morphology syntax 形态学 句法学

Chapter 3&4 summary

于梦婷 翻译方向班 2014417791

Chapter 3

Morphology --one of the scope of linguistics is instructed in chapter 3. Morphology refers to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure. Different rules apply to classify words.

First one is part of speech(词性). Second one is meaning expressed. Third one is different classes.

? Nouns

Verbs ?lexical words（content words） Adjectives ?open class words

Words can be divided into Adverbs

Conjunctions

Prepositions ?grammatical words（functional words） Articles ?closed class words Pronouns

Linguists define word as the smallest free form found in language. A free form is simply an element that does not have to occur in a fixed position with respect to its neighboring elements；in many cases, it can even appear in isolation. For instance,

The boys left. The plural marking -s is not a free form. The most important component（部分） of a word structure is the morpheme（词素, 形态素） t he smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.

A morpheme which can be a word by

itself is called free morpheme.(自由

词素) Free and bound morpheme

Morpheme

Allomorphs （语素变体）

A morpheme that must be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.（粘着词素） The morpheme used to express indefiniteness in English has two forms：a before a word that begins with a consonant and an before a word that begins with a vowel. The variant（不同的） forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.

We can set out to analyze the internal structure of words from three aspects. 1、free and bound morphemes

A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called free morpheme.(自由词素)A morpheme that must be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.（粘着词素） 2、Root，affix and stem Root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzea without total loss of identity. Stem is the main part of a word to which affixes are added. Affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. 3、Derivational and infectional morphemes A derivational morpheme (派生词素)refers to one that creates an entirely new word. It may take the form of prefix or a suffix. -en -ate -ic? An inflectional morpheme (屈折词素)provides further grammatical information about an existing lexical item. English inflectional morphemes are largely in the form of suffix. Although there are lots of rules of formation，we can see it morphologically since learning morphology. 1、inflection（屈折法） -ing -ed It refers an to the process of adding -er affix to a word or changing it in some -est other way according to the rules of -‘s the grammar of a language. -s ?? 2、compounding（复合构词法）

Compounding refers to the process of conjoining two or more free morphemes to form a new word. Eg.bittersweet, rianbow? 3、derivation（派生法） Derivation is an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct form that of its bases. 4、conversion（转化法） Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes. Eg.n→v to tape?

1）clipping（拆分）

An abbreviated word can be formed by cutting part

of a longer word. Eg.bicycle→bike? 2）initials and acronyms（首字母缩写） 5、abbreviation（缩写法）

3)blending（混合） Initials differ from acronyms in that whereas initials are read letter by letter，acronyms are pronounced as independent words. A blend is a combination of parts of words to form a third word which contains some of the meaning of each part. Eg.web＋log→blog 6、back formation（反成法） New words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting”an affix thought to be part of the old word. Eg.to beg（derived from beggar）? 7、neologism（coinage新语） New words can be created to define new objects or ideas. 8、borrowing(借用法)

language and used in another language. Eg.latin：education? A borrowing word refers to a word or phrase which has been taken from one Chapter 4

Syntax，a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences is introduced in chapter 4. First，sentence types must be mastered. ?simple sentence

According to their structure ?coordinate sentence

?complex sentence

SV/SVO/SVC

According to the linear order of constituents

SVA/SVOO/SVOC/SVOA

Second，there are various approaches to syntactic studies. ?the traditional approach ?the structural approach

?the generative approach ④the functional approach

Parts of speech 1、the traditional approach Function of words categories

Concord and government （一致性与普通语法） Agreement between words in person, number, gender, and case.

tense and aspect（时和体） Tense：A grammatical form connected with verbs，which often show time Aspect：A category of the verb designating primarily the relation of the action to the passage of time, especially in reference to completion, duration, or repetition. 2、the structural approach ?syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations（组合关系与聚合关系） The syntagmatic relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence or between elements which are all present. The paradigmatic relation is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure，or between one element present present and others obsent. ?endocentric and exocentric constructions（向心结构与离心结构） An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to one of its constituents which serve as the centre or head of the whole. Typtical endocentric constructions are noun phrase，verb phrase，adjective phrase. subtypes: subordinate and coordinate constructions（主从结构和并列结构） The exocentric construction is defined as a construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. Typtical exocentric construction is prepositional phrase. Immediate constitute analysis （直接成分分析法） 3、the generative approach

Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular languages. A fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes，called syntactic categories，which can generally substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality. 1、

The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories. Here word level categories are divided into two kinds：

Nouns(N) Major lexical categories Verbs(V)

Adjective（A） Preposition（P） Determiner（Det） Degree words（Deg） Minor lexical categories Qualifier（Qual） Auxiliary （Aux） Conjunction（Con） 2、

Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases，the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. The most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories are noun phrase（NP），verb phrase（VP），adjective phrase（AP）and prepositional phrase（PP).

Phrases can consist of just one word. Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain ： head

Specifier ----left side of the head

Complement ---right side of the head 3、

Grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.

Eg.the book on the desk NP→（Det）N（PP）? The XP rule：

XP→（specifier）X（complement） XP

Specifier head complement 4、 specifier

Seamantically，they help make precise the

meaning of the head.

Syntactically，they typically mark a

phrase boundary. Phrase element

Specifier Head

Determiner N Qualifier V Degree word A/P

complements Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities

and location whose existence is

implied by the meaning of the head.

Phrase element

The imformation about a word’s

complement is included in the head

and termed subcategorization.(次范畴

化)

Miss Hebert believes that she will win.

Complement clause

Complementizers

Complement phrase

modifier Modifier specify optionally expressible

properties of head.

Eg.a very careful girl Phrase element open with care

read carefully

5、

The S rule： S→NP VP

Linguists take an abstrct category inflection（dubbed “infl”）as their heads，which indicates the sentence’s tense and agreement. Inflp

NP infl VP 6、

1)yes-no question

Eg. Will the train arrive？

First step： CP

C S

NP Infl VP

Det N will V

The trian arrive Second step： CP

C S

NP Infl VP

Det N will V The trian arrive Inversion Third step： CP

C S

Infl NP Infl VP

will Det N will V The trian arrive 2）do insertion Eg. Do birds fly? CP

C S

NP Infl VP

N Nonpst V

Birds fly

Deep structure Transformation Surface structure Deep structure CP

C S

NP Infl VP

N do V

Birds fly CP

C S

Infl NP Infl VP

will N e V Birds fly 3)wh movement

? Eg. What languages can you speak？

What languages can you_______speak_______? A B CP NP C S Det Infl NP Infl VP N can N e V NP what languages you speak e ?eg. Who win the game？

transformation Surface structure A inversion B wh movement N who CP

NP C S NP Infl VP NP e Pst V

Det N win the game

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