costs 降低分销成本

use foreign trade zones to lessen price escalation 借助自由贸易区降低价格升级 dumping 倾销

6. What are the factors causing and effecting of price escalation ?造成和影响价格升级的

因素有哪些？357 403 Costs of exporting 出口成本

Taxes, tariffs, and administrative costs 税收 关税和行政管理费 Inflation 通货膨胀 Deflation 通货紧缩

Exchange rate fluctuations 汇率波动 Varying currency values 币值变动

Middleman and transportation costs 中间商和运输成本 7. Transfer Pricing Strategy

Prices of goods transferred from a company’s operations or sales units in one country to its units elsewhere，

c) known as intracompany pricing or transfer pricing

d) May be adjusted to enhance the ultimate profit of company

Benefits

e) Lowering duty costs

f) Reducing income taxes in high-tax countries

g) Facilitating dividend repatriation when dividend repatriation is curtailed by government policy Objectives

h) Maximizing profits for corporation i) Facilitating parent-company control

j) Providing all levels of management control over profitability

Arrangements for pricing goods for intracompany transfer

k) Sales at the local manufacturing cost plus a standard markup

l) Sales at the cost of the most efficient producer in the company plus a standard markup

m) Sales at negotiated prices

n) Arm’s-length sales using the same prices as quoted to independent customers

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