语言学重点讲解

三星级重点章节

07年冬天，学校组织了一个讲座，请老师给我们谈考试重点，同时学生有什么问题，可以当面问他。他说前五章是最重要的，第七和第八次之，第六，第九和第十二章也有考的内容，但不会很多，剩下的十章和十一章可以不看！所以，我就用三颗星表示最重要；俩颗星表示第二重要，一颗星表示第三重要。王老师说只要把胡壮麟那本书背会了，肯定能考好！因为考试覆盖的知识点都在书上！其实，背会那本书是不实际的，而把那本书过5到6遍是可能的，也是必须的。而且重点章节要在理解的基础上反复看。虽然我们文科的知识，背时关键，但是理解更重要，尤其语言学这门课，比较抽象，不理解就背，效果不好，不容易背会。

北语没有提供考纲之类的东西，只告诉语言学参考书是胡壮麟的《语言学教程(修订版)》。（09年不知是否会换成该书的第三版）所以能知道该书哪些章节是重点，能让我们有的放矢。我这里所说的三星级重点，即最重要的章节是该书的前五章。不知道外校的考生，他们学校开过这门课没有！我们北语大三下学期讲前五章，大四上学期讲的6，7，8，9，12这几章。下面，我们先谈谈前五章该如何复习。Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics；Chapter2: Speech Sounds；Chapter3: Lexicon；Chapter4: Syntax (新版中，这章改成From Word to Text，是变化最大的一章，变化的结果是比以前的简单了）；Chapter5: Meaning。这五章可以说是语言学的基础和考试的重点。我们一定要反复看，理解其中的定义等知识点。一定要在理解的基础上记忆。 Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics

这章是该书的开篇，目的是让大家对语言学这门课有个初步的了解，为后面几章作个铺垫。也许你会说这种章节肯定不重要。错！奇怪的是这一章居然很重要。因为考点还不少！

Design features of language: Arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement. 这四个特征要求理解，牢记，能背出定义。能举出代表性的例子来支持定义。总之是非常重要。

Functions of language: informative, interpersonal function, performative, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function, metalingual function. 这7个功能也得记住，而且理解。能举出例子。填空容易考其中一个。 Important distinctions in linguistics: descriptive / prescriptive, synchronic / diachronic, langue / parole, competence / performance. Etic / Emic. 5对区别特征也非常重要，尤其前四对区别特征，他们几乎是学语言学的必备知识，连这个都不知道，以后就没法学习了!而且有俩对区别特征都是语言学的创始人索绪尔最先提出的。所以这些区别特征的定义等相关知识点都需要记住。最后那个区别特征Etic / Emic 不是特别重要，而且我看到新版《语言学教程》已经把这个特征删除了！ Chapter2: Speech Sounds

首先对Phonetics(语音学)和 phonology(音系学)俩个概念要区分下。

语音学部分：发音器官还是要熟悉，也有助于后面语音描述的学习。另外，声带（vocal card）的三个位置（apart, closed together, totally closed），分别产生清音（voiceless），浊音（voived）和喉塞音（glottal stop）.这部分最重要的还算辅音和元音了。辅音要熟记发音部位和发音方法，能熟练的根据描述，写出对应的语音，或者能描述给出的辅音，这应该是必考得！元音的考察方式跟辅音一样。但元音考得个数少。10个小题里，可能是3个元音描述，7个辅音描述。最后就是coarticulation的定义和理解，举出例子。对什么是宽式标音（broad transcription）和窄式标音(narrow transcription) 也应该熟悉。

音系学部分：理解通过最小对立体的分析，得出的音位(phonemes)的概念.记住音位phoneme 的定义；音位变体（allophones）的定义; 互补分布（complementary distribution）的定义. 音位过程(phonological process) 只要熟悉 Nasalization, Dentalization, Velarization, Devoicing 这四个就可以了，自己记几个例子，以防万一！大家也看过书了，音位过程这部分还有些其它知识，挺难的。对于你自己认为很艰涩难懂的东西，其实考试考得可能也不大。这是我们语言学任课老师说的。最后，剩下音节（syllables）了，虽然这个知识点放在本章的最后，以前我以为不重要，但08年，我们有个5分的定义题（definition）,就考了syllables的定义！所以大家对音节结构那块还是熟记下。 Chapter3: Lexicon

这章的第二节：The formation of word 和第三节 the lexical change 重要。对词素（morphemem）的定义，分类要熟记。Word 形成的俩种方式复合（compound）和派生（derivation）也要熟悉。另外语素变体(Allomorph) 的定义等也要熟悉。 词汇变化（the lexical change）这部分，介绍了7种词汇演变的方式，只要记住这7种方式，能给每个方式举个例子就可以了。最后的语义变化（semantic change）这部分，我觉得broadening, narrowing, meaning shift, class shift 需要了解下。 Chapter4: Syntax

这一章可以说是全书最难的章节。但新版的《语言学教程》把这章进行了彻底的改变！难度下降了很多。所以如果09年参考书改成新版的话，考生还是比较幸运的！！！这里，我把新旧俩版的第四章对比一下： 旧版：

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The traditional approach: number, gender, case , tense 和aspect 要区别清楚。几个重要概念要背会：Concord, Government.

The structural approach: 索绪尔提出的俩个重要概念：组合关系（syntagmatic relation）和聚合关系(paradigmatic relation)，他们的定义一定要在理解的基础上记住。索绪尔的另外俩个概念：能指（signified）和所指（signifier）也很重要。注意区分structure 和system. 因为前者体现了组合关系（syntagmatic relation）；后者体现了聚合关系(paradigmatic relation)。本章的另一个重点是直接成分分析法（IC analysis）。直接成分（immediate constitute）的定义应该记住。如果给你个句子，你要能够用IC analysis 分析。08年我们就考了这样一道题！这部分的另一个重点是向心结构（endocentric constructions）和离心结构（exocentric construction）。理解这两种结构，能够举出典型的例子。

The generative approach: 第一个重点是deep structure 和surface structure. 要背会它们的定义。第二个重点是Chomsky?s 的转换生成语法理论。这部分特别抽象，理解难度大。那么同学们肯定要问，对于书里的这种知识，该掌握到什么程度呢？其实考试不会涉及这种特别难的东西。所以，转换生成理论这部分，大家只要背会the standard theory 和extended standard theory的图表。第三就是背会government 和binding的定义。理解c-command 就可以了。Chomsky的理论这部分知识难度大，一般都不是重点，因为我们老师说特别难的不考。而08年，最后一道大题，就是考的extended standard theory。整个卷子也有好几处考了Chomsky 的理论。所以我们考生去年考完都觉得语言学很偏，原因也就在此。

The functional approach: 了解布拉格学派（Prague school）, 和系统功能语法（systemic-functional grammar）.重点是主位（theme）和述位(rheme).他们的概念，以及句子中哪部分是主位，哪部分是述位。另一个知识点是交际动力（communicative dynamism）. 新版：Chapter 4: From Word to Text. 第一节Syntactic relation:

第二节Grammatical construction and its constituents 第三节Syntactic function 第四节Category

第五节Phrase clause and sentence 第六节Recursiveness

第七节Beyond the sentence

大家可以看到，新版和旧版已经完全不同了。 Chapter5: Meaning (semantics-语义学)

Meanings of “meaning”: 第一个重点是Leech?s seven types of meaning: conceptual meaning, connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, collocative meaning, themantic meaning. 第二个重点是the referential theory 的概念，semantic triangle, sense and reference 的定义。第三个重点是sense relations: synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy. 着三种关系应该说很重要。 这章后面一部分内容了解即可。比如sentence meaning 那部分。 二、二星级重点章节

Chapter 7 language, culture and society

Language and culture: 语言与文化这部分其实是人类语言学。 需要记住：context of situation 的组成部分。重点是Sapir-Whorf hypotheses 的定义和理解。特别是语言相对论linuistic relativity和语言决定论linguistic determinism。 Language and society: 语言与社会这部分就是社会语言学。会写社会语言学这个词：sociolinguistic. 这部分注意下communicative competence, linguistic sexism, women register. Chapter8: language in use (pragmatics 语用学)

这章的重点就是俩个理论：speech act theory 和 the theory of conversational implicature. 其中the theory of the illocutionary act, cooperative principle and its four maxims 要熟记。知道the violation of the maxims, the characteristics of implicature. 在post-gricean development 部分，比较重要的是relavence theory. 后面的内容了解即可。 三、一星级重点章节

Chapter 6: language processing in mind

这章是心理语言学，考的几率很小。但又不能不复习这一章。谁也不能肯定这章肯定不考。比较重要的知识点：cohort theory, frequency effect, recency effects, garden path sentence, minimal attachment theory, schemata.

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Chapter 1. Invitation to linguistics Natural vs artificial languages I. The definition of Language II. Design features of language III. Functions of language

IV. The definition of linguistics: V. Main branches of linguistics

Phonetics:Phonology:Morphology:Syntax:Semantics:Pragmatics:Macrolinguistics:Psycholinguistics: Sociolinguistics:Anthropological linguistics: Computational linguistics: VI. Important distinctions in linguistics Descriptive vs prescriptive studies Synchronic vs diachronic studies Langue vs parole Saussure

Competence vs performance Chomsky (Communicative Competence:.) Etic vs emic

Syntagmatic vs paradiamatic relations

Chapter 2 Speech Sounds

I. The three branches of phonetics II. Speech organs

vocal folds (cords)声带: glottis声门: apart (voiceless: /p/), closed together (voiced: /b/), totally closed (glottal stop: /?/)

III. Segments, divergence, and phonetic transcriptions IV. Consonants

1) Manners of articulation 2) Places of articulation BilaLabiodendentalveoPalatoalvepalavelglotbial tal al lar olar tal ar tal nasal m n ? plosive p b t d k ɡ fricative f v θ s z ∫ ? h affricate t∫ d? Approximan(w) r j w t Lateral l 3) Voicing: 4) Nasal vs oral: 5)Pulmonic vs non-pulmonic: V. Vowels

Cardinal vowels:

Monophthong vs diphthong or pure vowels vs glidings: /a/, /au/ Schwa

VI. Coarticulation and phonetic transcription

Coarticulation协同发音:Anticipatory coarticulation逆化协同发音: Perseverative coarticulation接续性协同发音: Broad and narrow transcriptions 宽式和紧式音标: aspirated Diacritics:

VII. Phonological analysis Phonemes音位:

minimal pairs最小对立体: contrastive distribution对立分布: Allophones音位变体: complementary distribution互补分布: phonetic similarity语音相似性: pattern congruity模式一致性:

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Phonological processes

Assimilation同化: regressive assimilation逆同化: progressive assimilation顺同化: Phonological processes:

Voiced sound → voiceless / voiceless _________ Epenthesis: Sibilant:

Underlying form:

The Elsewhere Condition: VIII. Distinctive features Obstruents . Sonorants

IX. Suprasegmental phonology超切分音系学 Syllable

Syllabic structures:onset; rhyme;nucleus or peak; coda

open syllable : Sentence stress: Pitch: Tones: Intonation:

Chapter 3 Lexicon I. What is word

Three senses of word Identification of word Lexeme:

II. Classification of words Variable vs invariable words Grammatical vs lexical words Closed-class vs open-class words Word classes:

New word classes identified

Particles: Auxiliaries:Pro-forms: pro-adjectives:Pro-verbs:Pro-adverbs: Determiners: Pre-diterminers:Central determiners: Post-determiners: III. Formation of words Morpheme and morphology Morphemes:

Types of morphemes:

free morphemes: bound morphemes: roots:

free roots:bound roots:

affixes: prefixes: suffixes: infixes: stems:

Differences between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes Inflection and word formation Compound:

endocentric （向心的） and exocentric （离心的） Derivation

Phonology and morphology morpheme and phoneme

2) morphemic structure and phonological structure 3) allomorph

morphophonology or morphophonemics: The conditions of morpheme change phonologically conditioned morphologically conditione IV. lexical changes

pro-locative: 4

New words (neologisms, coinages) are created in the following ways: V. Phonological change VI. Semantic change

Chapter 4 Syntax

I. The traditional approach

Categories: Number: Gender: Case: Tense: Aspect: Degree: Concord: Government:

II. The structural approach <1>Structures and systems

<2>Immediate constituent analysis Linear structures:

Hierarchical structures: Construction: Constituent:

Immediate constituents: IC Analysis:

Advantages and disadvantages

<3> Endocentric and exocentric constructions: Exocentric constructions：

Chapter 5 Meaning

1. Meanings of ‘meaning’

Leech’s seven types of meaning: 2. Word Meaning

<1>The referential theory: Problems:

The semantic triangle Sense reference <2>Sense relations Synonymy: Antonymy:

Gradable antonymy: three features:

Complementary antonymy: three features Converse antonymy

Hyponymy: e.g. furniture (superordinate) – desk, sofa, bed, chair, (hyponyms or co-hyponyms) <3>Componential analysis: woman: HUMAN, ADULT, -MALE.

Father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x) = x is the parent of y and x is male. Kill: CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (-ALIVE (y)))) = x causes y to become dead Problems with semantic componential analysis: <4>Semantic field theory (lexical field theory) 3.Sentence meaning

<1>Predicate logic, predicate calculus Proposition: a proposition has two parts: Truth value

<2>Propositional logic composite proposition

Negation Conjunction Disjunction Implication Equivalence Entailment: <3>An integrated theory

cupboard, etc. 5

the principle of compositionality.

According to this them, the semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of projection rules.

grammatical classification semantic information grammatical or syntactic markers. semantic markers and distinguishers. Problems:

Chapter 7 Language, Culture, and Society 1.Language and culture <1>Nida:

<2>Firth:Theory of context of situation <3>the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: Linguistic determinism: Linguistic relativity:

<4>Culture in language classrooms The objectives:

Language and society

<1>Monistic or autonomous pursuit of an independent science: Dualistic view:

<2>The factors that are believed to influence language behavior in a social context: <3>a woman register : <4>Linguistic sexism: <5>Linguistic racism:

<6>Sociolinguistics to teaching

Cross-cultural Communion

Suggestive Principles for Cross-cultural Communion:

Chapter 8 language in use 1.Speech act theory

Performatives（言语行为句）and constatives（表述句） A theory of the illocutionary act

3.The theory of conversational implicature（会话含义） Cooperative principle or CP Four categories of maxims: Violation of the maxims

Characteristics of implicature

4.Relevance theory

The Q- and R-principles

6.The Q-, I- and M-principles

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重点章Chapter 1. Invitation to linguistics

Natural vs artificial languages I. The definition of Language

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. System：rule-governed

Arbitrary: no natural relationship between language elements and their meaning: A rose by any other name would smell as sweet. A sound must seem to be an echo to its sense. Vocal: speech is primary

Symbol: related to arbitrariness, language elements are only the symbols for the meaning they express Human: uniquely human or human specific or species specific Communication: the primary function of language II. Design features of language The defining properties of language 1.Arbitrariness: not entirely arbitrary:

onomatopoeic words;compounds;derivatives;some surnames

(Conventionality: the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.)

2.Duality: the property of having two levels of structures, such that the units of the primary level are composed of the elements of the second level, and each level has its own rules of organization. 3.Creativity: language users can understand and produce new sentences to express new meanings. 4.Displacement: language can be used to talk about things that are not present (structure-dependent operations) III. Functions of language

Functions: broad categories of language uses

1.Informative: when language is used to express human experience and knowledge about the world. Declarative, interrogative, imperative

2.Interpersonal function: when language is used to establish and maintain social relations 3.Performative: when language is used to perform certain acts

4.Emotive function: when language is used to change the emotional states of an audience or used to

express the speakers emotions or attitudes towards something or some person.

There were flashes of silence that made his speech perfectly delightful.

This honorable gentleman is indebted to his memory for his jests and to his imagination for his facts. My husband has been sober several times in the past five years. It is so hot that we have to take off our flesh and sit in our bones.

5.Phatic communion: occurs when language is used for pure interpersonal purposes, e.g. greetings,

farewells, etc.

6.Recreational function: when language is used for the pure joy of using it 7.Metalingual function: when language is used to discuss itself IV. The definition of linguistics: The scientific study of language Stop/top pipe play, wheel, light cap, map V. Main branches of linguistics

Phonetics: the description, classification and transcription of speech sounds

Phonology: the study of speech sounds as a system: the relations between speech sounds, the way in which

speech sounds are related to meaning, the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds

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Morphology: the internal structures of words Syntax: the internal structures of sentences

Semantics: the study of meaning as encoded in language Pragmatics: the study of language use, meaning in context VI.Macrolinguistics: interdisciplinary

Psycholinguistics: psychology and linguistics combined, the psychological process in language production,

comprehension and acquisition

Sociolinguistics: sociology and linguistics combined, social functions of language and the social

characteristics of language users. language varieties and functions

Anthropological linguistics: anthropology and linguistics combined: the relationship between language

and culture

Computational linguistics: the use of computers to process or produce human language:

machine-translation, information retrieval, expert systems

VII. Important distinctions in linguistics Descriptive vs prescriptive studies

Describing language as it is used by its native speakers is descriptive.

Trying to lay down language rules for correct uses of language is prescriptive Modern linguistics is descriptive. Synchronic vs diachronic studies

Studying language as it is used at a particular point in time is a synchronic study. Studying language as it changes over time is a diachronic study Langue vs parole Saussure

Langue (language) is the language system: social, essential, stable

Parole is the actual use of the language system: individual, accidental, unstable Competence vs performance Chomsky

Competence is the underlying knowledge about one?s language.

Performance is the actual use of that knowledge in language use situations.

(Communicative Competence: knowledge of grammar and the pragmatic ability for language use.) Etic vs emic

Etic studies aim at producing an exhaustive list of a linguistic phenomenon. Emic studies aims at knowing the relationships between the entities in that list. Syntagmatic vs paradiamatic relations

Syntagmatic relations are relations between units present in the same sequence or construction. Syntagmatically related elements form structures.

Paradigmatic relations are relations between a unit and other units that can replace it in a given sequence. Paradigmatically related units form systems.

Chapter 2 Speech Sounds(重点：看两遍，术语及常用音如b/p, f/v等，和这些常用音的特点)

I. The three branches of phonetics

Articulatory phonetics: the study of sound production

Acoustic phonetics: the study of sound transmission between interlocutors Auditory phonetics: the study of sound perception II. Speech organs Lungs肺

trachea (wind pipe)气管

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vocal folds (cords)声带: glottis声门: apart (voiceless: /p/), closed together (voiced: /b/), totally closed (glottal stop: /?/) tongue tip舌尖 tongue blade舌叶 tongue front舌前 tongue back舌后 tongue root舌跟 epiglottis会厌 hard palate硬颚

soft palate (velum)软颚 uvula小舌 teeth 牙

teeth ridge (alveolar ridge) 齿龈 lips (labium)唇 nose鼻 larynx喉 pharynx咽 vocal tract声道

III. Segments, divergence, and phonetic transcriptions Segments: smallest components of speech: bit -- /b/, /i/, /t/

Divergence: no one-to-one correspondent between pronunciation and spelling: ou – enough, house, through, though, etc. Phonetic transcription: international phonetic alphabet IV. Consonants

Consonants: when there is an obstruction of the air stream in the production of a sound 1) Manners of articulation:

Stop 塞音: oral stop: /g/, nasal stop: /m/ Fricative摩擦音: /s/, /z/

(median or central) approximant近音: /r/, /j/ Lateral approximant边音: /l/ Affricate破擦音: /t∫/ 2) Places of articulation Bilabial唇音: /m/

Labiodental唇齿音: /f/ Dental齿音: /θ/ Alveolar齿龈音: /t/

Post-alveolar后齿龈音: /∫/ Palatal硬颚音: /j/ Velar软颚音: /k/ Glottal声门音: /h/ nasal plosive fricative affricate Approximant Lateral

Bilabial m p b (w) Labiodental dental alveolar Palatoalveolar palatal velar glottal f v θ n t d s z r l ∫ ? t∫ d? j ? k ɡ w h 9

3) Voicing:

4) Nasal vs oral: If the air is stopped in the oral cavity, but the soft palate is down so that the air can only get out through the nasal cavity, the sound is a nasal stop. Otherwise it is an oral stop.

5)Pulmonic vs non-pulmonic: A pulmonic sound is a consonant sound produced by pushing air out of the lungs; while non pulmonic sounds are produced by either sucking air into the mouth(click吸气音), or closing the glottis and manipulating the air between the glottis and a place of articulation further forward in the vocal tract.

V. Vowels

Cardinal vowels: the reference points for the description and classification of vowels. i u

e o

? ?

a ɑ

The part of the tongue that is raised: front /i:/, central /?/, back /α/

The height of the tongue: high, mid, low; closed /i:/, half closed /e/, half open /ε/, open /a/ The degree of lip rounding: rounded /u:/, unrounded /i:/

Monophthong vs diphthong or pure vowels vs glidings: /a/, /au/ Long vs short vowels or tense vs lax vowels: /i:/, /I/ The table of English vowels on page 52 in the textbook. Schwa is the neutral vowel [?].

VI. Coarticulation and phonetic transcription

Coarticulation协同发音: in speech a sound may become more like its neighbouring sound.

Anticipatory coarticulation逆化协同发音: when a sound is influenced by the following sound, e.g. impossible Perseverative coarticulation接续性协同发音: when a sound is influenced by the preceding sound, e.g. play

Broad and narrow transcriptions 宽式和紧式音标: when we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic details is referred to as a narrow transcription.

/p/ is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in speak

Diacritics: additional symbols or marks showing the minute differences between variations of the same sound, e.g. h for

aspirated sounds, ~ for nasalized sounds, 0 for devoiced sounds. Broad transcriptions do not make use of these diacritics, while narrow transcriptions do. VII. Phonological analysis(重点)

Phonemes音位: distinctive speech sounds

minimal pairs最小对立体: pairs of words that differ in only one sound

contrastive distribution对立分布: the two different sounds in a minimal pair are in contrastive distribution Allophones音位变体: variants of the same phoneme

complementary distribution互补分布: those sounds that never occur in the same environment are in complementary

distribution

phonetic similarity语音相似性: allophones of the same phoneme must be phonetically similar

pattern congruity模式一致性: when assigning a sound to one phoneme rather than another, we must take the sound

pattern of the language into consideration Phonological processes

Assimilation同化: when a sound take on some or all the characteristics of a neighbouring sound

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called the Rheme.

A message consists of a Theme combined with a Rheme. e.g.

once upon a time very carefully for want of a nail with sobs and tears Theme

Chapter 5 Meaning(重点:术语，名词解释，选择) 1. Meanings of ‘meaning’ Leech’s seven types of meaning:

Conceptual meaning（central）: logical, cognitive, denotative content, e.g. woman: a female human being, book: a number of printed pages bound together with a cover. Associative meaning (peripheral):

Connotative meaning: What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to. Cross-individual differences, e.g. woman: long hair wearing, dress and skirt wearing, having maternal instinct, subject to instinct, prone to shed tears, physically weaker, inconstant, sociable and gregarious, emotional, compassionate, sensitive, tender and gentle, capable of speech, experienced in cookery, hard-working. Cross-cultural differences: individualism: (English) a doctrine claiming that the rights of individuals should be put over and above the rights of society, (Chinese) selfishness; book: (English) containing ideas for people to think about, to discuss, to make comments, (Chinese) containing knowledge

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there were three bears she put him back on his feet again the shoe was lost he sorted out those of the largest size Rheme

for people to learn. There are synonyms differing in connotation: politician and statesman, farmer and peasant

Social meaning (stylistic meaning): What is communicated of the social circumstances of language use, e.g. torch and flash light, department for rent and flat to let; answer and reply, room and chamber; fire, flame and conflagration, weak, feeble and fragile; domicile, residence, abode and home, steed, horse and nag.

Affective meaning: what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker / writer, e.g. you’re a liar. I hate you for that.

He had flashes of silence that made his conversation perfectly delightful. For she was beautiful – her beauty made The bright world dim, and everything beside Seemed like the fleeting image of a shade.

“Generally speaking,” said Miss Murdstone, “I don’t like boys. How d’ye do, boy?” under these encouraging circumstances, I replied that I was very well, and wished that she was the same, with such indifferent grace that Miss Murdstone disposed of me in two words, -- “Wants manner！”

Reflected meaning: What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression, e.g. The Comforter and The Holy Ghost, the morning star and the evening star; intercourse, ejaculation, erection and cook.

Collocative meaning: What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word, e.g. Pretty: girl, woman, flower, garden, colour, village

Handsome: boy, man, car, vessel, overcoat, airliner, typewriter

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Thematic meaning: what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis, e.g.

Mr. Micawber has talent but doesn’t have capital. Talent Mr. Micawber has, capital Mr. Micawber has not 2. Word Meaning

<1>The referential theory: a theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for.

Problems: 1) not every word has a reference, e.g. but, on, the. 2) a word is not related to a particular object in the world, e.g. book does not refer to a particular book. Its name, author, publisher, color, thickness and price do not matter when the word is used. The word refers to something abstract in language users? mind, which is usually known as concept. The semantic triangle (associated with Ogden and Richards): concept

word ------------------ thing

Sense refers to the abstract properties of an entity, while reference refers to concrete entities having these properties. In other words, Leech?s conceptual meaning has two sides: sense and reference. Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference. <2>Sense relations

Synonymy: sameness relation. But total synonymy is rare. Synonyms may differ in style (Little Tom (bought, purchased) a toy bear.) and in connotation (At first I was poor, then I became needy, later I was underprivileged. Now I’m disadvantaged. I still don’t have a cent to my name, but I sure have a great vocabulary). There are dialectal differences as well,

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e.g. biscuit（英：饼干，美：软饼）, corn（英：谷物，美：玉米）, jumper（英：毛衣，美：套衫）, truck（英：铁路平板车，美：卡车）, store（英：货栈，美：商店）。 Antonymy: oppositeness relation.

Gradable antonymy: e.g. big - small, old - young, cold - hot, etc. these synonyms have three features: 1) they are gradable: they differ in terms of degree and can be modified by very and used in comparative and superlative degrees, 2) they are graded against different norms: a very small elephant is much bigger than a very big mouse, 3) usually the term for the higher degree serves as the core term (or unmarked term), long vs short.

Complementary antonymy: alive - dead, male - female, present - absent, odd - even. The assertion of one means the denial of the other and the denial of one means the assertion of the other. Complementary antonyms have three features, 1) they are similar to contradictory propositions in logic: they cannot be both true or false, e.g. This is a male cat. This is a female cat. In contrast, a pair of gradable antonyms can be compared to contrary propositions in logic: they cannot be both true, even though they can be both false, e.g. The coffee is hot. The coffee is cold. 2) the norm of this type is absolute, e.g. a male creature cannot be male in some situations while a female in other situations. 3) there is no cover term ( the unmarked term) for the two members of a pair.

Converse antonymy (relational opposites): the reversal of a relationship between two entities, e.g. buy – sell, lend – borrow, parent – child, host – guest, before – after. John borrowed something from Jane means the same as Jane lent something to John.

Hyponymy: meaning inclusiveness, e.g. furniture (superordinate) – desk, sofa, bed, chair, cupboard, etc. (hyponyms or co-hyponyms)

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color green yellow red Scarlet crimson vermilion living plant animal bird fish insect animal human animal tiger wolf elephant monkey

<3>Componential analysis(重点): the meaning of a word is seen as a complex of semantic features or components, e.g. boy: HUMAN, YOUNG, MALE; girl: HUMAN, YOUNG, FEMALE; man: HUMAN, ADULT, MALE; woman: HUMAN, ADULT, FEMALE; dog: CANINE, ADULT, MALE bitch: CANINE, ADULT, FEMALE puppy: CANINE, YOUNG bull：BOVINE, ADULT, MALE cow: BOVINE, ADULT, FEMALE calf: BOVINE, YOUNG

If combined into binary features, then: boy: HUMAN, -ADULT, MALE;

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girl: HUMAN, -ADULT, -MALE; man: HUMAN, ADULT, MALE; woman: HUMAN, ADULT, -MALE.

Words that involve a relation between two entities can be shown: Father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x) = x is the parent of y and x is male. Mother: PARENT (x, y) & -MALE (x) = x is the parent of y and x is female. Son: CHILD (x, y) & MALE (x) = x is the child of y and x is male. Daughter: CHILD (x, y) & -MALE (x) x is the child of y and x is female. Verbs can also be analyzed in this way, e.g.

Take: CAUSE (x, (HAVE (x, y))) = x causes x to have y. Give: CAUSE (x, (-HAVE (x, y))) = x causes x not to have y. Die: BECOME (x, (-ALIVE (x))) = x becomes dead.

Kill: CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (-ALIVE (y)))) = x causes y to become dead

Sense relations may be better explained in terms of semantic components. Two words or expressions having the same semantic components will be synonyms, e.g. bachelor and unmarried man: HUMAN, ADULT, MALE, UNMARRIED. Two words having contrasting semantic components will be antonyms, e.g. man and woman, take and give, etc. Hyponyms have all the semantic components of their superordinates, e.g. boy and girl: HUMAN，-ADULT and child: HUMAN，-ADULT. Problems with semantic componential analysis:

1) Many words are polysemous. Consequently they have different sets of semantic components, e.g. man usually has the semantic component MALE, but it may also apply to both sexes, e.g. Man is mortal.

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2) Some semantic components are binary, e.g. MALE and FEMALE, ADULT and YOUNG. There is a clear-cut division line between MALE and FEMALE. But there is not such a clear-cut division line between ADULT and YOUNG. The division line between boy and man is fuzzy and that between girl and woman is even fuzzier.

3) There may be words whose semantic features are difficult to ascertain. So whether it is possible to analyze all the lexical items in this way remains a question difficult to answer.

<4>Semantic field theory (lexical field theory) is associated with primarily J. Trier. The following premises are fundamental to the lexical field theory.

1) The meaning of an individual word is dependent upon the meaning of the rest of the words of the same lexical or conceptual field, e.g. evaluative words: good, excellent, exceptional, first-rate. Military ranks

The USA China General of the army（五星上将） 上将 General（上将） 中将 Lieutenant general（中将） 少将 Major general（少将） 大校 Brigadier general（准将） 上校 Colonel（上校） 中校 Lieutenant colonel（中校） 少校 Major（少校） 上尉 Captain（上尉） 中尉

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First lieutenant（中尉） 少尉 Second lieutenant（少尉） 六级士官 Chief warrant officer（准尉） 五级士官 Master sergeant（军士长） 四级士官 Sergeant first class（上士） 三级士官 Sergeant（中士） 二级士官 Corporal（下士） 一级士官 Private first class（一等兵） 上等兵 Private（二等兵） 列兵

2) An individual lexical field is constructed like a mosaic with no gaps; the whole set of all lexical fields of a language reflects a self-contained picture of reality.

3) If a single word undergoes a change in meaning, then the structure of the lexical field changes.

Chapter 6 Language and Cognition

I.What is Cognition Cognition:

II.Psycholinguistics(重点) 1.Language Acquisition

<1>Holophrastic stage <2>Two-word stage <3>Stage of three-word utterances <4> Fluent grammatical conversation stage

2.Language Comprehension <1>Word cognition

Cohort theory: Interactive model, race model <2>Comprehension of sentences

Minimal attachment; Garden path; Serial model; Parallel model <3>Comprehension of text Resonance model

3.Language Production

Chapter 7 Language, Culture, and Society(重点在术语)

Anthropological linguistics: Often simply the study of lesser-known languages through field work. Also, more generally, of any work on language from an anthropological viewpoint: of the use of language in ritual, of vocabulary in relation to culture, of the organization of information in a text, and so on.

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Sociolinguistics: Any study of language in relation to society. Commonly, from the late 1960s, of studies of variation in language by Labov and his followers. In that sense, sociolinguistics might be defined as the study of correlations between linguistic variables (e.g. the precise phonetic quality of a vowel (e.g. individuals from different social classes may pronounce ar in different ways), or the presence or absence of a certain element in a construction (e.g. Cicily: When I see a spade I call it a spade. Gwendolen: I am glad to say I have never seen a spade. It is obvious our social sphere have been widely different.) and non-linguistic variables such as the social class of speakers, their age, sex, etc. Increasingly, from the end of the 1970s, of the range of loosely connected investigations, including Conversation Analysis (concentrates on relations between successive turns and the operation of a hypothetical turn-taking system) as conducted especially by sociologists, the study of relations in general between language and ideology (as poor as a church mouse vs 穷得房无一间, 地无一垄) or language and power, linguistic aspects of social psychology, etc.

Language and culture(重点)

Culture: the characteristics of cultivated man

the life-way of a population

the components of culture:

1）Materials to satisfy human needs 2）Social institutions and organizations

3）Knowledge about the world and artistic development 4）Language and other communication systems 5）Customs, habits and behavioral patterns

6）Value systems, world views, national traits, aesthetic standards and thinking patterns. Nida:

1) ecological culture 2) linguistic culture 3) religious culture 4) material culture 5) social culture

The anthropological orientation in the study of language In England

Malinowsky: a functional anthropologist. According to him, language functions as a link in concerted human activity… It is a mode of action and not an instrument of reflection. The meaning of language elements greatly depended upon the context of situation in which they occur. ((John?s like a fish.)

Firth: the first professor of linguistics in England and a close friend of Malinowsky. He tried to set up a model for illustrating the close relationship between language use and context of situation which contain the following components:

A. the relevant features of the participants: persons, personalities

(i) The verbal action of the participants (ii) The non-verbal action of the participants B. The relevant objects

C. The effects of the verbal action

Halliday: a student of Firth and the founder of systemic-functional linguistics that, especially the functional aspect, is also termed as sociosemantics. According to Halliday, the context of situation contains three components:

Field of discourse: the subject matter being discussed.

Tenor of discourse: the social relations between the participants of conversations

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Mode of discourse: the channel of communication An illustration

Zhao Yan：Excuse me. I?d like some information on how to get into an American University.

Officer: Yes, of course. Well, first, you write and get an application form. Then, you send it with a copy of

your school records and an affidavit of support. And after that, you ask your teachers for some letters of recommendation.

Zhao Yan: And do I need to take any tests?

Officer: yes, you have to take the TOEFL test for one, and for some schools I think you may also have to

take the SAT

Zhao Yan: And is it all right to apply to several universities at the same time? Officer: Oh, sure. No problem. The field of discourse：information on how to get into an American university: writing to get an application

form, sending it with a copy of school records, an affidavit of support, and some letters of recommendation, taking the TOEFL test and in some cases a SAT test, and the possibility to apply to several universities simultaneously.

The tenor of discourse：communication between a student and an officer in American Embassy The mode of discourse：oral English

The nature of Halliday?s sociosemantics can be captured by the following table: Phonology / graphology Transitivity: the 6 Mode-residue structure Theme-rheme structure processes Ideational meaning Interpersonal meaning Textual meaning Field of discourse Tenor of discourse Mode of discourse In the USA Boas, Sapir and Whorf: the anthropological approach to the study of language which can still be felt when we talk about Ethnography of Communication. What is best remembered of American Anthropological linguistics is the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis:

Linguistic determinism: Language determines our way of thinking.

Linguistic relativity: similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. Basic color terms

In English and Chinese there are 11 basic color terms, but in some other languages there might be fewer basic color terms. The speakers of those languages which have different number of basic color terms may have different view on the color spectrum.

But A universal evolutionary process of basic color terms:

White < [red] < green < [blue] < [brown] < purple black yellow pink

orange gray

stage I II III IV V VI

But we do not have evidence from historical studies of different languages to support the hypothesis. In the same way, we do not have evidence to support the hypothesis that English and Chinese are at different developmental stages. English has been moving from a synthetic language to an analytic language, while Chinese is an analytic language. Some say that Chinese manifests more developmental maturity than English.

Conclusions about the hypothesis:

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Some view the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis as one of the greatest contributions made by scholars on language in the 20th century. But most people would say that language, culture and thought interact, each influencing and shaping the others.

But language does exert influence upon thought. Case studies:

“Did you see a broken headlight?” “Did you see the broken headlight?” A flag: 一面旗 A river: 一条河 A pencil: 一支铅笔

Political oration, newspaper editorials, advertisements are meant to influence people?s thinking. “If Aristotle had spoken Chinese his logic would have been different.” Kinship terms.

Since there are more kinship term in Chinese, the Chinese people can talk about kinship relations relatively easily. This strengthens the Chinese people?s concept about kinship relations. Honorifics and terms of humility

In English: Majesty, (most) Honorable, Excellency, and a small number of titles: president, mayor, professor, etc,

In Chinese: 您、令尊、高见、大作、贵府 敝人、拙荆、犬子、寒舍

This contrast may be related to the distinction between a stratified society and a mobile society Linear vs spiral or cyclic text development

In English a paragraph or text may begin with the topic sentence. And the second sentence is derived from the first one. The third one is derived from the second one, and so on.

In Chinese the sentences in a paragraph or text may not have readily seen formal linkages between them. E.g. 君子曰：学不可以已。青取之于蓝，而青于蓝；冰，水为之，而寒于水。木直中绳，輮以为轮，其曲中规。虽有槁曝，不复挺者，輮使之然也。……

But it is dangerous to try to relate all structural characteristics to culture. Language has its own way of development.

“The Chinese language is monosyllabic and uninflectional … With a language so incapable of variation, a literature cannot be produced which possesses the qualities we look for and admire in literary works. Elegance, variety, beauty of imagery – these must all be lacking” The subjunctive mood and counterfactual thinking.

Some scholars claim that since Chinese does not have formal markers for the subjunctive mood, the Chinese people are not capable of counterfactual thinking. Culture in language classrooms

The teaching of two unknowns, the target language and the target culture, simultaneously. The objectives:

1) To get the students familiar with cultural differences;

2) To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture

will;

3) To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through

various classroom practice.

Language and society(浏览一遍可)

Monistic or autonomous pursuit of an independent science: a separation of the structural study of language from its social context of usage.

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Dualistic view of the linguistic inquiry: the study of language as it is used in society, as an opposition to the dominant theory of Chomskyan linguistics. A situationally and socially variation perspective

The factors that are believed to influence language behavior in a social context include: 1) class, 2) gender, 3）age, 4) ethnic identity, 5) educational background, 6) occupation, and 7) religious belief.

William Labov in his The Social Stratification of English in New York City reported that class and style were two major factors influencing the speaker?s choice of one phonological variant over another. For instance, in the U.S.A.

Upper class Non-Upper class ?yesterday yester?day Vase (bars) (maize) ?int?resting inte?resting

In vocabulary, the course of meal following the main course has different names for different social classes:

Pudding (upper and middle classes) Sweet (middle class)

Dessert (lower middle class)

afters (lower middle and lower classes) pudding (lower classes)

According to Lakoff, there exists a woman register in language that takes on the following features: 1) Women use more fancy color terms such as mauve (淡紫色) and beige（米色）. 2) Women use less powerful curse words.

3) Women use more intensifiers such as terrible and awful. 4) Women use more tag questions: He’s right, isn’t he?

5) Women use more statement (declarative) questions: He’s right?

6) Women?s linguistic behavior is more indirect and, hence, more polite than men: Could you lower your

voice a little?

Linguistic sexism: linguistic discrimination against women: chairman, man power, man（used to refer to the whole human race）, he (used to refer to a person of unknown sex), gentlemen. If a man behaves strangely, one may say, “There’s a woman in it.” The proverb: Wives and children are bills of charges.

Linguistic racism: linguistic discrimination against some ethnic groups: niger, negro, the black people, Afro-Americans; Chinks, Japs, Dagos, kirks, Pommy, slant eyes. England will beat Argentina in the football match or I’m a Dutchman. Many of the boys at the school took French leave to go to the football match.

The relationship between language and society

This relationship can be studied from two different perspectives: the sociolinguistc study of society and the sociolinguistic study of language. The sociolinguistc study of society

If we want to know more about a given society or community by examinng the linguistic behavior of its members, we are doing a macro sociolinguistic study of society. At this level of investigation we may be interested in the following things:

Bilingualism and multilingualism: referring firstly to a speech community which makes use of two or more languages and secondly to individuals who can speak two or more languages. Sociolinguists are particularly concerned with the social status of these languages and their role in identifying speakers with different ethnic groups. They may raise different kinds of political, educational and social problems, depending on the numbers, social standing and national feelings of the groups concerned.

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Language planning: There might be different languages or dialects spoken in a country. So society needs a systematic attempt to solve the communication problem and develop a realistic policy concerning the proper selection and appropriate use of these languages and dialects. This kind of deliberate, official and collective activities is called language planning.

The standard language or dialect: When a country abounds with languages and dialects of a language, a prestige language or dialect will be accepted by society as the foundation of the standard language or dialect.

Language maintenance: When the younger generation of a subordinate language community do not feel the need of using that language or deliberately avoid the use of that language, the subordinate language will fall into disuse or die out in the course time. For this reason, efforts are sometimes made to keep the language from going out. This is called language maintenance The sociolinguistic study of language

If we want to know more about some linguistic variations by turning to socialcultural factors for a description and explanation, we are doing a micro sociolinguistic study of language. For example,

Address forms: in English speaking countries, people get into first name terms every easily. Titles plus surnames are not used very often in interpersonal communication

Discourse analysis: the analysis of language units larger than sentences. For example, in a society people may get other people?s attention, nominate a topic, develop a topic, and terminate a topic in certain ways. Pidgin: formed by two speech communities attempting to communicate, each successively approximating to the more obvious features of the other?s language. Pidgin languages are used for restricted purposes and are native languages of none.

Creole: When a Pidgin becomes the native language of a speech community, it changes into a Creole. The implications from sociolinguistics for language teaching Communicative competence a. linguistic competence

N. Chomsky: the speaker-hearer?s knowledge of his language.

A set of (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of

elements.

b. communicative competence D. Hymes:

Whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible.

Whether (and to what degree) something is feasible, in virtue of the means of implementation available.

Whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate (adequate, happy, successful) in relation to the context in which it is used and evaluated.

Whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually performed, and what its doing entails.

M. Canale and M. Swain: Grammatical competence Sociolinguistic competence Discourse competence Strategic competence

a. Sociolinguistics has contributed to a change of emphasis in the content of language teaching. b. It has also contributed to innovation in materials and activities for the classroom. c. It has contributed to a fresh look at the nature of language development and use.

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d. It has contributed to a more fruitful research in this field.

Chapter 8 language in use

“A policeman is coming.” : The meaning of the words + structural meaning A description of something in reality A warning

The second type of meaning is sometimes referred to as speaker’s meaning, utterance meaning or contextual meaning, and the discipline that concentrates on this type of meaning is called pragmatics = meaning - semantics. Speech act theory(重点)

This is the first major theory in the study of language in use. It originated with the Oxford philosopher Austin and presented in How to Do Things with Words. Performatives（言语行为句）and constatives（表述句）

Austin classifies sentences in two categories: performatives and constatives. Performatives do not describe things. They can not be said to be true or false. Uttering them is, or is a part of, doing an action, e.g.

I name this ship Queen Elizabeth. I apologize.

I declare the meeting open.

I sentence you ten years of imprisonment。

Constatives are descriptive statements, capable of being analyzed in terms of truth-values, e.g. I pour some liquid into the tube

Felicity conditions（适宜条件）of the performatives: A (i) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and

(ii) Tthe relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate. B The procedure must be executed (i) correctly and (ii) completely.

C Very often, (i) the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, and (ii) must follow it up with actions specified.

However, Austin soon realized that these conditions could only apply to some cases. For example I apologize. and I promise to come early tomorrow. may be produced without a strict procedure. And, on the other hand, The present king of France is bald, is infelicitous in the same way as I bequeath my watch to my brother. said by someone without a watch.

Then Austin explored the possibility of separating performatives from constatives on grammatical and lexical criteria. Typical performatives use: first person singular pronouns as subjects, the indicative mood,

the simple present tense, the active voice,

and performative verbs.

But there are counterexamples:

Pedestrians are warned to keep off the grass. (passive) (I warn you to keep off the grass.) Turn right. (imperative) (I order you to turn right.) You did it. (past) (I find you guilty.) Thank you (imperative) (I thank you.)

And state can be used as a performative varb, e.g. I state that I’m alone responsible.

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It seems that the distinction between performatives and constatives can not be maintained. All sentences can be used to do things.

A theory of the illocutionary act

According to Austin, there are three senses in which saying something may be understood as doing something

It’s cold in here. Locutionary act（表述性言语行为、言中行为）: the act of producing speech sounds, words or sentences. Illocutionary act（施为性言语行为、言外行为）: the act of making known the speaker?s purpose or the intended meaning: asking or answering a question, giving some information or an assurance or a warning, pronouncing sentence, making a request or an appointment or a criticism, making an identification or giving a description, and many others.

Austin acknowledges that force or illocutionary force can be regarded as part of meaning, when the latter is used in a broad sense. But he thinks it is better to distinguish force from meaning, with the latter used in a narrow sense, or what we say the more constant, inherent side of meaning (studied in semantics). Thus interpreted, force may be said to be equivalent to speaker?s meaning, contextual meaning, or extra meaning (studied in pragmatics).

Perlocutionary act（言后行为）: the consequential effect of a locution upon the hearer. By saying something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer, misleading him, surprising him, or induce him to do something. Whether these effects are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act performed by the speaker. This is what is called perlocutionary act.

The theory about illocutionary acts is the central issue in the speech act theory. One can even say that the speech act theory is in fact a theory of the illocutionary act. In this general theory, the original performatives are only special types in which the illocutionary force is made explicit by the performative verb.

The theory of conversational implicature（会话含义）(重点)

Associated with another Oxford philosopher H.B. Grice and presented mainly in his Logic and Conversation.

Grice noticed that in daily conversations people do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them. For example, when A said to B about C, “Oh he?s quite well I think. He likes his colleagues, and he hasn?t been to prison yet.” A certainly implied something though he did not say it explicitly. Grice coined the term implicature （avoid the term implication used in semantics）to refer to this type of implied or suggested meaning. And he investigated the ways in which people manage to convey implicature.

According to Grice, in daily conversations, people are cooperative. They often recognize a common purpose or a set of purposes or at least a mutually agreed direction for the conversation to develop. That is, they follow a cooperative principle or CP for short. The cooperative principle has four categories of maxims: Quantity

1. make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange) 2. do not make your contribution more informative than is required. Quality

1. do not say what you believe to be false.

2. do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. Relation Be relevant Manner

Be perspicuous

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1. avoid obscurity of expression. 2. avoid ambiguity. 3. be brief 4. be orderly

These maxims are meant to describe what happens in conversations and can be compared to unwritten laws.

Violation of the maxims

The use of the term principle and maxim does not mean that the CP and its maxims will be followed by everybody all the time. People do violate them and tell lies. But Grice first distinguishes telling lies from other types of violations. In his view conversational implicature can only be worked out on the basis of the CP. If somebody deliberately tells lies, the basis for accurate interpretation is lost, so lies are not implicature proper.

Examples of the violation of the maxims

(1) A professor wrote a reference letter for his past student X who is applying for a lectureship in

philosophy. The letter reads: Dear sir,

Mr. X’s command of English is excellent, and his attendance at tutorials has been regular. Yours, XXXX.

The professor violated the maxim of quantity, implicating that X is not good at philosophy. (2) A: Where does C live?

B: Somewhere in the south of France. (3) Boys are boys and war is war. (4) A: Where’s X?

B: He’s gone to the library. He said so when he left. (5) He is made of iron.

(6) Every nice girl loves a sailor. (7) At a genteel tea party,

A: Mrs. X is an old bag.

B: The weather has been quite delightful this summer, hasn’t it? (8) At home,

A: Let?s get the kids something.

B: OK, but I veto I-C-E C-R-E-A-M. Characteristics of implicature

1) calculability （可计算性）

Implicature is calculable in that it can be worked out on the basis of previous information, including: 1) the conventional meaning of the words, 2) the CP and its maxims, 3) the context, 4) other items of the background knowledge, 5) the fact that all relevant items falling under the previous headings are available to both participants and both participants know or assume this to be the case.

2) Cancellability （可删除性）

Also known as defeasibility. A conversational implicature relies on a number of factors as discussed in the part for calculability. If any of them changes, the implicature will also change. Example (4) above.

3) non-detachability（非可分离性）

A conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. Therefore it is possible to use a synonym and keep the implicature intact. For example, John’s a genius and John’s a mental prodigy said ironically both implicate that John’s an idiot. And example (7) above. But conversational implicature related to the Manner maxim are an exception. Example (8) above.

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4) non-conventionality（非规约性）

conversational implicature is by definition different from the conventional meaning of words. To show this more clearly, we can have a look at some examples of entailment (a logical relationship between two sentences in which the truth of the second necessarily follows from the truth of the first, while the falsity of the first necessarily follows from the falsity of the second: I saw a boy and I saw a child): John has three cows.

John has only three cows. (implicature) John has some cows. (entailment) John has some animals. (entailment) John has something. (entailment)

Somebody has three cows. (entailment) Somebody has some cows. (entailment) Somebody has some animals. (entailment) Somebody has something. (entailment)

Entailments is part of the conventional meaning. If you do not know the entailment of a word you have to look it up in a dictionary. There is no way to work it out on the basis of the CP and the context. Entailment is constant in all contexts. In this sense entailment is determinate. However, implicature varies with context and therefore indeterminate.

Finally, conversational implicature and illocutionary force are both concerned with the contextual side of meaning. These two theories differ only in the mechanisms they offer for explaining the generation of contextual meaning.

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