语言学教程 我的复习

语言学概论

Chapter: Invitation to linguistics 一、language

1、 Definition

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是用于交际的一套有声符号系统。It evolves within specific historical, social and cultural contents. (human specific) 2、 The history（origin）

(1) The bow-wow theory 模仿说（imitation）

People imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment. Onomatopoeic words(拟声词)

(2) The pooh-pooh theory本能说（instinct）

In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they Utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy .Interjections like oh ,ah ai yo. (3) The yo-he-ho theory号子说（rhythmic grunts）

As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts(咕哝) which gradually developed into chants and then into languages. (4) The divine-origin theory神授说（creation） (5) The invention theory 人造说（invention） (6) The evolutionary theory进化说（evolution） 3、 design features of language语言的普遍特征

? language distinguishes human beings form animals in that it is far more sophisticated

than any animals communication system.

Eg.(philosopher Bertrand Russell ) no matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot

tell you that his parents were poor but honest.再会叫的狗，他也不会说出他的父母很穷但是很务实的话来 ? design features

(1) Arbitrariness任意性

There is no logical connection between sounds and meaning.(Saussure first refers to the fact that the forms of a linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.) We do not know why the book is called the book. (2) Duality二元性

It means the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements the secondary level and each of the two level has its own principles of organization. (3) Creativity创造性

it means language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness(递归性)。Language is creative in another sense, that is, its potential to create endless sentence.

(4) Displacement移位性:

Displacement is that language can refer to the contexts removed from the

immediate situations of the speaker.

(5) Culture transmission文化传递性:

Animals call systems are genetically transmitted. Human languages are culturally transmitted.

4、 the function of language语言的功能

（1） Informative信息功能 ：

The informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.

（2） interpersonal function人际功能：

It is the most important sociological use of language. The interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.

（3） performative 施为功能

The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.

（4） Emotive function感情功能

The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.

（5） phatic communion寒暄功能

The phatic communion means the social interaction of language. such ritual exchanges as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.

（6） recreational function娱乐功能

The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.

（7） metalingual function元语言功能

The metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.

二、linguistic

1、definition

It is the systematic investigation of the common features of all natural human

languages.

2、main branches of linguistic (1) Phonetics语音学

Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.从自然属性研究人类语音

(2) Phonology音系学

Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.研究语音结构、分布和排序的规则以及音节的 形状。

(3) Morphology形态学

Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes.研究单词内部组成 (4) Syntax句法学

Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences. 研究组词造句的规则 (5) Semantics语义学

Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.语言的意义 (6) Pragmatics语用学

Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context.研究语言在环境中的意义

3、Macrolinguistics宏观语言学

Macrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics,

which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system. （1）Psycholinguistics心理语言学

Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example. （2）Sociolinguistics社会语言学

Sociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users. （3）Anthropological linguistics人类语言学

Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.

（4）Computational linguistics计算机语言学

Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language .

4、 the principles of linguistic study语言学研究的规则

exhaustiveness objectivity consistency economy 5、Important distinctions in linguistics几对重要的区别性概念

（1）Descriptive vs. prescriptive规定性研究与描述性研究 （2）Synchronic vs. diachronic共时与历时 （3）Langue & parole语言与言语

（4）Competence and performance语言能力与语言应用

Chapter two: speech sounds

(two major areas of study: phonetics and phonology)

Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning.

? Phonetics语音学

1、definition:

Phonetics is the study of production, transmission, perception .description and

classification transcription(标记) of speech sounds.

2、three branches of phonetics

(1) Articulatory phonetics (physiological phonetics生理语言学) 发音语言学

the study of the production of speech sounds

(2) Acoustic phonetics （physical phonetics物理语言学）声学语言学

the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech

(3)Auditory phonetics （psychological phonetics心理语言学）听觉语言学

the study of perception of speech sounds

Most phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics. 3、speech sounds: are sounds that convey meaning

Are sounds that are systematically used in human linguistic

communication. 4、speech organs发音器官

Speech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of

speech.

【the lungs 肺 the trachea or windpipe 气管the throat喉（larynx 喉 pharynx咽

vocal folds\\cords声带） the nose鼻 the mouth口】-----vocal tract声道 The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts:

the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities（pharynx the nasal cavities the oral cavities）.

5、the IPA chart国际音标图 =International Phonetic Alphabet First version: August 1888 last version : 2005 Main principles:

? a separate letter for each distinctive sound一音一符

? The same symbol should be used for that sound in any

language in which it appears.同音同符

? The alphabet was to consist of as many roman alphabet letters

as possible.

? Using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely

necessary.变音符号

6、classification of English speech sounds 英语语音的分类

（1） vocal & consonant (according to the articulatory characteristics)

(the obstruction of airstream气流受阻与否)

Vocal (元音)： sounds produced without the obstruction of airstream. Consonant（辅音）:sounds produced with the obstruction of airstream.

（2）voiceless sound & voiced sound

(the vibration of vocal cord声带的振动与否)

Voiceless sound（清音）：when the vocal cords are apart, the air can pass through

easily and the sound produced is said to be voiceless.

Consonant[p s t f k]

Voiced sound(浊音)：when the vocal cords are close together, the airstream causes

them to vibrate against each other and the reluctant sound is said to be voiced. Consonants[b z d v g]

7、classification of consonants 辅音的分类

[t]: voiceless stop alveolar [l ]:voiced alveolar approximant [h]:voiceless glottal fricative [m]:voiced bilabial nasal Manner of articulation发音方式 Stop\\plosive爆破音 P b t d k g Fricative摩擦音 Affricate塞擦音 F v s z h Place of articulation发音部位 Bilabial双唇音 P b m w Labiodental唇齿音 f v Dental齿音 Alveolar齿龈音 Post-alveolar后齿龈音 t d s z l n j K g h Approximant中通音 Lateral边音 Nasal鼻音 W j L M n Palatal硬腭音 Velar软腭音 Glottal声门音 8、classification of vowels 元音分类 ? Vocal glides滑音--- monophthongs [i] and diphthongs[ei] 单元音和双元音 ? The height of the tongue raising----high mid low

? The position of the highest part of the tongue-----front central back ? The length of tenseness of the vocal----long(tense) short(lax) ? Lip rounding---rounded unrounded 圆唇 非圆唇 E.g.[i:] high front tense unrounded vocal [u] high back lax rounded vocal

[e]倒着写 mid central lax unrounded vocal

9、cardinal vocals are a set of arbitrary reference points established in the

description of vocals

10、the vocals of RP :the standard pronunciation of southern British English ,known as

RP----received English 11、coarticulation协同发音

The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.

Anticipatory coarticulation逆协同发音: If the sound becomes more like the following

sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.

Perseverative coarticulation顺协同发音: If the sound displays the influence of the

preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.

Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal. Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.

12、phonetic transcription语音标记（标音法）

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