基于言语行为理论的英语专业四级听力理解测试探究

安徽财经大学外国语学院英语系毕业论文

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Rationale

Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher J. L. Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century. According to his model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act. A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speakers’ intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something. However, what speech act theory is most concerned with is the illocutionary act which attempts to explain the ways by which the speaker can mean more than what they say. And speech act theory, as one of the most important research subjects in pragmatics, provides the rationale for how to intake and apprehend the conversations under certain circumstances. It is, therefore, of great significance to the listening comprehension in TEM4. As is known to us all that the listening comprehension in TEM4 is a complex mixture and involves various aspects, and each listening aspect involved is often regulated or directed by certain rules. Speech act theory is the very one of them, and it may well serve as a gateway to help students of English majors to grasp the denominator overtones of speakers, so much so that students can fully and absolutely understand what the speaker intends to mean, and then promptly find out the right answer to the question given. Based on the framework of speech act theory, this paper is mainly an attempt to analyze and interpret the listening comprehension in TEM4 in order to improve the language competence of English majors by the application of the theory. The

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paper begins with an introduction of listening comprehension in TEM4 with its current situations, its roles and significance in English learning. Then it puts forward the idea of “listening comprehension in TEM4 as a demanding skill”, and afterward through the presentation of J. L. Austin’s speech act theory, Searle’s five classifications of speech acts together with the method of detailed analysis, it highlights the fact that speech act theory plays a very important role in the apprehending of English listening. Furthermore, the paper employs many a concrete and representative example from the listening comprehension in TEM4 to bring out the point that English majors of grade four can truly improve a lot in their listening comprehension section by the further study and apt application of the speech act theory. So long as they can intake the very message they have just heard, they can find the right answer to the question given as quickly as possible.

1.2 Literature Review

The listening comprehension is an indispensable section of TEM4, yet for many students it is not an easy task to cope with, especially for the English majors who are required to have a pretty good command of it. Speech act theory, however, as an important theory in the pragmatic study of language, may well serve as a bridge from which listeners can get access to the denominator overtones of the speaker and comprehend what the speaker truly intends to mean. Hence, this field is well worth our studying.

As J. L. Austin (1975) states in his book How to Do Things with Words that a speaker might be performing three kinds of acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act. This is the very basic theory of speech acts, which is also the rationale of the whole thesis.

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As Dai Weidong (戴炜栋 2002:7) concludes in his book A New Concise Course on Linguistics for Students of English, Speech Act Theory that speech act theory provides great philosophical insight into the nature of linguistic communication. In the light of this theory, when we are speaking a language, we are doing something, or in other words performing acts; and the process of linguistic communication consists of a sequence of acts.

Searle (2002) points out in his book Expression and Meaning: Studies in the Theory of Speech Acts that the simplest cases of meaning are those in which the speaker utters a sentence and means exactly and literally what he says. In such cases the speaker intends to produce a certain illocutionary effect in the hearer, and he intends to produce this effect by getting the hearer to recognize this intention in virtue of the hearer’s knowledge of the rules that govern the utterance of the sentence. But notoriously, not all cases of meaning are this simple: In hints, insinuations, irony, and metaphor- to mention a few examples- the speaker’s utterance meaning and sentence meaning come apart in various ways. One important class of such cases is that in which the speaker utters a sentence, means what he says, but also means something more.

Dong Qiming and Lin Li(董启明、林立 2006:5) say that there are generally three types of examination questions in TEM4’s listening comprehension: the detailed one, the implied one, and the generalized one, which altogether make up 15 percent of the whole test. And the implied one is definitely the most difficult one for students to handle.

Yang Ningfang(杨宁芳 2008:7)describes that J. L. Austin’s three classifications of speech acts- locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act- have great significance both to linguistic study itself and to all aspects of other foreign

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language acquisition.

Wang Ping (王萍2008:3) points out in her paper that speech act theory is one of the most important subjects in pragmatic research, and the application of the theory will help the students to improve their English ability comprehensively and understand the illocutionary speech act in a much better way.

Song Yueqin(宋月琴 2008:4) states that the improvement of listening comprehension ability is a long, continuous process. However, it shows much room for improvement if students can apply some theory in the right channel. This theory is speech act theory, which is one of the most important contents of pragmatics, and focuses on the phenomenon of conveying more than what is said.

Wang Lihao(王丽皓2001:4) holds the point that to achieve communicative goal is the ultimate attempt for the language learning of students, and a student’s English listening ability can be the best manifestation of his or her integrative language competence. And listening teaching should be ranked among the most important parts in English teaching. Under the help of setting, situation and context, students can get across to what the speaker intends to mean behind the literal meaning.

All those people and their works mentioned above render to me the very inspiration which contributes to the original idea of my writing the thesis. What’s more, their thoughts and views have such a great influence on me that many hints and clues are taken from theirs. However, the interaction between speech act theory and the listening comprehension in TEM4 is a new field that needs further study. Although some thoughts and theories are still in the childhood, they have already come into prominence. This paper is intended to explore tentatively the interaction between

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speech act theory and the listening comprehension in TEM4 so as to improve the listening competence of English majors by the appropriate application of the theory.

1.3 Layout of the Thesis

The thesis can be divided into four parts. Chapter1 is the introduction part. Chapter2 is mainly about the presentation of listening comprehension in TEM4 with its current situations, its roles and importance together with the basic theory of speech acts. Chapter3 is definitely the body part. It is devoted to the analysis of the interaction between speech act theory and the listening comprehension in TEM4 by employing many a concrete and representative example from it, and the thesis highlights the point that speech act theory can serve as a gateway to help students of English majors to grasp the denominator overtones of the speaker, and apprehend thoroughly and absolutely the speaker’s true intention. Chapter4, which is also the last part, is set to make a conclusion of the whole thesis.

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Chapter 2 Listening Comprehension in TEM4 and Speech

Act Theory

This chapter may well elaborate the current situations of English listening comprehension together with variety of problems students are facing up with at present, and accordingly it provides readers with some solutions. It shows that some rules and regulations are crucial to the improvement of learners’ language listening competence, and here speech act theory is the very one of them. Then it comes to an introduction of the basic theory of speech acts, and both Austin’s model of speech acts and Searle’s classification of speech acts are included.

2.1 Current Situations and Significance of English Listening

In the past, language teaching had placed great emphasis on the importance of language knowledge, including vocabulary, grammar and the written form. These days, however, language teaching has come to a new stage which is to enhance students’

language

ability

and

communicative

ability

simultaneously.

Correspondingly, large quantities of studies have highlighted the great importance of listening in language acquisition, and listening comprehension skills have started to receive much more attention in language teaching than it has ever been. In the study of second language acquisition, for instance, listening has been considered as paramount to the development of a learner’s second language acquisition. In recent years, teachers and scholars have increasingly recognized the importance of teaching listening comprehending in classrooms and begun to understand the role it plays in language learning and language communication.

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Listening comprehension plays a very important role in the second language acquisition, and it should be the gateway to the obtainment of all the other aspects of language learning. Its importance is mainly due to the following three reasons. To crown all, listening comprehension provides learners with the comprehensible input which is essential for any learning to occur. Another reason for this is that listeners need to interact with speakers to achieve a sort of comprehensive understanding. Last but not least, listening has often been regarded as an integrative skill for the reason that it can facilitate the emergency of other language skills, and learners should be aware of the notion that listening is a fundamental skill for students to develop other language skills and further improve their second language competence. The listening comprehension, therefore, should be ranked among one of the most important sections in language learning.

Listening is one of the fundamental language skills. It is the medium through which listeners can gain a large portion of their education, their information and their understanding of the world, and of human beings values, appreciation and their outlook of the whole world. In these days of mass communication, it is of pivotal significance for students, especially for the English majors, to be taught to listen effectively and precisely.

Though listening plays such an important role, still it has many problems. For example, the listening comprehension cannot get sufficient attention, and the listening materials students can get access to are far from satisfactory. According to a survey, there are two kinds of listening materials prevailing in the current listening course, one is Step by Step compiled by East China Normal University, and the other is Listen to This Series by Beijing International Studies University. However, these listening materials have nearly unchanged for ages of years, and most of the messages have already been out of date, which make the students take no interest in

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them at all. Worse still, many students find that they are facing up with the predicament that many years of hard study has never gotten somewhere in their listening comprehension competence, which makes them end up anxious, frustrated, depressed, and hopeless.

2.2 Listening Comprehension in TEM4 as a Demanding Skill

TEM4, as a vital marker in English learning, is of great significance to English majors. It should, therefore, test the true ability of the students from all aspects, including reading, writing, translation, and listening. In recent years, the listening part has been increased further and further, so much so that it has accounted for precisely thirty percent of the whole examination, of which fifteen percent is the listening comprehension part. There are altogether three sections in this part, section A is the conversations, section B passages and section C news broadcast. Section A includes several conversations, most of which involve the daily communication of the native speakers of English, and different sorts of accents are needed to distinguish. Section B is the passage part, every passage contains about two hundred words. It is not so difficult, but listeners are required to apprehend the speakers’ attitudes, emotions and especially their true intentions. And this is the most important part the paper intends to discuss. For the news broadcast, it is mainly about the programs and daily news abstracted from the BBC or VOA. Given the importance of listening both in daily communication and in English test, it is essential for students to have the idea of “listening first”, and make good use of the speech act theory they have learned in their linguistic class to strengthen their listening competence.

Listening comprehension, as one of the separate and indispensable section of language listening, has come to attract people’s attention much more than ever

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before. Yet, the seemingly simple question of what listening comprehension really is is difficult to answer. Even linguists do not agree among themselves as to what listening comprehension is. Listening comprehension has once been characterized as a “passive” or “receptive” skill. It seems as if language learners just passively absorb the listening materials offered by textbooks or tapes. But it is not always the case. Listening comprehension, as a matter of fact, is more than hearing, and it’s a complex mixture and involves various aspects and factors, in which the listener is an active participant, rather than a passive one. In order to comprehend the conversation, the listener has to reconstruct the original intention of the speaker by making use of the speech act theory and by drawing on what he or she has already known to make use of his or her experiences and knowledge.

Since 1980, listening comprehension has been considered as a primary vehicle for language learning. It is the primary bridge from which listener can get access to the second language data and in which we process language in real time-employing pacing. Thus it may well serve as the analyst for language acquisition. However, it is meanwhile a very demanding skill, and its harshness is due to the anxiety provoked by social and psychological factors. When a listener encounters a foreign language, he or she may subconsciously realize the impossibility of full comprehension of the messages given by the speaker. It is an internal process that could not be directly observed, because nobody knows what indeed will happen in the next moment when he or she listens to and apprehends one sentence after another. Listening is such a skill that seems to develop easily for the mother- tongue listening, but it’s not the case for the foreign language one. From all the aspects, the author comes to the conclusion that listening comprehension is a demanding skill.

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安徽财经大学外国语学院英语系毕业论文

2.3 Introduction to the Basic Theory of Speech Acts

In English, we may often hear people say “Actions speak louder than words” and “Easier said than done”. However, there seems to be no clear-cut boundary between speaking and acting. Rather, saying is often acting. And some utterances are constatives, i. e. descriptions of facts or states of affairs, whereas some others are performatives, i. e. the saying itself accomplishing a certain action, which is usually characterized by the use of first person subject, simple present tense, indicative mood and active voice. To portray the actions performed via utterances, we use the term “speech acts”, which are considered to be the basic or minimal units of linguistic communication.

According to Austin, when we speak, we not only produce some units of language with certain meanings, but also make clear our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood, or they also have certain forces. Speech act itself can be performing three component acts at the same time: locutionary act (the act of verbally saying something), illocutionary act (the intended act behind saying something), and perlocutionary act (the intended effect of an illocutionary act). For instances, when Jane says to John, “My bag is heavy”. The locutionary act Jane performed is the uttering of the English sentences with the help of lexicon, grammar and syntax; the illocutionary act Jane performed reveals the real purpose of the speaker, and it can be an implicit request for John to carry the bag for her; and the perlocutionary act performed via the uttering of the sentence is the effect or outcome brought about, i. e. John goes to help her carry the bag. Defined in this way, the locutionary act is what linguists have been studying all along. That is, how sounds, words and sentences are made, and what inherent meanings they have. The perlocutionary act involves many psychological and social factors, of which we are

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still more or less in the dark. So the illocutionary act is what Austin really driving at. In this sense, speech act theory is in fact a theory of the illocutionary act.

Illocutionary acts that utterances are intended to perform are the focus of pragmatic study. According to Searle, they are categorized into five major types: representatives (covering such acts as stating, asserting, explaining, predicting, and classifying), directives (conveying such acts as ordering, commanding, requesting, instructing and pleading), commissives (covering such acts as thanking, apologizing, congratulating, and condoling), and declarations (covering such acts as appointing, naming, christening, vetoing, dismissing, and declaring). Specific acts that fall into each type share the same illocutionary point, but differ in their strength.

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Chapter 3 Application of Speech Act Theory in Listening

Comprehension of TEM4

In this chapter, the author focuses on the representation and application of speech act theory in the listening comprehension of TEM4 to readers, in which J. L. Austin’s speech act theory, Searle’s five classifications of speech acts together with the method of detailed analysis will all be manifested exactly. It highlights that speech act theory plays a very important role in the apprehending of English listening. At the end of this chapter, this paper brings out the point that English majors can truly benefit immensely in their listening comprehension section of TEM4 if they can apply the theory appropriately.

3.1 Application of Speech Acts in Listening Comprehension

3.1.1 Austin’s Model of Speech Acts

Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher John Lanshaw Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century. It is the precise explanation of the nature of linguistic communication from a philosophical point of view, and it aims to answer the question “What do we do when using language?”

Initially, Austin himself made a distinction between what he called “constatives” and “performatives”. The former were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable; while the later were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. And the four examples Austin used to illustrate the point become classical.

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(1) “I do.”

(2) “I name this ship Elizabeth.”

(3) “I give and bequeath my watch to my brother.” (4) “I bet you six pence it will rain tomorrow.”

The first one is usually used in the course of a marriage ceremony for the speaker to get married. The second one is used by an authorized person to perform the act of naming a ship. The third one, similarly, occurs in a will to perform the act of bequeathing. And when a speaker says “I bet…” he is doing nothing else but betting. Therefore, when the speaker utters these sentences, he is actually doing something, i.e. performing certain acts.

Later Austin set up another model to explain the way acts were performed. According to his model, a speaker might be performing three kinds of acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act. A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speakers’ intention. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance. Of the three kinds of acts, the illocutionary one is what the linguists are most interested in because it is identical with the speaker’s true intention of his or her utterance. The following is an example. “You have left the window wide open.”

The locutionary act is the utterance of all the lexical words “you” “leave” “window” “open”, and thus expressing the literal meaning of the sentence. The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he or she has expressed their true intention, asking the hearer to close the window, making a complaint and the like. It all depends on the context the sentence is uttered. The

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perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer can grasp the speaker’s denominator overtones and understand the speaker means to ask him or her to close the window. Then the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world of experience he intends to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.

3.1.2 Application of Speech Acts in the Listening Comprehension

In the listening comprehension of TEM4, students are required to draw upon all they know about to infer what it is behind the literal meaning. Both in the conversation part and the passage part, J. L. Austin’s speech act theory, as the theoretical foundation of the whole thesis, can be well employed in order to apprehend the denominator overtones of the speaker, and comprehend the inherent meaning behind absolutely and thoroughly, and then find out the apt answer.

Example1) M: Are you sure you can’t remember the name of the film you saw last week? W: It’s just on the tip of my tongue.

Question: What does the woman say about the film? A. It is hard to pronounce the name. B. It is not going to be well received.

C. She has temporarily forgotten its name. D. She has never heard of the name.

In the conversation above, there is no difficulty for students to discern that this question given is something about an illocutionary act. Listeners can intake and understand what the woman really intends to mean by the response of her words if they in advance know well deep in their hearts the original meaning of “on the tip of one’s tongue”. The implied meaning of the phrase is that the woman is quite familiar with the name of the film she has seen, but it just does not come to her at that

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moment. In that case, listeners are able to perceive that the suggested answers marked C is the most proper one for the question given.

2) W: Hi, John, haven’t seen you for quite a few days. I heard you’ve been sick. How are

you feeling now?

M: They must have confused me with my brother Jack. Anyway, he is feeling better now. Question: What do we learn about the conversation?

A. John is not sick. B. John is feeling better. C. Jack hasn’t been sick. D. Jack has not got better.

From the conversation above, people can see that the woman was thinking that John had been sick, and she concerned a lot about John’s health. However, the man’s response is much beyond the listeners. As a matter of fact, what he really intended to mean was that the woman had mistaken him for his brother Jack, and he deliberately emphasized the point that his brother had become much better now. What’s more, from the man’s words of meaning, listeners may have no difficulty at all to grasp the hints that he is always enjoying a very good state of health. Hence, the most proper answer to the question is A.

3) W: Why did Jackson suddenly decide to quit his job?

M: He said he wouldn’t break his back working for such a low pay. W: I see.

Question: Jackson changed his job because_

A. hurt himself during his work. B. was not satisfied with his pay. C. wanted to work harder. D. found the job too hard.

In the conversation above, a cause- result relationship could be easily recognized. Here listeners must first of all know well what the true meaning of the phrase “break somebody’s back”, instead of the literal meaning, which means working too hard. So long as students are clear about the illocutionary act hidden in the phrase, they will discern that the hard work has already made a sharp contrast with the speaker’s low pay. Thus listeners may arrive at the conclusion that Jackson was not satisfied

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安徽财经大学外国语学院英语系毕业论文

Question: The tone of the man is that of_

A. surprise B. sarcasm C. disappointment D. humor

The question given is about attitude. Listeners are especially required to pay attention to their tones and intonations. When the woman indicates that the photocopier is not going to make it through in the rest of the year, the crux comes out. The man firstly expresses his surprise subconsciously by the repetition of the woman’s phrase “this year” with a question mark following behind, then he utters the sentence “It is supposed to be good for four”, which makes a sharp contrast with “the rest of the year” just mentioned by the woman. By now the man’s attitude has been expressed clearly, and he is exceedingly surprised at the woman’s words. Therefore, the answer to the question is A.

Declaration shows a close link between words and effects in the real world of existence. It is the successful performance of this type that brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality. Here is the case in the listening comprehension section of TEM4, which manifests how declaration is well performed.

10) “Our Indonesian government now gives official approval for the Australian consulate

in Dili…”

This declaration, abstracted from the News Broadcast section, is uttered by an official on the behalf of the Indonesian government. The literal meaning of the utterance is that the Indonesian government gives official approval for an Australian consulate in Dili, but behind it a more penetrating one is the act performed by or resulting from saying this sentence. The Australian consulate in Dili has been approved by the Indonesian government. This is the same case with Chairman

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Mao’s declaration of the independence of the People’s Republic of China in 1949,

“中华人民共和国今天成立了！”

3.3 Summary

In this chapter, with detailed analysis of many a concrete example abstracted from the listening comprehension in TEM4 with the representation and application of speech act theory, readers can arrive at the conclusion that J. L. Austin’s speech act theory and Searle’s classification of speech acts can well be applied in the listening comprehension examination so as to improve listeners’ listening competence. With the help of Austin’s speech act theory, listeners are clear that the illocutionary act performed by speakers is worth listeners’ attention. By making such an utterance speakers have expressed their true intentions, asking the hearers to do something for them, making complaints and the like. Under the guide of Searle’s classification of speech acts, listeners know well deep in their hearts that all the five classifications, including representatives, directives, commissives, expressives and declarations, have their own characteristic inclinations. To some extent, this can provide listeners with the essential clues and hints as to which is the most proper answer to the question given. At last, the thesis brings about the point that when listeners are able to apply the theory in the apt way, even the most complicated utterance can be tackled at ease.

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Chapter 4 Conclusion

As one of the most demanding skills in all aspects of English learning, including speaking, listening, reading, translation and writing, listening comprehension is certainly not such an easy task to cope with, especially for the English majors who are required to have a pretty good command of it. It is definitely a complex mixture and involves various factors. Each listening aspect involved, on the other hand, is regulated by certain rules. Speech act theory, as one of the most important research subjects in pragmatics, is a very impressive theory to enlighten learners, and what it is most concerned with is the illocutionary act which attempts to explain the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say. In general, this theory can provide readers with the way as to how to intake and apprehend conversations under certain circumstances. It is, therefore, of great significance to the improvement of students’ listening comprehension in TEM4.

This paper is mainly devoted to the detailed analysis of the interaction between speech act theory and the listening comprehension in TEM4 by employing many a concrete and representative example from it. And the author probes into the representation and application of speech act theory in the listening comprehension of TEM4 mainly from two particular aspects: J. L. Austin’s speech act theory and Searle’s five classifications of speech acts.

Based on the framework of speech act theory, this paper is mainly an attempt to analyze and interpret the listening comprehension in TEM4 with great quantities of detailed instances considered in order to improve the listening comprehension competence of English majors by the apt application of the theory. In this paper, the author makes great efforts to provide readers with speech act theory and many

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concrete examples abstracted from TEM4 as well, which are helpful for readers to understand how to apply the theory to improve students’ listening comprehension competence precisely and thoroughly. To sum up, English majors should bear in mind the basic theory of speech acts and put them into practice on time after the careful study of the various examples. This method is not only beneficial to English majors of grade four and those who do such a research, but to all the foreign language students and teachers as well.

However, for the author’s own limited ability and great difficulty to get access to various related writing materials, the thesis might not be as satisfactory as it has been planned to be and thus, it still has much room for improvement. What’s more, as a new field in the linguistic study, the author hopes that this thesis can render some new inspirations to other students, teachers and scholars for further research study.

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