psy review 高隽心理学导论期末复习

Introduction

? The definition of psychology

The scientific study of behavior of inpiduals and their mental processes

Scientific method: a logic of inquiry & orderly steps to analyze and solve problems & acquire knowledge. (“Evidence-based” & “Self- correcting”)

Behavior: actions taken by organisms to adjust to their environment. (“Observable)

Mental processes: the workings of human mind, such as thinking, memory. (“internal world”) Inpidual: the target of the psychological analysis (“inpidual differences”)

APA’s version: “Psychology is a perse discipline, grounded in science, but with nearly boundless applications in everyday life”

? Four goals of psychology

Using scientific methods to

Describe: making accurate and objective observations about behavior/phenomenon

Explain/Understand: finding consistent patterns of behaviors & mental processes (inner determinants and external ones)

Predict: making statements about the likelihood of certain behavior or relationship

Control/Influence: making certain behavior/mental processes appear or disappear (central and most powerful goal)

? Seven perspectives and their major stances

Psychodynamic

Sigmund Freud and neo-psychodynamic

– The unconscious, inner forces & conflicts are the main

causes underlying our behaviors

– Tension reduction is the purpose of all behaviors

Behavioral

John Watson and B. F. Skinner

– Only the observable behaviors are targets

– Stimuli-Response relationship: environment matters – Animal studies

Humanistic

“The third wave”

– All men strive to seek positive self-development and are capable of making meaningful choices (people are neither driven by the powerful, instinctive forces postulated by the Freudians nor manipulated by their environments, as proposed by the behaviorists.)

Carl Rogers; Abraham Maslow: self-actualization

Cognitive

See through the “black box”: challenging the

behaviorism

– Subjective reality matters: S-C-R

– Thoughts (and all the processes of knowing) are both results and causes of overt actions

– The dominating perspective + neuroscience

Biological

How do the functions of genes, the brain, the nervous system and the endocrine system impact behaviors and mental processes?

–Reductionism: even the most complex behaviors can be explained (?) by chemical and electrical activities

Evolutionary

Darwin: law of natural selection

– Metal abilities evolved to solve central adaptive problems: eating, mating, keeping safe

Social-cultural

Social and cultural factors that shape our behaviors and mental processes, e.g. religious belief

–Focus: to identify and compare meaningful persities, i.e., cross-cultural differences and their underlying mechanisms

– The definition of culture

A set of attitudes (e.g. political or moral beliefs, values,

social knowledge, stereotypes, and superstitions), behaviors (e.g. schemes, rules, customs, fashions) and symbols (e.g. meaningful icons, objects, colors and architectures) that are shared by a group of people and passed down to the next generation (Shiraev & Levy, 2013, p.3)

– Can be both explicit or implicit

– Important classifications: e.g., traditional vs. non- traditional cultures, inpidualistic vs. collectivistic cultures

Research method

The definition of scientific methods and key features

Scientific Methods

Definition:

A general set of procedures for gathering information and interpreting evidence to acquire knowledge Minimize sources of errors & yield dependable conclusions

The three characters of scientific method: control, operational definition and repetition

Operational definition

Defining a concept in terms of specific operations or procedures used to measure it or to determine its presence

Theory and Hypothesis

Theory (not truth)

An organized set of concepts that (temporarily) explain a set of phenomena (based on prior scientific evidence)

Determinism (the underlying philosophical basis): to discover causal factors and lawful patterns Hypothesis

A tentative & testable statement about the relationship between causes and consequences/effects Hypothesis testing is the central theme in most modern psychology research

Experimental methods: basic logic & key concepts

Definition: A quantitative approach to discover the presumed cause-and-effect relationship

Core idea: Manipulate an independent variable to look for an effect on a dependent variable Variable: any factor that varies in amount or kind.

Independent variable: factors one manipulates, “cause”

Dependent variable:factors one measures, “effect”

Controlled variable: others potentially influential factors that are kept constant

Rule out the alternative explanations

Correlational methods: basic logic & key concepts

Correlational methods

– To determine whether two variables are related

– Correlation coefficient (r): the degree of correlation (-1.00~1.00)

– Limitation: Correlation does not imply causation!

–To find potential “candidates” for intervention

Measurement

– procedure for assigning numbers or categories to a variable

– Reliability: the consistency or dependability of behavioral data

– Validity: the degree of accuracy of the measurement

– Different forms: self-report, observation, using archival data

The Biological and Evolutionary Bases of behavior

? The evolutionary bases

heredity and behavior

How psychological functions evolve and pass down to the next generations in the process of adapting to the environment?

– Natural selection and survival of the fittest

Darwin’s natural selection theory

– The Origin of Species (1859)

– Natural selection and survival of the fittest

1. The variation of living conditions (& mutation) caused the variation among a group of organisms

(e.g. finches, or people from different regions)

2. Those who adapted well produced more offspring

– Implications in psychology: mental attributes and abilities (e.g. our memory function or tendency to get anxious) evolve as well to adapt to the environment

? The natural selection process may not take thousands of years

– Behavioral Genetics: its methodology and logics

Behavioral Genetics

– The study of the sources of inpidual differences: nature vs. nurture

– The inter-subject discipline: biology & psychology

– Measurement: Heritability

? An estimate of the contributio n of inheritance to a given trait or function in a group sample. ? Its value ranges from 0 to 1.

? The biological bases

the nervous system and the brain

What part of & How the nervous system and brain make it possible to achieve (what type of) psychological functions?

– The basic structure of neuron

Neuron: the basic unit of functioning

– Discovered by Spanish scientist Cajal in early 20th century

– Basic functions:

? to receive, process and/or transmit information to other cells within the body

– Over 200 types and 100 billion to 1 trillion in the brain

– Types: Sensory neurons, motor neurons and interneurons

Basic structure

– Soma: the cell body, containing the nucleus of the cell and the cytoplasm. Integration and transmit

– Axon: a single extended fiber that transmit information to terminal buttons

– dendrites: the branched fibers that receive incoming signal from other neurons

– The mechanisms of neural transmission within and between neurons Transmission within neurons

–It occurs when a neuron is stimulated by pressure, light, heat or chemical information from other cells: the change of permeability of membrane & cell potential

– Resting potential: a negative electrical charge maintained

Action potential: the change in electric potentials when stimulation reaches threshold,

which runs along the axon ? The balance between

potassium ions and sodium ions

–All-or-none law: the size of the action potentials is not affected by increase in the intensity of stimulation beyond the threshold level

Synaptic transmission

– The transmission of information between neurons

– Synapse: a small gap between the presynaptic membrane

(terminal button) and the postsynaptic membrane(dendrites) –Neurotransmitters: biochemical substances in synaptic

vesicles that stimulate other neurons

– Triune Brian model by Dr. Maclean

Three “layers”

– Brain stem & thalamus & Cerebellum (Reptilian

Brain)

Brain stem (housekeeper) – Maintain autonomic processes, such as breathing, sleeping & awaking

Cerebellum (PE center)

– Body movements

– Procedure memory acquisition

Thalamus (transfer center) – Passing sensory information to cortex

– Limbic system (Paleomammalian Brain)

The limbic system: “Emotional Center” – Motivation, emotion, memory

Hippocampus

– Acquisition of long-term memories

–H.M.’s case

Amygdala

– Detect & evaluate threats

– Formation of emotional memory

Hypothalamus

– Motivation regulation

– Maintain internal balance of body

– Neocortex/cerebrum (Neomamalian Brain)

Main Composition – Cerebral cortex (×2 hemispheres) + Corpus Callosum

Four brain lobes – Frontal lobe

– Parietal lobe

– Temporal lobe – Occipital lobe

– The limbic system: key components and functions

Limbic system (Paleomammalian Brain)

The limbic system: “Emotional Center” – Motivation, emotion, memory

Hippocampus

– Acquisition of long-term memories

–H.M.’s case

Amygdala

– Detect & evaluate threats

– Formation of emotional memory

Hypothalamus

– Motivation regulation

– Maintain internal balance of body

– Neocortex/cerebrum (Neomamalian Brain)

– The four brain lobes and their basic functions

– Plasticity

Plasticity

– Changes in the performance of the brain based on experiences

– Self-healing: collateral sprouting; substitution of function and neurogenesis

Sensation and Perception

? The distinction between performance, competence and process

Performance: Actual behaviors

Competence: 1. Qualities of inpiduals 2. To enable or constrain performance

Process: 1. Mental mechanisms underlying certain competences 2. Universally shared by all cultures vs. cultural realization of these processes

? The idea of moderate universalism

Moderate universalism

– Basic cognitive processes (e.g. color sensations) are shared by the whole species

– Cultural and social factors influence the development, content and use of these processes Perception with a moderate universalism stance

– Social and cultural factors may affect how neural impulses are organized into mental representations and recognized as meaningful objects or activities

? The concepts of sensation, perception, transduction, stimulus and sens ory receptor

Sensation: the process where the stimulation of sensory receptors produces neural impulses that represent internal or external experiences

–Stimulus: anything that can be detected by the sensory organs, e.g. the light wave, the chemical in a perfume

–Sensory receptors: specialized cells in different sensory organs

Transduction: the conversion of one form of physical energy to another form, i.e. neural impulses Perception: the overall process of apprehending objects and events in the environment—to sense them, identify and label them, and prepare to react to them.

how can we form the inner representations of the external world and make sense of them?

1. Organizational processes

2. Identification and recognition processes

? Psychophysics

–Absolute threshold, Sensory Adaptation, Difference thresholds, Signal detection theory

Psychophysics

– The study of the relationship between physical stimuli and the behavior or mental experiences evoked ? Absolute Thresholds

– The minimum amount of physical energy needed to produce a sensory experience

– OD: the stimulus level at which a sensory signal is detected 50% of time

? Sensory Adaptation

– The diminishing responsiveness of sensory systems to prolonged stimulus input

– The adaptive value of favoring “new” over “old”

Difference thresholds

–The smallest physical difference (Just Noticed Difference) between two stimuli recognized as “different”

– OD: the point at which the stimuli are recognized as different 50% of time

–Weber’s law: JND between stimuli is a constant fraction of

the intensity of the standard stimulus ? ?I (JND) / I = k (Weber’s constant)

? Signal detection theory(SDT)

–“I hear that sound” is not a purely sensory process, but a

combination of sensory process and judgment process

– Two distinct processes in sensory detection

? Sensory process: the question of “sensitivity”

? Decision process: the question of “response bias”

– Basic procedure: a weak stimulus presented in half the trials

Vision: visual receptors, dark adaptation

Stimulus: light – A portion of electromagnetic spectrum, varying in wavelengths

Sensory organ: eye

The journey: light-cornea- anterior chamber-pupil (iris)-retina-receptors- optic nerve-primary visual cortex (occipital lobe)- secondary visual cortex

Sensory receptors

– Rod cells

? 120millions

? Operates well in darkness

– Cone cells

? 6-7millions

? Densely packed in fovea

? Operates well in day light

? Color sensation: 3 kinds

– Bipolar cells

? Connected with cones and rods to collect neural impulses

–Blind spot / optic disk

? where the optic nerve leaves the eye and no receptors

Example: Eye Adaptation

? Human eyes have extraordinary abilities to adjust to different levels of light and darkness

– From daylight to darkness: 20-30 minutes – From darkness to daylight: 5 minutes

? Dark Adaptation

– Mechanism: the rod cells and cone cells increase their sensitivity to the light in darkness by refilling the photochemical –rod cells lead first but cone cells last longer

– Application in everyday life: the potential link between the use of headlights and traffic accidents ? Brighter light uses up the photochemical in cone cells

Pain: pain receptors, two neural pathways, gate control theory

Two neural pathways

1.Fast: Myelin-covered nerve fibers; Somatosensory cortex—“where is it”

2.Slow: No-myelin-covered nerve fibers; thalamus & limbic system—“how serious”

Regulation of Pain: Gate control theory

–Cells in spinal cord as “gatekeepers”

– Receive signals from peripheral nervous systems & brain

Many areas of brain are involved

Perception

Sensation: the process where the stimulation of sensory receptors produces neural impulses that triggered by internal or external experiences

Perception: the process where neural impulses are organized into mental representations and recognized as meaningful objects or activities

– Two attentional process

Attentional processes

? Goal directed selection vs. stimulus-driven capture

– You make the choice about where you direct your attention

? The monkey business illusion

– The features of the stimuli automatically capture your attention

? New stimulus in the environment

? Change blindness

? Attentional bias: e.g. specif ic negative attentional bias in social anxiety

– Gestalt law

Form perception; Figure and ground; proximity; Similarity; Good continuation; Closure

The perception system always tries to create meanings

– Depth Perception

How to perceive 3-dimentional world out of 2 dimensional patterns

– We have to rely on different types of cues to achieve this goal

– Binocular cues: comparisons of the visual information from two eyes

? Retinal disparity: the displacement between the horizontal positions of corresponding images in the two eyes, which increases with the distance in depth between two objects

? Convergence: the degree to which the eyes turn inward to fixate on an object, which increases as the objects gets closer (within 1 meter)

We have to rely on different types of cues to achieve this goal

–Monocular cues (pictorial cues): using cues from one eye

? Interposition

? Relative size

? Linear perspective

? Texture gradients

– Illusion: concept and mechanism as well as how cultural factors affect

the process

Definition: Experience a stimulus pattern that is inconsistent with reality

Mechanism: use the “wrong” sensory cues caused by shared physiology and life experiences

Cross-cultural differences in perceiving “illusions” (Muller-lyre illusion)

–Segall’s studies (1966) on visual illusions: Carpentered world hypothesis

? Hypothesis: ecological c ue validity differs among different cultures

? Subjects: American vs. people from the Territory of Guahan

Bottom-up process

– Taking sensory data in and sending it to the brain for extraction and analysis

– Data-driven processing: the starting point is the sensory data

Top-down process

– The process where your expectations affect perception

– Conceptually-driven processing: concepts in memory affect the interpretation (droodles) The influence of contexts, expectations and life experiences

– Perceptual set: A readiness to detect a particular stimulus in a given context

? The “hearing hallucination”: when you expect someone to call

? Your prior

Consciousness

? The definitions of consciousness and hard problem

A concept that is very hard to define and AMBIGUOUS

? The five sets of questions concerning consciousness – What is consciousness and where is it?

–What is the causal relationship between consciousness and substance, esp. the causal relationship between

consciousness and brain?

– What are the functions of consciousness?

– What is the physical form of consciousness, esp. what is the neural substrates of consciousness in brain?

– What are the appropriate methods to examine

consciousness to discover its nature? The first-person methods (e.g. introspection) or the third-person methods (such as neuroimaging techniques)?

Consciousness: some definition

–“What it is like to be something” (Nagel, 1974)

–The state of having “phenomenal content”(Vermans,2013) –Any of various subjective states of awareness in which mental contents and activities can be reported, such as sensation and perception (APA-CDP).

– A type of information processing processes, which deals with primarily valuable information about the patterns of the world (Bor, 2013)

– Fully depended on introspection and subjective reports, “non-physical” (Libert, 2010)

Hard problem of consciousness (Chalmers, 1995b, see in Blackmore, 2008)

–“How and why we have phenomenal experiences: how physical processes give rise to subjective experienc es”.

“Easy problem”:to investigate the specific mechanisms that can perform the function of consciousness, such as attention”

? E.g. “transduction” performed by cone cells

? Models of consciousness: S. Freud’s model, split-brain experiment, dual model Consciousness: different models

? S.Freud’s model of consciousness

– Consciousness: internal & external stimulus/activities of which you are aware of

– Preconscious: memories that are not accessible at the moment but can enter consciousness Unconsciousness: instinctual needs, traumatic memories, taboo desire; repressed yet remains influential Comments: one of his greatest contributions is the concept of unconsciousness

The modern view: still evolving

? Dual model: explicit vs. implicit (unconscious/subconscious/automatic) process

–The “split brain” experiment by Sperry

Roger W.Sperry在20世纪中叶突发奇想，他把一只猫的左右大脑之间的联系切断，想看看这只猫在生活中会有什么不一样的变化。结果，这只猫还是如以前一样游刃有余地捉老鼠、睡懒觉，没有半点不正常。Sperry他抓狂了，他用纱布蒙住这只猫的右眼，然后费尽心机地教他走迷宫，直到它能够非常熟练地通过这个迷宫。这时，居心叵测的Sperry放开了猫咪的右眼，紧接着又蒙上了它的左眼，然后把猫咪重新了放入那个早已经非常熟悉的迷宫中，可是，同学们，就在这个时候，奇怪的事情发生了！

这只可怜的小猫咪，根本不知道自己该往哪个地方走，对迷宫中的各个地方竟然没有任何印象，很快就在迷宫中迷路了。先前的学到的知识呢？没有了吗？

Sperry欣喜若狂，一个巨大的秘密已经在眼前露出了马脚。此时Sperry最想干的事情莫过于立即找一个人过来，切开他的胼胝体（左右大脑相连的神经纤维），然后做各种试验。可惜的是，没有人愿意把自己的脑袋打开，让Sperry切断自己的胼胝体。功夫不负有心人，Sperry等啊等啊，终于有一天，等来了一个天大的好消息。

这个机会是由60年代的癫痫病患者给予的。这些癫痫病患者由于大脑病变导致经常性痉挛，脑科医生们一怒之下切断了他们的胼胝体，使得他们的左右大脑分离开来，脑部的病变也就被控制住了，而且，令人惊异的是，这些患者手术之后竟然没有什么异常，反而十分开心。于是，我们英明的Sperry发现良机，他立即邀请这些脑子被人一分为二的“裂脑人”加入了自己的实验，而年轻的心理学家Michael Gazzaniga也加入Sperry的实验，于是史上久负盛名的裂脑人实验拉开了帷幕。

裂脑人实验中的奇特现象：

1、出现在左右眼睛的视野光束，右撇子裂脑人只能看到右边的光线。如果只呈现左边视野的光束，裂脑人说自己啥都没看见。但是，如果要求患者指出光线出现的位置，他竟然指出了左边的光束，而且，依然说自己看不见左边的光线！这裂脑人是在折腾啥呀？看不见你瞎指啥呀！而实际上，裂脑人并不是在瞎指。他的右脑其实确实看到了光线，但是言语脑－－左脑无法得到右脑的信息，所以表达说没有看到任何东西。

2、将生活中非常熟悉的物品放在右撇子裂脑人的右手中，蒙上他的眼睛让他猜猜是什么东西，他会很准确地说出这个物品的名字。但是，奇怪的是，如果将这个东西放在他的左手中，裂脑人却说不出这个东西的名字。但是更加奇怪的是，如果此时让他从面前摆好的一堆东西中挑出刚才放在他左手中的东西，他竟然能挑得出来，但是他还是不知道这是什么东西！当然，在这个过程当中裂脑人一直被蒙着眼睛。右脑记得住触觉信息？

3、给右撇子裂脑人的右眼呈现一个图像，裂脑人像第一个实验那样，不能描述这个图像，甚至，他认为自己根本没有看到什么图像。但是让他用手尝试去挑出刚才呈现的东西，他却又能莫名其妙地挑出图像中的物品。这是视觉和触觉的协调实验。

4、右撇子裂脑人两只手分别绘制立体图形，左手成绩远远好于右手，右手画的图形毫无立体感可言，简直如同幼儿园的各位同学们所画。看来，果然空间处理能力主要在右脑上。

5、突然给一个女裂脑人左脑呈现一个裸体女人的照片，女裂脑人大笑，并说这个是裸体女人。而突然呈现在右脑，这个裂脑人说自己啥都没看见，但是非常明显的是，她开始莫名其妙地格格笑，问她笑的原因，她吞吞吐吐，然后说机器真有趣。这个实验说明虽然右脑无法说出物体的名字，但是存在着情绪反应。

6、在暗室内，如果指示裂脑人用左手去拿一个东西，裂脑人能够准确拿到，但是同样的物品放到他手中，他却不能说出是什么。右脑也能理解语言？

What exactly is the function of “consciousness”:mental & physical activities can be always unconscious vs. can be conscious vs. from “conscious” to “unconscious” or vice versa

–Different forms of consciousness may serve different functions & with different underlying mechanisms: e.g. emotions, self-consciousness(es)/self-reflections

– Emergence theory: A consequence of competing working groups of neural networks

? Sleep

Sleep is consisted of different (physical) stages

– The brain waves measured by EEG changes through time and shows a repetitive pattern

– General trend: from more rapid waves to slower waves to more rapid waves again

– These different stages correspond to different subjective experiences

– cycles of sleep, the differences among waking state, NREM and REM;

Cycles of sleep

– A cycle: 90m+10m; 4-6 times

– NREM stages: 4 stages with different frequencies of brain waves

? The 3rd and 4th stage of sleep: deeper sleep

? Time for 3rd and 4th stage decreases in later cycle

REM stage: rapid eye movement

? It accounts for 20% of the total sleep time

? Brain waves look similar to those of waking states

? Time of REM increases in later cycles

? Vivid dreams occur in REM stage

Different parts of nervous system are involved during sleep

– Different neurotransmitters are released to regulate REM

– NREM: stimulus input from sensory organs is blocked by thalamus

– REM: stimulus input from sensory organs is blocked by peripheral neural systems (PNS); signals for movement are interrupted by spinal cord

The differences between REM, NREM and waking states: measured by physical & psychological indicators

– EMG 肌电图(electromyography): low, mediate, high

– EEG 脑电图(electroencephalograph): high, low, high

– EOG 眼电图(electro-oculogram): high, low, high

– Sensation and perception: internal-oriented & vivid; vague or none; external-oriented & vivid

– Thought processes: illogical & weird; logical & inactive; logical & active

– Motions: inhibited; discontinuous & involuntary; continuous & voluntary

Functions of sleep: Functions(hypotheses)

– Important for survival: conservation and restoration

? Save energy

? NREM sleep provides op portunities for brain to repair brain cells

– Memory and learning

? Time for REM & NREM (3rd and 4th stage) increases when participants were asked to learn something new

? REM may provide chances for the brain to solidify memory, esp. problem-solving strategies

Sleep deprivation

– Range of needs: 5-9 for adults

? NREM & REM decrease as one gets older

– Many negative effects

? Especially for doing simple & repetitive work

? Severe d eprivation may cause temporary psychosis

– The deprivation of REM has a similar effect as the deprivation of the entire sleep cycles

– dream: definition, functions of dream---Freud’s view and modern views

ASC

What is dream

NREM

REM and dream

active

NREM and dream

Most of them are related to daily concerns

Psychodynamic perspectives

Freud: a royal road to the unconsciousness

-night madness” & The interpretation of dreams (1900)

Wish fulfillment and censorship (潜意识中的抑制力)

Symbolization, condensation and displacement

– The concept of ASC

Altered States of Consciousness

temporary change in subjective experiences & different from normal waking consciousness.

Some of the features

-identity, e.g. the sense of transcendence

– Hypnosis: definitions, Hypnotizability

definition:

1.“An alternative state of awareness characterized by special ability some people have of responding

to suggestion with changes in perception, memory, motivation and se nse of self control” (C & Z, 2014)

2. A focused experience of attentional absorption. (usually from external to internal) Hypnotizability

How easily inpidual is responsive to standardized suggestions to experience hypnotic reactions

High vs. low vs. median

Can be assessed inpidually or in group setting

E.g. Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale

Learning

? The definition of Learning

A process (based on experience) that results in a relatively consistent change in behaviors or behavior potential

– learning = performance

– Experience vs. instinct

? Maturational readiness sets the stage for learning

– Simple vs. complex

? Mere exposure effect: a repeated, unreinforced exposure is sufficient to enhance attitude toward a stimulus

? Habitation: a decreas e in behavioral response when a stimulus is presented repeatedly

? Learned helplessness

American psychologist Martin Seligman initiated research on learned helplessness in 1967 at the University of Pennsylvania as an extension of his interest in depression. [4][5] This research was later expanded through experiments by Seligman and others. One of the first was an experiment by Seligman & Maier: In Part 1 of this study, three groups of dogs were placed in harnesses. Group 1 dogs were simply put in a harnesses for a period of time and were later released. Groups 2 and 3 consisted of "yoked pairs". Dogs in Group 2 were given electric shocks at random times, which the dog could end by pressing a lever. Each dog in Group 3 was paired with a Group 2 dog; whenever a Group 2 dog got a shock, its paired dog in Group 3 got a shock of the same intensity and duration, but its lever did not stop the shock. To a dog in Group 3, it seemed that the shock ended at random, because it was his paired dog in Group 2 that was causing it to stop. Thus, for Group 3 dogs, the shock was "inescapable".

In Part 2 of the experiment the same three groups of dogs were tested in a shuttle-box apparatus. All of the dogs could escape shocks on one side of the box by jumping over a low partition to the other side. The dogs in Groups 1 and 2 quickly learned this task and escaped the shock. Most of the Group 3 dogs – which had previously learned that nothing they did had any effect on shocks – simply lay down passively and whined when they were shocked. [4]

In a second experiment later that year with new groups of dogs, Overmier and Seligman ruled out the possibility that, instead of learned helplessness, the Group 3 dogs failed to avert in the second part of the test because they had learned some behavior that interfered with "escape". To prevent such interfering behavior, Group 3 dogs were immobilized with a paralyzing drug (curare), and underwent a procedure similar to that in Part 1 of the Seligman and Maier experiment. When tested as before in Part 2, these Group 3 dogs exhibited helplessness as before. This result serves as an indicator for the ruling out of the interference hypothesis. From these experiments, it was thought that there was to be only one cure for helplessness. In Seligman's hypothesis, the dogs do not try to escape because they expect that nothing they do will stop the shock. To change this expectation, experimenters physically picked up the dogs and moved their legs, replicating the actions the dogs would need to take in order to escape from the electrified grid. This had to be done at least twice before the dogs would start willfully jumping over the barrier on their own. In contrast, threats, rewards, and observed demonstrations had no effect on the "helpless" Group 3 dogs. [4][5]

– definition and the logic of the classical experiment

Classical conditioning: key concepts

? Conditioning: a learned behavioral pattern when given a specific stimulus (an acquired S-R relationship)

? Classical conditioning: a type of learning in which an initially neutral stimulus, when paired with a stimulus that elicits a reflex response, results in a learned response.

–Reflex: response triggered by specific stimuli that are biologically relevant for the organism (UCS-UCR)

? New association is the key: UCS & NS ---(CS)

Acquisition

– the process by which the CR is elicited by CS.

? Timing is very important

– Different type of conditioning

? Delay conditioning, simultaneous conditioning,

backward conditioning

? DC is most effective to build acquisition: predictability

–The right timing varies according to the response? the shortest--muscular response; the longest--taste aversion

? Other important factors: reliable and informative

? Classical conditioning and its key concepts –acquisition, extinction, discrimination, generalization, fear conditioning

Generalization

– Similar NS to CS will elicit CR

? Discrimination

– Learn to response differently to NS that are distinct from CS

? Extinction

– CR no longer appears when CS is presented due to the fact that CS does not predict UCS.

? Spontaneous recovery and “Savings”– CS elicits a weak CR after extinction

– Rapid relearning of CS—CR

Fear conditioning: Watson and Little Albert – UCS (loud noise) ----- UCR (startle response)

– NS (white rat) --- UCS (7 times) ----CS

– Generalization: white rat ---- other furry objects

– Caution: not ethical!

? Advertisement and positive emotional conditioning

– UCS (beautiful woman) ---- UCR (sexual arousal)

– NS (product, such as a type of whisky) + UCS --- CS

? The therapeutic usage of placebo

– How can classical conditioning modulate immune responses (Psychoneuroimmunology)

? Operant conditioni ng and its key concepts –reinforcement, punishment, the schedule of reinforcement

Operant conditioning: How external conditions affect the likelihood of a given R

Operant: behaviors emitted by an organism that have observable effect on environment Consequence changes probability of R

The process in which behavioral change occurs as a function of the consequences of behavior Establish the RC

A consistent relationship

between a response

(pressing the button) to an environmental stimulus and the changes in the environment that it produces (food)

Reinforcer: a stimulus that increases the probability of a given behavior

Reinforcement: the delivery of reinforcers

Positive Reinforcement: R is followed by the delivery of an appetitive stimulus

Negative Reinforcement: R is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus

--escape conditioning; avoidance conditioning.

Punishment

The delivery of a punisher (S decreases the probability of a given R) following a response to a stimulus

Positive punishment: the delivery of an aversive S

Negative punishment: the removal of an appetitive S

? Observational learning

– definition and the classical experiment

Observational learning/social learning

– Vicarious reinforcement and punishment

– Expectation matters

Four-processes theory

(Bandura)

– Attention

– Retention

– Motor reproduction

– Reinforcement

Memory

? Memory

– The capacity to encode, store and retrieve information

An information-processing perspective

? Information-processing perspective

–Computer metaphor: brain = information-processing system –Functionalism revived in cognitive approach: an emphasis on how different mental processes function to produce a specific reaction towards a given stimulus

? Mechanisms & biases and loopholes

Memory

– The capacity to encode, store and retrieve information

– Theoretical framework: A system(s) of information processing

? The basic process of memory

– Encoding: initial processing of information & forming mental representations of information

– Storage: the retention over time of encoded material (so that you are able to watch a movie)

– Retrieval: the recovery at a later time of the stored information (so that you have access to your past) – These functions can be achieved consciously (explicit memory) and unconsciously (implicit memory) – The interactions among three processes are very complex

? The three-stages model of memory

Three-stages model (Atkinson&Shiffrin, 1968; Baddley, 1999 )

–Information is stored in three independent (functionally) yet connected memory systems (not “places”)

– Sensory memory- short-term memory (working memory)- long-term memory–

The key features of sensory memory & the classical study (partial report) Sensory memory

– Each sensory experience is stored briefly until it is further processed

– Features

? Fades rapidly: iconic & sound: 1?4-1/2 second ? Each sense has the similar function

– The key features of short-term memory: rehearsal, chunking, four components of working memory

Short-term memory(STM)

– Sensory information you choose to focus your attention on will be processed further in STM

– Information is stored and processed

– STM has limited resources to preserve and process information

? The classical study: the capacity limitations of STM

– Free recall & 7±2 rule(Miller，1956) ? Classical test: digital span test

– Overestimated? 4?

Improve the capacity of STM – Rehearsal

? repeat the information

? Information get lost in 18 seconds unless you rehearse it (Lloyd & Peterson，1959) – Chunking

? Chunk: a meaningful unit of information

? Chunking: the process of reconfiguring items by grouping them on the basis of similarity or other organizing principles/patterns that are meaningful to you

An updated model of STM: Working memory

Working memory (Baddeley, 1986, 1992, 2000)

–Moment-by-moment memory resource used to accomplish mental tasks: more than just store the information

– Three + one components

? A phonological loop: to process and hold speech-based information.

Overlapped most with the concept of STM [similarity effect]

? A visuospatial pad: to process and hold visual and spatial information [mental rotation]

? Episodic Buffer: integrate information from other systems & information from perception and LTM ? The central executive: to control attention and to coordinate information from other two components

[frontal lobe damage & perseveration]

– Inpiduals differ in their capacity of working memory: the greater the capacity, the more information you can integrate

? A component of intelligence?

–Different components of LTM, retrieval and encoding in LTM (encoding specificity)

The storehouse of all information acquired by sensory memory and STM.

? A completely different process to STM

– Coding: relies more on meaning rather than sounds

– Retrieval: searching vs. using retrieval cues

– Forgetting: fading vs. retrieval failure

-Biological basis: prefrontal/ parietal /occipital cortex vs. hippocampus & cortex for language processing and perception

Different components of LTM

– Procedural memory: how things get done, e.g. driving

– Declarative memory: recollection of facts and events, e.g. what is rod cell

? Sematic memory: generic, categorical memories that enables us to present and operate on things that are not presented in senses; cues are not necessarily related to the context where information encoded ? Episodic memory: specific personal events & experiences in subjective space and time; time and contents of event as cues

Retrieval and encoding in LTM

– Recall vs. recognition: testing your memory

? Recall: reproduce previously exposed information; few cues; open-question format

? Recognition: realization that certain information was seen or heard by you; more cues; multiple-choice test format

? Relearning

Encoding and context

? Encoding spe cificity: memories emerge most efficiently when the context of retrieval matches the context (& inner state) of encoding.

–E.g. “Context shock”: a mismatch

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