语言学导论课件

Chapter 1 Introduction (1) about language

1. A generally accepted definition:

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language must be a system. Language is arbitrary. Language is symbolic.

Language is primarily vocal. Language is human-specific.

许国璋先生对‘语言’的定义做了如下概括: 语言是人类特有的一种符号系统,

当它作用于人与人的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介; 当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具; 当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体和容器。

design features of human languages: arbitrariness creativity duality of structure displacement cultural transmission

2. design features of human language ? arbitrariness(任意性): There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. e.g.书(汉)----book(英)

A rose by any other name would smell as sweet (Shakespeare). Find some cases in which the language we use is not arbitrary. *onomatopoeia(拟声): quack-quack bang crash roar cuckoo ding dong ka cha pu tong *compounds: rainbow bittersweet pickpocket * pictograph (象形文字) /hieroglyph(象形符号) 休 从 北

? Arbitrariness and convention ? productivity/creativity (创造性): We can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences we have never heard before. We can create endless sentences. e.g. He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who…

? duality of structure(结构的二重性): Human language is a system consisting of two sets of structures or two levels. the higher level: a structure of meaningful units (morphemes or words) the lower level: a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves e.g. pen cake [p] [e] [n] [k] [ei] [k]

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? displacement(不受时空限制的特征): Language can be used to refer to things which are present or absent, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. e.g. A: When are you moving to America? B: I‘m not sure yet. Maybe next month. ? cultural transmission: Language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. e.g. the story of a wolf child 3. functions of language ? phatic: Hello.

Good morning. Lovely weather, isn‘t it? 吃饭了吗? 去哪里呀? ? directive: Pass me the salt, please. Don‘t do that any more. You‘d better do it yourself. ? informative: Water freezes at 32 degrees and boils at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. ? interrogative: What time is it now? ? performative: e.g.(the chairman): Now I declare the meeting open. (the judge):I sentence you to 10 years in prison. ? expressive: I‘m sorry to hear that. I‘m glad to meet you. Thank you very much! Congratulations! ? evocative: The use of language to create certain feeling in the hearer. Its aim is to amuse, startle, anger or please. e.g. jokes, threat, warning ? metalingual: Words like ―I, you, he‖ are pronouns. *other classifications: A. descriptive function expressive function social function

B. ideational function概念功能 interpersonal function人际功能 textual function语篇功能 C. addresser --- emotive情感的 addressee --- conative意动的 context --- referential所指的

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message --- poetic诗学的 contact --- phatic communion交感的 code --- metalinguistic元语言的 4. the origin of language

? the divine-origin theory: According to Christian belief, God gave Adam the power to name all things. ―So he (God) took some soil from the ground and formed all the animals and all the birds. Then he brought them to the man to see what he would name them, and that is how they got their names. ? the invention theory: Many people think that man invented language. Some people believe that language at its earliest stage consisted of ―cries of nature‖. Others suggest that language arose out of the grunts of men working together. ? the evolutionary theory: In the long process of evolution, men gradually stood up. Free use of the lungs and the vocal cords made it possible for men to articulate sounds. Some believe that it is labor that created the necessity for language. (2) about linguistics Linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. A person who studies linguistics is usually referred to as a linguist. 1. main branches of linguistics

phonetics, phonology morphology syntax semantics pragmatics stylistics sociolinguistics neurolinguistics psycholinguistics applied linguistics computational linguistics 2. some important distinctions:

? descriptive (描述性的) vs. prescriptive(规定性的): If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for“correct and standard”behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive. People say X. Don‘t say X, say Y. ? synchronic(共时的) vs. diachronic(历时的): The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. Old English s Middle English s Modern English s d

? langue (语言系统)and parole (言语) (Saussure)

Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole

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refers to the realization of langue in actual use.

? competence(语言能力) and performance (语言运用) (Chomsky) Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. ? traditional grammar and modern linguistics: 1. Modern linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. 2. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. 3. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.

Chapter 2 Phonology

The primary medium of human language is sound. phonetics(语音学)---the science which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription speech sounds --- sounds that convey meaning in human communication (1) three branches of phonetics:

? Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学)studies how speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. ? Auditory phonetics (听觉语音学)studies how sounds are perceived by the hearer. ? Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学)studies the physical properties of sounds. (2) articulatory phonetics: 1) speech organs:

1. three important areas: the pharyngeal cavity (the pharynx/throat) the oral cavity (the mouth) the nasal cavity (the nose) 2. the throat: glottis(声门) vocal cords(声带) larynx---Adam‘s apple 3. the mouth: lips tongue teeth teeth ridge (alveolous) hard palate(硬腭) soft palate (velum软腭) uvula IPA: the International Phonetic Alphabet

2) narrow transcription and broad transcription: There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds. One is the transcription with letter-symbols only and the other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics（变音符号）. The former is called broad transcription(宽式标音), which is normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks. The latter is called narrow transcription(严式标音). e.g. narrow broad pit /p? it/ /pit/ speak /sp=i:k/ /spi:k/

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feel /fi:? / /fi:l/ 3) some major articulatory variables: voicing: voiced/voiceless e.g. [l, r, m, i:]/ [f, p, k] nasality: nasal/ nonnasal e.g. [m,n, ?]/[s,z,v,f] aspiration: aspirated/ unaspirated e.g. [p, t, k]/ [b, d, g]

pit (strongly aspirated) tip (weakly aspirated) sports, steel (unaspirated)

(3) classification of English speech sounds: consonants(辅音) and vowels(元音)

1) classification of English consonants: 1. in terms of manner of articulation: stops爆破音: [p, b, t, d, k, g] fricatives擦音: [f, v, s, z, ?, ? , ?, ? , h] affricates塞擦音: [ t?, d?] nasals鼻音: [m, n, ?] liquids边音 : [l] [r] glides滑音 :( semivowels [w, j] ) 2. in terms of place of articulation: bilabial双唇音: [p, b, m, w] labiodental唇齿音: [f, v] dental齿音: [?, ? ] alveolar齿龈音: [t, d, s, z, n, l, r] palatal腭音: [?, ?, t?, d?, j] velar软腭音: [k, g, ? ] glottal喉音: [h]

2) classification of English vowels: ? monophthongs单元音:

1. the part of the tongue that is held highest: front: [i:, i, e, ?, ɑ ] central: [?: , ?, ? ] back: [u:, u, ?: , ?, ɑ:] 2. width of the mouth: open: [ ?, ? , ?, ɑ, ɑ:] close: [i: ,i, u:, u ] semi-open /semi-close: [?: , e, ?, ?:] 3. shape of the lips: rounded: [u:, u, ?: , ?] unrounded: [i:, i, e, ?, ?: , ?, ?, ɑ:] ? diphthongs双元音: [ei, ai, ?i, ?u, au, i?, ??, u?]

The long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are lax vowels.

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(4) phonology音系学/音位学 It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 1) phone, phoneme, allophone 1. phone音素

? A phone is a phonetic unit. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all

phones. leaf [li:f]---[l, i:, f] feel[fi:l]---[f, i:, ]

? But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning. [bi:]---[p?i:] [t?i:]---[mi:] [p?it]---[tip?] [li:f]---[fi: ?] 2. phoneme音位

? A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.

? It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone

in a certain phonetic context. [p? ] in [pit] [l] in [li:f] /p/ [p=] in [spit] /l/ [?] in [fi:l] [ p?] in [tip] 3. allophone音位变体

? The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the

allophones of that phoneme.

? Distinctive features区别性的特征 The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features. [men], [pen], [ben], [ten], [ren], [ken] Binary features: [+consonantal] [-consonantal] [+nasal] [-nasal] [+voiced] [-voiced]

2) phonemic contrast音位对立

? Two distinctive phonemes are said to form a phonemic contrast. e.g. /p/ --- /b/ /i:/ --- /e/ /t/ --- /i/

3) complementary distribution互补分布

? Allophones of the same phoneme do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution. e.g. clear [l] --- dark [? ] aspirated [p? ] --- unaspirated [p=] 4) minimal pair最小对立体

? When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same

place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. [kit]---[git] [ket]---[kit] [ket]---[ked] beat --- bit bit --- bet bet --- bat bat --- buthut --- heart heart --- hot pot --- port girl --- gale tale --- tile tone --- town how --- here here --- hair Judge whether the following examples are minimal pairs or not. [ted]—[det] [i:p]---[it] [ilp]---[bil]

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thing---think fear---pear probe---prove real---rear keys---geese angel---anger 5) some rules of phonology

1. sequential rules --- rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language /b/ /l/ /k/ /i/

? If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the

following three rules:

(1)The first phoneme must be /s/

(2)The second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/ (3)The third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/ 2. deletion rule sign---signature design---designation paradigm---paradigmatic 3. assimilation rule同化规则 The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by ―copying‖ a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. input---[m] incorrect---[?] indiscreet---[n] bean---nasalized [i:] team---nasalized [i:] I can make it.---[m] I can go there with you.---[?] nasalization: e.g. can, tan dentalization: e.g. tenth, ninth velarization: e.g. sink, mink

devoicing: five past, love to, has to, as can be shown, edge to edge 6) suprasegmental features超切分特征 1. syllable音节 a unit of speech sounds consisting of a vowel or a vowel with one/more than one consonant ? A syllable consists of three parts:/men/ the onset节首: [m] the peak节峰 : [e] the coda节尾 : [n]

? The peak is usually formed by a vowel.

? A syllable must contain a peak but onset and coda may be absent from it. syllabic --- (of a consonant) making a syllable of its own without a vowel open syllable --- a syllable without a coda, i.e. a syllable ending in a vowel closed syllable --- a syllable with a coda, i.e. arrested by a consonant

? Each syllable has one and only one peak. When there‘re two vowels in a word, they must be separated into

two syllables. But there is no general restriction on the number of consonants in a syllable. fast [fa:st] chaos ['kei?s] sixths [siks?s] ? Maximal Onset Principle: When there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. ['pu:ti] ['k?ntri] [?'gen] ['litl] ['intristid]

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2. stress

A. word stress:

? three types of stress: primary, secondary, zero stress 'interested inter'national un'skilled ? greenhouse vs. green house hotdog vs. hot dog

? sleeping bag vs. sleeping baby swimming pool vs. swimming boy B. sentence stress:

? In English nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs and demonstrative pronouns are usually stressed, whereas

auxiliary verbs, conjunctions, prepositions, pronouns are not normally stressed. e.g. I must leave in the morning, otherwise I‘ll be late for the train. ? Rhythmic considerations influence the placement of stress. e.g. Mary‘s younger brother wanted fifty chocolate peanuts. e.g. She‘s fifteen years old. She‘s only fifteen. e.g. He went away. John went away.

? For special emphasis, each word in a sentence can be stressed. e.g. Jack came yesterday by train. 3. tone声调/音调

? Languages that use the pitch of individual syllables to contrast meanings are called tone languages. ? Chinese, Thai, Burmese and many American Indian languages are tone languages. 妈 麻 马 骂 4. intonation语调

? Languages that use pitch syntactically (e.g. to change a sentence from a statement to a question) or in which

the changing pitch of a whole sentence is otherwise important to the meaning are called intonation languages (e.g. English).

e.g. You are a student. Are you a student? ? functions of intonation:

a. It may indicate different sentence types by pitch directions. falling tone---a statement rising tone---a question

e.g. I beg your pardon. ?(I‘m sorry.) I beg your pardon. ?(Can you say that again?) b. its attitudinal functions: falling tone---matter-of-fact statements downright assertions, commands rising tone---politeness, encouragement, pleading

c. It may impose different stress on the sentence by dividing it into different intonation units. e.g. John didn‘t come because of Mary.

e.g. Those who bought quickly made a profit. e.g. What did you put in my drink, Rose? What did you put in my drink, rose?

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Chapter 3 Morphology

morphology 形态学--- the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed *A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. e.g. fine /fain/ (sound) good (meaning) It is fine today. (syntactic function) (1) classification of words

1. open class words and closed class words:

? open class: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs

? closed class: conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns 2. grammatical words and lexical words (function words and content words) 3. word class (parts of speech)

(2) morpheme 词素/语素--- the minimal unit of meaning e.g. boyish---boy + -ish beautiful---beauty + -ful unfair---un- + fair dislike---dis- + like

? allomorph语素变体---the alternate shape or phonemic forms for a morpheme e.g. a book, an apple e.g. teacher, actor

e.g. impossible, incorrect, illegal, irresponsible

e.g. maps [s] dogs [z] watches [iz] mice [ai] oxen [n] teeth [i:] sheep 1) free morphemes自由语素vs. bound morphemes粘着语素: 1. free morphemes (i.e. morphemes that can stand alone) e.g. boy, girl, act, teach, good, nice, in, a, the

2. bound morphemes (i.e.morphemes that cannot stand alone) A. prefix: e.g. un-, im-, dis-, re-, en-, B. suffix: e.g. -ly, -ful, -ive, -ness, -tion,-or, -ity, 2) derivational and inflectional morphemes: 1. derivational morphemes派生语素:

? When they are conjoined to other morphemes/words, a new word is derived. A. word class changed: length+-en fool+-ish pay+-ee rapid+-ity exact+-ly accept+-able B. word class unchanged: non-+smoker ex-+president il-+logical profit+-eer tall+-ish 2. inflectional morphemes屈折语素: bound morphemes that are purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.

A. number: tables

B. person/finiteness: opens

C. aspect: talks, talking, talked, taken D. case: boy‘s

E. degree of comparison: smaller, smallest

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free morpheme morpheme derivational bound morpheme inflectional prefix前缀 derivational morpheme suffix后缀 affix inflectional morpheme (3) root, stem, base 1) root词根

? A root is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. e.g. internationalism (root --- nation)

? free root morpheme --- those that can stand alone e.g. ?friend‘ in ?friendly, friendship‘

? bound root morpheme --- those that cannot stand alone e.g. ?-ceive‘ in ?receive, perceive, conceive‘ ?-mit‘ in ?remit, permit, commit, submit‘ ?-cur‘ in ?incur, recur, occur‘ ?-tain‘ in ?retain, contain, maintain‘ 2) stem词干

? A stem is any morpheme or combination of morpheme to which an inflectional affix can be added. e.g. friends (stem --- friend) friendships (stem --- friendship) 3) base词基

? A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. e.g. desirable (base --- desire) (4) compounds free morpheme + free morpheme e.g. daybreak haircut playboy

? Compounds usually have different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence. green 'house --- 'greenhouse black 'board --- 'blackboard

? The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts. e.g. redcoat greenhand (5) sememe义素 vs. morpheme ? one morpheme vs. one sememe e.g. -less: ?without‘

? one morpheme vs. more than one sememe e.g. a- : ?not‘ (atypical, asymmetry) a- : to enhance the meaning of the original senses (arise, await) ? one sememe vs. more than one morpheme e.g. ?not‘: in-, un-, non-

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Chapter 4 Syntax

syntax = syn (together) + tax (to arrange)

syntax句法学 --- a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences

Word order: SVO, SOV, OVS, OSV, VOS, VSO,

syntagmatic relation组合关系( horizontal/ chain relation链状关系) e.g. The man smiles. paradigmatic relation聚合关系(vertical/ choice relation 选择关系) e.g. The ____ smiles. man boy girl (1) categories:

a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.

? Kate likes classical music.(sentence) ? classical music (noun phrase) ? like (verb) 1. word-level categories Major lexical categories Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P) Determiner (Det) Degree word (Deg) Qualifier (Qual) Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con) Examples book, boy, sheep, love run, read, play happy, tall, clear about, over, on the, a, this, those quite, very, more, so often, seldom, almost must, should, can, might and, but, or Minor lexical categories Examples three criteria for determining a word‘s category ? meaning ? inflection ? distribution

2. phrase categories:

The category of phrases is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. [NP a poor boy]

[VP run quickly, like music] [AP extremely cold] [PP mainly about]

A phrase usually contains the following elements: specifier head complement the quite seldom a boy nice come story cut about him the hair 第 11 页 共 34 页

Phrase structure rule: NP (Det) N (PP): VP (Qual) V (NP): AP (Deg) A (PP): PP (Deg) P (NP): XP rule: specifier

the seldom very

the man in the car

often sing songs very close to it so in love

XP X man sing good

complement in the car songs

Xˉ theory: XP

specifier Xˉ X (head) complement seldom

sing

songs

Coordination rule: X X * Con X boys and girls odds and ends ups and downs singing and dancing physically and mentally tea or coffee more or less

Phrase elements ? Specifiers:

Determiners serve as the specifiers of nouns: the boy, that house, an apple Qualifiers function as specifiers of verbs: always get up late, often work overnight Degree words act as specifiers of adjectives: very good, quite different ? Complements:

a story about a sentimental girl cut the hair

give a book to her

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? Modifiers: a beautiful girl open with care read carefully quickly read read the book carefully head complement modifier

? The term CATEGORY discussed above refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g., noun, verb,

noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units. ? The categories of a noun may include number, gender, case and countability. ? The categories of a verb may include tense, aspect, voice, etc. (2) Sentences (the S rule)

(3) transformations ? yes-no questions ? wh-questions ? passive voice

The above all involves a syntactic movement. Auxiliary movement:

Inversion: Move Infl to the left of the subject NP

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Wh movement: Move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence. 1. you can speak what language What languages can you speak? 2. you can talk about what What can you talk about? (4) Deep and surface structure: Paraphrase each of the following sentences in two different ways to show that you understand the ambiguity involved:

1. Could this be the invisible man‘s hair tonic? 2. Flying planes can be dangerous. 3. Dick finally decided on the boat.

4. The professor‘s appointment was shocking.

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5. Old men and women are hard to live with. 6. The governor is a dirty street fighter. (5) Immediate constituent analysis:

(6) endocentric and exocentric constructions ? endocentric construction向心结构

? subordinate construction: e.g. very good swimming in the lake these two oldest stone bridges

? coordinate construction: e.g. boys and girls coffee or tea singing and dancing

? exocentric construction离心结构 e.g. The boy smiled. Behind the door kick the ball seem angry

Chapter 5 Semantics

semantics语义学 --- the study of meaning in language (1)What is meaning?

1. naming theory (by Plato):

? Words are just names or labels for things

e.g. desk --- a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs, at which one reads and writes ? Some words are definitely not labels of objects. e.g. jump, quickly, pretty, and, in, hatred

? Some words denote things that do not exist in the real world. e.g. ghost, unicorn, dragon, Santa Claus

2. the conceptualist view (by Ogden and Richards):

? There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning

they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. thought/ reference __ __ __ __ __ __ _ symbol/ form referent 3. contextualism (by Firth):

? Meaning should be decided in terms of situation, use and context.

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linguistic context: greenhouse greenhand green tea

situational context: The seal could not be found. She is at the bank. 4. behaviorism (by Bloomfield):

? Meaning of a language form can be defined as ―situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it

calls forth in the hearer.‖ Jill Jack

S________ r……s_______ R (2) sense意义 vs. reference所指:

sense --- the semantic relations between one word and another, it is de-contextualized reference --- the relation between a word and the thing it refers to, it is contextualized e.g. There‘s a dog barking at the door.

(sense): a domesticated canine mammal, occurring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form (reference): the dog that is barking at the door

? Linguistic form having the same sense may have different references in different situations. e.g. the President of America: Washington Roosevelt Obama

? Linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense. e.g. the Prime Minister of Britain the leader of the Conservative Party In 1994, both referred to John Major. (3) sense relations:

1. synonymy: the sameness or close similarity of meaning A. dialectal synonyms: lift --- elevator sweets --- candy B. stylistic synonyms: gratitude --- thanks inquire --- ask

C. synonyms differing in emotive meaning: I‘m thrifty. You are economical. He is stingy. D. collocational synonyms: see a movie, watch a match handsome boy, pretty girl 2. antonymy: the oppositeness of meaning A. gradable antonyms: rich:poor like:dislike

? The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. ? They can be modified by ?very (much)‘.

? They may have comparative and superlative degree. B. complementary antonyms/ungradable opposites: innocent: guilty odd: even boy: girl hit: miss (a target)

? Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, the denial of one also means the assertion of the

other.

? There is no intermediate ground between the two.

? It is a question of two term choice: yes or no; not a multiple choice, a choice between more or less.

? Adjectives in this type cannot be modified by ?very‘. They do not have comparative or superlative degrees. He is more dead than alive. (not a true comparative) *John is more dead than Peter.

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Mary is madder than Alice. C. relational opposites: host: guest above: below before: after parent: child teacher: student give: receive bigger: smaller

? One presupposes the other. ?X is the parent of Y‘ presupposes ?Y is the child of X‘. 3. polysemy: the same word may have more than one meaning ?table‘:

? a piece of furniture (a kitchen table)

? the food that is put on a table (set an abundant table)

? all the people seated at a table (He came in and the table fell suddenly silent.) 4. homonymy: words having different meanings have the same form A. homophones: words that are identical in sounds e.g. sow/sew meat/meet rite/right

B. homographs: words that are identical in spelling e.g. live adj./live v. minute adj./minute n.

C. complete homonyms: words that are identical in both sound and spelling e.g. bear v./bear n. well adv./well n.

5. hyponymy: relationship between a more general word and a more specific word sheep (superordinate, upper term)

ram ewe lamb (hyponyms, lower term) ? co-hyponyms

(4) componential analysis成分分析:

? The meaning of a word / phrase can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. father: [+PARENT, +MALE] daughter: [+CHILD, -MALE]

? Words having the same semantic components will be synonymous with each other.

e.g. ?bachelor‘ and ?unmarried man‘.

? Words containing contrasting components are antonyms. e.g. ?man‘ and ?woman‘. (5) sentence meaning: a. The cat chased the dog. b. The dog chased the cat.

? sentence meaning = lexical meaning + grammatical meaning *Green clouds are sleeping furiously.

*Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.

? meaningfulness --- the semantic well – formedness of a sentence (6) predication analysis述谓结构分析:

? A predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. This applies to all forms of sentence, including

statements, imperative and interrogative forms. Tom smokes. Tom is smoking.

Tom has been smoking. Tom, smoke!

Does Tom smoke?

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Tom does not smoke. predication analysis:

? the analysis of dividing a predication into its constituents --- arguments and predicate

? argument变元 --- a term which refers to some entity about which a statement is being made

? predicate谓词 --- a term which ascribes some property, or relation, to the entity (entities) referred to predicate (argument*) Alice is happy. Be happy (Alice) one-place predication Jack runs quickly. Run quickly (Jack) one-place predication John loves Mary. Love (John, Mary) two-place predication John gave Mary a book. Give (John, Mary, book) three-place predication It is sunny. no-place predication It is 9 o‘clock. no-place predication (7) sense relations between sentences: 1. entailment:

a. She saw a girl [+CHILD, +FEMALE]. b. She saw a child. 2. inconsistency: a. Mary is alive. b. Mary is dead. 3. contradiction:

a. *That man is female. b. *My wife is unmarried. c. *This animal is a vegetable. 4. presupposition:

a. It is significant that John came early. b. John came early. 5. tautology:

a. This man is male. 6. semantic anomaly:

a. *Cathy is killing phonemes. b. *Jill‘s courage chewed the bone. c. *Jack sliced the idea.

Chapter 6 Pragmatics

pragmatics语用学 --- the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication (1) sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning ? Sentence meaning is context-independent. ? Utterance meaning is context-dependent.

? utterance meaning = sentence meaning + context (2) speech act theory (by John Austin)

? While we are speaking, we are performing some acts at the same time. 1. constatives vs. performatives

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? Constatives叙事句 are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable.

? Performatives施为句 are sentences that are not used to state or describe, but used by the speaker to do

things. They are not verifiable. Constatives:

1. Our classroom is 20 meters wide, 30 meters long. 2. Cathy is 21 years old. 3. The earth is round.

4. Edinburgh is in Scotland.

5. George Bernard Shaw was a playwright.

6. Every morning I have a cup of milk and some bread for breakfast. Performatives:

1. I name this ship Queen Elizabeth. 2. I bequeath my watch to my brother.

3. I bet you six pence it will rain tomorrow. 4. I promise to finish it in time. 5. I apologize.

6. I declare the meeting open. 7. I do.

2. new models of speech act theory: A speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: ? locutionary act言内行为 (the act of conveying literal meaning) ? illocutionary act言外行为 (the act of expressing the speaker‘s intention) ? perlocutionary act言后行为 (the act performed by saying something, the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance) 3. Searle‘s classification of illocutionary acts: ? representatives阐述类: (I swear) I have never done it. (I state) The earth is globe. ? directives指令类:

You‘d better change your idea. Would you like a cup of tea?

Why don‘t you ask for your parent‘s opinions? Your money or your life! Silence, please.

? commissives承诺类:

I will return the book to you next week without fail. I will never do it again. ? expressives表达类: I‘m sorry to hear that. Thank you very much! Happy birthday!

I‘m glad to see you again. ? declarations宣告类:

I now declare the ceremony close.

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You are fired.

(3) The Cooperative Principle (by Paul Grice): In making conversation, the participants must be willing to cooperate and observe the Cooperative Principle. ? four maxims under this principle: The maxim of quantity The maxim of quality The maxim of relation The maxim of manner (4) pragmatic failure:

? pragma-linguistic failure ? socio-pragmatic failures

1. A: So you didn‘t mean to hurt her, did you? B: Yes. (是的, 我并不想伤害她)

2. A: Would you please serve the chicken undressed? B: No, I can‘t. A: Why not? B: You‘re in China, sir.

3. A Chinese visiting group arrived in Perth, the capital of West Australia at 7:30 pm. The tourists didn‘t have dinner yet and felt puzzled after they had been informed of the arrangement for the night by the guide, which reads:

―We will have tea at about 8:00 right after we arrive at the hotel. During the tea time I‘ll have you registered and have your rooms ready so that you may have a rest right after.‖

Chapter 7 Language Change

English has so far a history of over 1,500 years. Old English (450-1100) Middle English (1100-1500) Modern English (1500-present)

(1) phonological change: Middle E. Modern E. /mi:s/ /mais/mice /mu:s/ /maus/mouse /geis/ /gi:s/geese /go:s/ /gu:s/goose

? The sound/x/ disappeared during the period between Chaucer (1340?-1400) and Shakespeare (1564-1616). /nixt/night /saux/saw /druxt/drought (2) morphological change Middle E. Modern E. didst did hath has canst can seedes seeds speakest speaks

? Shall I compare thee to a summer day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate.(Shakespeare) (3) syntactic change

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1. change in negation rule I love thee not.

2. change in comparative degree more gladder more lower most royallest most shamefullest 3. change of word order (4) lexical change

1. addition of new words a. coinage/invention nylon, Coke, granola, walkman, Kodak, Xerox b. clipping (the abbreviation of longer words or phrases)

? math, doc, Prof., bike, min, max, photo, lab, exam, ad, asst ? phone, plane, van, bus, copter ? flu, fridge, tec

c. acronym (words derived from the initials of several words) DJ, GM, WB CIA, PLO, PLA, EEC, IPR, MBA, NBA, WHO OPEC, APEC, DINK, GATT, SARS, Aids, UNESCO HKUST: Hong Kong University of Science and Technology Hong Kong University of Stress and Tension 中国, 美国,人大, 常委, 华农, 菲佣

现在的选举往往倾向 “无知少女”。 她是个现代“白骨精”。

d. blending (words formed by combing parts of others words) modem, transistor, brunch, boatel, digicom, anacom, refujew, Chinglish e. back-formation editor edit inept ept calmative calm television televise begger beg baby-sitter baby-sit f. function shift/class shift g. compounding h. borrowing

? cancer, tumor, i.e., e.g., etc. ? Judo, tatami, sashimi, sushi

? litchi, kowtow, tai chi, kung-fu, chow mien, wok, longan, tea, tofu, dim sum 2. loss of words

(5) semantic change

1. broadening of meaning bird: young bird any kind of bird 2. narrowing of meaning

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girl: young person of either sex young woman knight: youth a medieval gentleman-soldier cattle: domestic animals animals of the species Bos taurus starve: die die of hunger 3. meaning shif

silly: happy naive foolish nice: ignorant good lust: pleasure sexual craving

Swede: a person who always makes mistakes Arab: a person who always does as he likes Scotchman: a mean man

(6) some recent trends

1. moving towards greater informality

? Passengers are required not to communicate with the driver while the vehicle is in motion. ? Please do not speak to the driver while he is driving. 2. the influence of American English

3. the influence of science and technology spaceship, internet, hacker, e-mail, clone

Chapter 8 Language and Society

sociolinguistics社会语言学 --- the study of the relation between language and society (1) relatedness between language and society

? Language can be used to fulfill social functions.

? Language can indicate one‘s geographical background. ? Language can indicate one‘s social status.

speech community言语社区 --- a group of people who have the opportunity to interact with each other and who share not just a single language with its related varieties but also attitudes toward linguistic norms speech variety --- any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers (2) varieties of language

1) varieties of language related to the user 1. regional dialect a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region e.g. regional varieties of Chinese: Shanghai dialect, Sichuan dialect, Cantonese e.g. regional varieties of English: Br. E: British E., Irish E., New Zealand E., Australian E., South African E. Am. E: American E., Canadian E. (local dialect for people living in Liverpool) e.g. but /but/ Are you going to work /we/ next Monday /mundi/? 2. sociolect the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class ? Black English in America:

? Received Pronunciation (RP) in British English: a non-localized particular way of pronouncing standard English, an indicator of a public school education and thus a high social status on the part of the speaker (in Liverpool, when saying goodbye to each other)

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See you. (used by ordinary people)

/t∫au/. (used by people from lower class)

a. Language and gender:

*features for woman language:

1. Women use more ―fancy‖ color terms such as mauve (pale purple) and beige (pale brown). 2. Women use less powerful curse words. 3. Women use more tag questions.

4. Women prefer using hedge (e.g. sort of, I guess) and intensifiers (e.g. so, very, really, absolutely). 5. Women‘s linguistic behavior is more indirect and, hence, more polite than men‘s. *language and sexual discrimination: male (unmarked) female (marked) prince princess actor actress steward stewardess hero heroine poet poetess heir heiress host hostess count countess

*more examples for sexual discrimination in language: chairman chairperson spokesman spokesperson policeman police (public safety officer) congressman salesman milkman postman postal worker fireman fire-fighter freshman freshperson man-made synthetic b. language and age c. jargon: doctor‘s language lawyer‘s language computational language

(Part of a conversation between a judge and a sailor)

The judge: You mean you came into this court as a witness and don‘t know what plaintiff means? The sailor: You mean you came into the court and don‘t know where abaft the binnacle is? 3. idiolect a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender and age variations.

4. ethnic dialect a variety of language that is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation e.g. Black English

e.g. Zhuang, Zang, Yao, Miao, Li dialects in Chinese

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5. standard dialect

? a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language, the language employed by the government and the

judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions

? It is not related to any particular group of language users, any member of a speech community can possibly

use it regardless of his social and geographical backgrounds, his gender and age. e.g. London dialect --- standard dialect of English Mandarin --- standard dialect of Chinese

? It was originally the local dialect of an area which is considered the nation‘s political and commercial center. 2) varieties of language related to the use 1. Halliday‘s register theory

? register语域 --- the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation ? three variables that determine the register: field of discourse tenor of discourse mode of discourse 2. scales of formality

intimate casual consultative formal frozen (3) Pidgin and Creole

? A pidgin洋泾浜语 is a special language variety that mixes languages and it is used by people who speak

different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.

? When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of

that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a creole克里奥尔语. ? code-switching ? code-mixing 好touching啊!好nice,好cute 搭lift,去shopping,唱K,吃M 她是我们的Miss,阿sir 我们到canteen去吃饭。 我take四个课程。 你是哪个group的? Hi,你好!this morning我们对你的case进行了discuss,我们发现,这件事情不make sense。所以我们不得不遗憾地告诉你：与这件事相关的所有project都将被cancel掉。（《广州日报》 2004/02/20） (4) bilingualism and diglossia

? In some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play;

and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of bilingualism. ? The term diglossia refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism. But instead of two different

languages, in a diglossic situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play. *bilingualism/multilingualism: Canada: English, French

Singapore: Chinese, English, Malay, Tamil Switzerland: German, French, Italian, Romansh Belgium: Flemish, French India: Indian, English Rwanda: Rwanda, French Somali: English, Italian

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*diglossia: high variety low variety High variety Low variety wenyan vernacular Mandarin local dialect

Chapter 9 Language and Culture What is culture?

? (in a broad sense) it means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects,

institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community.

? (in a narrow sense) it may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in

folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc. two types of culture

? material culture is concrete, substantial and observable (e.g. food culture);

? spiritual culture is abstract, ambiguous, and hidden (e.g. ideologies; beliefs; values) the relationship between language and culture ? Language is a part of culture.

? Language is the primary means for cultural transmission. ? Some linguistic differences are due to cultural differences.

? Various cultures will have different responses to the same word.

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world.

linguistic determinism/relativity

? Language may determine our thinking patterns. (linguistic determinism)

? Similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their

conceptualization of the world will be. (linguistic relativity) two versions of Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

? the strong version: The language patterns determine people‘s thinking and behavior. ? the weak version: The language patterns influence people‘s thinking and behavior. linguistic evidence of cultural differences 1. greetings and terms of address 2. gratitude and compliments 3. color words: white red green blue brown black yellow Stage: I II III IV V 4. privacy and taboos

purple pink orange gray VI

Cultural overlap and cultural diffusion

? Cultural overlap owes to some similarities between cultures.

? Cultural diffusion refers to the phenomenon that through communication, some elements of culture A enter

culture B and become part of culture B.

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? cross-cultural communication:

Cultural imperialism With the monopoly of one language over others, its accompanied ideologies, structures and practices will be a potential threat to the individual cultural identity and cultural integrity.

linguistic imperialism vs. linguistic nationalism

? linguistic imperialism: the promulgation of global ideologies through the world-wide expansion of one

language

? linguistic nationalism: the special efforts made by some countries to protect its language from being

corrupted by other language

Chapter 10 Language Acquisition

language acquisition --- the child‘s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community

(1) theories of child language acquisition

1. a behaviorist view of language acquisition(by B.F.Skinner) Language can be viewed as a behavior and language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. stimulus organism response language input the learner imitation e.g. ?This is a pen.‘ ?This is a pen.‘ ? four steps for a child to acquire his/her L1:

imitation reinforcement repetition habituation positive negative good bad correct performance errors e.g. praise or reward e.g. correction

? Criticisms of behaviorist learning theory:

1. overemphasize the external factors (i.e. language input) 2. ignore the internal factors (i.e. the role of learner himself) 3. overemphasize the role of imitation

2. an innatist/ nativist view of language acquisition (by Noam Chomsky)

? the innate hypothesis: human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language

develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking. ? the logical problem of language acquisition: How can children come to know more about the structure of their language than they could reasonably be expected to learn from the language samples they hear?

? language acquisition device (LAD) --- an imaginary ?black box‘ existing somewhere in the human brain,

which contains principles that are universal to all human languages

? universal grammar (UG) --- the abstract principles that comprise a child‘s innate knowledge of language and

that guide L1A

? A comparison of behaviorist learning theory and the innatist approach:

1. While the former holds the view that language learning is similar to the learning of other things, the latter claims that language learning is different from the learning of other things.

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2. The former emphasizes the external factors for language learning, whereas the latter stresses the internal ones. 3. While the former attaches great importance to the role of language input, the latter holds that input is needed, but only to ?trigger‘ the operation of the LAD. ? Contributions of the innatist approach:

It regards children‘s language as a reasonable system rather than something full of errors. ? Weakness of the innatist approach: 1. difficult to observe LAD 2. hard to find out the nature of LAD

3. an interactionist view of language acquisition Language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops.

(2) the Critical Period Hypothesis (by Eric Lenneberg)--- the theory that in child development there is a period during which language can be acquired more easily than at any other time.

According to Lenneberg, the critical period lasts until puberty. He suggested that language learning may be more difficult after puberty because the brain lacks the ability for adaptation. This, he believed, was because the language functions of the brain have already been established in a particular part of the brain; that is, because lateralization has already occurred by this time. (3) stages in child language development 1. phonological development The presence of palatal and velar sounds presupposes the presence of labials and dentals. By 2 p b m n w 2.5 t d k g h 3 f s l j 2. vocabulary development ? under-extension

e.g. denial that birds are animals

e.g. denial that the color of white can be used for paper ? over-extension e.g. apple for all fruit e.g. dog for all animal

e.g. apple for anything round e.g. daddy for all adults 3. grammatical development

? one-word utterance at 1.5 years signifies the onset of speech. ? two-word utterance at the second birthday: e.g. want cake give candy no wet mommy sock

? three-word utterance at 2.5 years: e.g. Kate clean car, Sue eat cake that big bag where dog gone put truck window

? telegraphic speech --- child‘s speech which contains content words but lacks functions words There are no syntactic or morphological markers in telegraphic speech, no inflections for number, person, or

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tense, and so on.

4. pragmatic development Child: Can I have a cake? Parent: What do you say? Child: Please. Parent: Yes.

Parent: Here‘s an ice-cream. (Child accepts it.)

Parent: What do you say? Child: Thank you. Parent: That‘s right.

Chapter 11 Second Language Acquisition second language acquisition:

? the process by which people develop proficiency in a second or foreign language

foreign language vs. second language

? A foreign language is a language which is taught as a school subject but which is not used as a medium of

instruction in schools nor as a language of communication within a country (e.g. in government, business or industry).

e.g. English is described as a foreign language in France, Japan, China, etc.

? A second language is a language which is not a native language in a country but which is widely used as a

medium of communication (e.g. in education and in government) and which is usually used alongside another language (s).

e.g. English is described as a second language in countries such as Fiji, Singapore, and Nigeria.

(1) L1A vs. L2A/FLL:

1. While the L1 is acquired subconsciously, the L2 or FL is more commonly learned consciously.

2. In acquiring their L1, children always concentrate on meaning. The L2 learners concentrates on code/structure. 3. One learns his L1 directly from reality. The L2 is learnt in manageable sequence, i.e. syllabus and course books. 4. In L1A children apply the rules subconsciously, while the L2 learners, after a period of training, are able to verbalize the rules.

(2) contrastive analysis (CA):

The comparison of the linguistic systems of two languages, e.g. the sound system or the grammatical system. CA was developed and practised in the 1950s and 1960s, as an application of structural linguistics to language teaching, and is based on the following assumptions:

Assumptions for CA:

a. the main difficulties in learning a new language are caused by interference from the L1. b. these difficulties can be predicted by CA.

c. teaching materials can make use of CA to reduce the effects of interference.

language transfer: It refers to the effect of one language on the learning of another. Two types of language transfer may occur. positive transfer vs. negative transfer

? Positive transfer is transfer which makes learning easier, and may occur when both the native language and

the target language have the same form.

? Negative transfer, also known as interference, is the use of a native-language pattern or rule which leads to

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an error or inappropriate form in the target language.

Problems of CA:

? Some of the predicted errors did not occur while some unpredicted ones did occur. ? ―Difference‖ and ―Difficulty‖ are not identical concepts.

(3) error analysis (EA)

The study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners. EA may be carried out for the following purposes. Purposes for EA:

a. find out how well someone knows a language b. find out how a person learns a language

c. obtain information on common difficulties in language learning, as an aid in teaching or in the preparation of teaching materials.

The main purpose for CA is to predict learners‘ errors while that for EA is to explain learners‘ errors. Types of errors: 1. interlingual errors

an error which results from language transfer, i.e. which is caused by the learner‘s native language a. phonological evidence: /f/ --- /h/: 发, 花, 湖 /l/ --- /n/: 蓝, 南, 男 b. lexical evidence: to touch the city to open some courses to lose the rice bowl to go out to buy things 你几时走? 今个星期 我们骑单车去。 今天我们在班房上课。 老师，那篇文章我转头给你。 c. grammatical evidence two car apply for driving license A: Aren‘t you happy today? B: Yes (said when B feels unhappy ). 2. intralingual errors An error which results from faulty or partial learning of the target language, rather than from language transfer.

a. overgeneralization foots, sheeps comed, goed, doed Jane suggested me to give up smoking. Please explain me the rules. b. cross-association other/another; much/many The soup is too sour to eat it.

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3. pragmatic failure e.g. Have you eaten? e.g. I‘m afraid you must have had a tiring journey. e.g. A: Thank you for helping me. B: It‘s my duty to do so. (4) Interlanguage (IL) The term was given by Pit Corder and Larry Selinker to refer to the type of language produced by second- and foreign-language learners who are in the process of learning a language. NL TL IL IL IL

Since the language which the learner produces differs from both the native language and the target language, it is called an interlanguage.

characteristics of interlanguage: ? systematicity permeability fossilization (5) input hypothesis a hypothesis proposed by Krashen, which states that in second or foreign language learning, for language acquisition to occur, it is necessary for the learner to understand input language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner‘s present linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner‘s present linguistic competence (i.e. comprehensible input, or i+1 input) (6) individual differences 1. language aptitude 2. motivation

? integrative motivation (A) ? instrumental motivation (B) ? resultative motivation (C) ? intrinsic motivation (D)

A: Some learners may choose to learn an L2 because they‘re interested in the people and culture represented by the target language group.

B: Learners may make efforts to learn an L2 for some functional reason –-- to pass an exam, to get a better job, etc.

C: Learners‘ motivation is strongly affected by their achievement, it is possible that motivation is the result of learning

D: Motivation involves the arousal and maintenance of curiosity and can ebb and flow as a result of such factors as learners‘ particular interests and the extent to which they feel personally involved in learning activities. 3. learning strategies ? cognitive strategies ? metacognitive strategies ? affect/social strategies 4. personality 5. learning styles

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Chapter 12 Language And Brain (1) neurolinguistics神经语言学 the study of the relationship between brain and language, including research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language

1) the structure and function of the human brain 1. the structure of the human brain

? The brain consists of about ten billion nerve cells called neurons神经元 and the billions of fibers that

connect these neurons.

? The neurons are the basic information processing units of the nervous system. ? The brain is divided into two sections: the brain stem 脑干(the lower section) cerebrum 大脑(the higher section)

The brain stem, connecting to the spinal cord and shared by all animals, keeps the body alive by maintaining the essential functions such as respiration, heart rate, and muscle co-ordination. The cerebrum that differs in different species is not essential for life.

? The neurons form the surface of the brain, which is called the cortex脑皮层.

? The cerebral cortex is the decision-making organ of the body and storehouse of ―memory‖. It receives

messages from all the sensory organs and initiates all voluntary actions.

? It is the cerebral cortex that accounts for the human distinctness in the animal world. Animals, reptiles and

amphibians, for example, have no cortex at all.

? The cortex is separated by the longitudinal fissure into two parts: the left cerebral hemispheres (the left brain) the right cerebral hemispheres (the right brain)

? The two parts of brain are connected by a bundle of nerve fibers known as corpus callosum胼胝体, a

pathway leading one to another, allowing the two parts to communicate with each other. 2. the function of the human brain

? Each hemisphere controls the opposite half of the body in terms of muscle movement and sensation.

? With respect to higher cognitive functions, generally the left hemisphere seems to excel in analytic tasks such

as arithmetic, whereas the right hemisphere excels in tasks which require an overall appreciation of complex patterns such as the recognition of familiar faces and melodies.

? Though the left and right brains show distinct abilities and responsibilities, complex mental activities such as

language do not always fall neatly into one brain or the other but involve the coordinated functioning of both brains.

? Most right-handed individuals have language represented in the left brain and are therefore said to be left

lateralized for language. But not every aspect of language is represented in the left brain of right-handers. ? Few left-handers have language localization in the right brain. Rather they tend to show significant language

representation in both brains. Thus left-handers are generally less lateralized for language. 2) evidences for lateralization autopsy studies

3) methods in the study of the brain : 1. SAT 2. CT scanning 3. PET

4) methods to examine the behavior associated with the brain: 1. dichotic listening 2. split brain studies

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5) aphasia/dysphasia失语症 loss of the ability to use and understand language usually caused by damage to the brain 1. Broca‘s aphasia

? Broca‘s area is responsible for the articulation of speech. Damage to it might cause non-fluent aphasia. ? non-fluent aphasia global aphasia (completely mute, the most severe form) Broca‘s aphasia (less severe form)

? Phonologically the speech of Broca‘s aphasics is very halting and lack of normal sentence intonation. ? Syntactically, Broca‘s aphasics produce telegraphic speech. They often show difficulty judging the

grammaticality of sentences.

? Most Broca‘s aphasics show writing disturbances that are comparable to their speaking deficits. 2. Wernicke‘s aphasia Damage to parts of the left cortex behind the central sulcus大脑回间沟 results in a type of aphasia called fluent aphasia.

? In sharp contrast to the non-fluent aphasics, fluent aphasics have no difficulty in producing the language.

They can speak very fluently with normal pronunciation and intonation and correct word order but often with little semantic meaning

? They often have great difficulty in comprehending a speech.

? The most important type of fluent aphasia is called Wernicke‘s aphasia.

? Unlike Broca‘s aphasics, Wernicke‘s aphasics are generally unaware of their deficit.

? Wernicke‘s aphasics also show reading and writing deficits comparable to their deficits in speaking and

listening.

? The written production of Wernicke‘s aphasics is formally very good with correct spelling and handwriting,

but like their speaking, makes little sense.

? Reading comprehension is also severely impaired in Wernicke‘s aphasia.

? Normal language use is a marriage of content and form. In the case of non-fluent aphasia, form is

compromised but the content of language remains relatively intact. In contrast, fluent aphasia is characterized by a rapid flow of form with little content. (2) psycholinguistics心理语言学 Psycholinguistics is the study of language processing. It is concerned with the processes of language comprehension and production. 1) types of speech error 1. spoonerism/reversal error type of speech errors when the position of sounds, syllables, or words is reversed e.g. a blushing crow a crushing blow

e.g. I have a half warmed fish. I have a half-formed wish (in my mind). e.g. ?Let‘s have chish and fips‘ instead of ?Let‘s have fish and chips‘

e.g. ?You have tasted the whole worm‘ instead of ?You have wasted the whole term‘

吹疵求毛, 假劣伪冒,离出提婚,抽酒喝烟, 刷脸洗牙, 我的孩子生了三个侄子。 有没有人找电话打我呀？

你这样吃痘痘，能不长奶油吗？ 米饭，我的小姐怎么还没来，快点！

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把萝卜拿来切菜刀, 以君子之心度小人之腹, 苹果多少斤一钱? 2. anticipation error when a sound or word is brought forward in a sentence and used before it is needed e.g. ?I‘ll put your cat in the cupboard‘ instead of ?I‘ll put your hat in the cupboard‘ e.g. 便前便后要洗手。（饭） 三天打网，两天晒网。（鱼） 今天要下伞,把伞带上吧！（雨） 他哥既会游足球也会游泳。（踢） 3. perseveration error when a sound or word which has already been uttered reappears e.g. ?the president of Prance‘ instead of ?the president of France

e.g. 关于打击假币的行动，下一币应该? (步) 话匣子一打开就开个没完。（说） 公路局的马局长来过吗？（处长） 房里没冷气，当然就会冷汗淋漓啦！（大） 2) experimental methods 1. lexical decision

2. the priming experiment 3. timed-reading experiments 4. eye movement experiments

5. event-related potential experiment

3) language processing

? When a person hears a sentence, he performs phonetic analysis to isolate phonemes and word boundaries,

and to relate these to representations in the mental lexicon. This inductive analysis is referred to as bottom-up processing.

? We do not wait until we have analyzed all the phonemes in a sentence before we begin to try to understand it.

Rather, we begin interpretation of a sentence spontaneously and automatically on the basis of whatever information is available to us. This is called top-down processing. 1. phonological processing

? According to cohort model, in word comprehension, words are analyzed by hearers from beginning to end.

The beginning-to-end analysis proceeds one phoneme at a time rather than one syllable at a time.

? Other evidence shows that the syllable plays an important role in speech perception. It was concluded that in

normal auditory analysis, subjects first break down stimuli into syllables and then into individual segments as the situation demands. 2. morphological processing

? For most multimorphemic words, individual morphemes are automatically activated during word

recognition.

? Knowledge of the selectional restrictions of affixes does indeed form part of the word-processing system. It

was found that response times were significantly longer for illegal nonsense words than for the morphologically legal words. 3. syntactic processing

? A garden path sentence is an awkward sentence that misleads the syntactic parser and takes it down the

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garden path to the wrong analysis. e.g. The horse raced past the barn fell.

? It has been claimed that the garden path effect results from two principles of parsing: minimal attachment

and late closure.

? The minimal attachment strategy states that we prefer attaching new items into the phrase marker being

constructed using the fewest syntactic nodes consistent with the rules of the language. e.g. Ernie kissed Maricie and her sister… a. Ernie kissed both Maricie and her sister b. ?Ernie‘ and ?her sister‘ are the subjects of two sentences respectively.

? The late closure strategy states that, wherever possible, we prefer to attach new items to the current

constituent.

e.g. Tom said that Bill had taken the cleaning out yesterday. a. ?yesterday‘ is closely related to the object clause. b. ?yesterday‘ is closely related to the main clause. ? sentence ambiguity

e.g. The word rose in They all rose is ambiguous. It can be related either to stand or to flower. Experimental results show that in processing a sentence, we create all representations possible and then discard the ones that are either incorrect or unnecessary. ? Psycholinguistic modeling (by Levelt) four stages of production: conceptualizing formulating articulating self-monitoring

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