生物与制药工程专业英语第二三五单元翻译

Biologists and chemists divide compounds into two principal classes, inorganic and organic. Inorganic compounds are defined as molecules, usually small, that typically lack carbon and in which ionic bonds may play an important role. Inorganic compounds include water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and many salts, acids, and bases.

生物学家和化学家分裂成两个主要种类化合物、无机和有机。无机化合物被定义为分子,通常小,通常缺乏的碳离子束缚,那么它就能起到重要的作用。无机化合物包括水、氧气、二氧化碳和许多盐、酸、和根据地。

All living organisms require a wide variety of inorganic compounds for growth, repair, maintenance, and reproduction. Water is one of the most important, as well as one of the rmost abundant, of these compounds, and it is particularly vital to microorganisms. Outside the cell, nutrients are dissolved in water, which facilitates their passage through cell membranes. And inside the cell , water is the medium for most chemical reactions. In fact, water is by far the most abundant component of almost all living cells. Water makes up 5% to 95% or more of each cell, the average being between 65% and 75%. Simply stated, no organism can survive without water 所有生物体需要多种无机化合物的增长、维修、维护、和繁衍。水是其中一个最重要的、也是最丰富的,这类化合物,这是特别至关重要,微生物。细胞外,营养溶解在水中,有利于他们通过细胞膜。和进入细胞,水介质对大多数化学反应。事实上,水是迄今为止最丰富的组件几乎所有的活细胞。水产生的5% ~ 95%或更多的每一个细胞,平均在65%和75%之间。简单的说,没有生物能生还,没有水。

Water has structural and chemical properties that make it particularly suitable for its role in living cells. As we discussed, the total charge on the water molecule is neutral, but the Oxygen region of the molecule has a slightly negative charge and the hydrogen region has a slightly positive charge. Any molecule having such an unequal distribution of charges is called a polar molecule. The polar nature of water gives it four characteristics that make it a useful medium for living cells

水具有的结构和化学特性使得其尤为适合在活细胞中发挥作用。像我们讨论过的一样,总金额在水分子是中立的,但氧区域的分子都有稍微否定的电荷和氢地区稍微正电荷。有这样一个任何分子分配不均等的指控被称为一个极性分子。极地自然的水给它有四个特点,使它成为一个有用的活细胞中。

First, every water molecule is capable of forming four hydrogen bonds with nearby water molecules. This property results in a strong attraction between water molecules. Because of this strong attraction, a great deal of heat is required to separate water molecules from each other to form water vapor, thus, water has a relatively high boiling point (1OO℃). Since water has such a high boiling point, it exists in the liquid state on most of the earth's surface, Furthermore, the hydrogen bonding between water molecules affects the density of water, depending on whether it occurs as ice or a liquid. for example, the hydrogen bonds in the crystalline structure of water (ice) make it more spacious. As s result， ice has fewer molecules than an equal volume of liquid water. This makes its crystalline structure less dense than an equal olume of liquid water.this makes its crystalline strucrure less dense than liquid water. It is for this reason that ice floats and can serve as an insulating layer on the surfaces of lakes and streams that harbor living organisms.

首先,每个水分子的氢键能力四个形成与附近的水分子。这个属性导致水分子间有强烈的吸引力。因为这个强烈的吸引力,大量的热被要求从彼此分开的水分子形成的水蒸气,因此,水有一个相对高沸点(1 OO℃)。由于水有这样一个高沸点,它存在于液体状态对大部分的地球 表面,此外,水分子间的氢键的密度与水的影响,取决于它是冰或液体。例如,氢键在水晶结构水

(冰)使它更宽敞。结果作为年代,ice已经比少与等体积分子液态水。这使其晶体结构体积密度要小于同等的液态水。这使其水晶全部的密度要小于液态水。正是因为这一原因,冰漂浮的,也可以作为隔热层表面的湖泊和溪流滋生的活的有机体。

Second,the polarity of water makes it an excellent disolving medium or solvent.many

polar substances dissociate (separate) into individual molecules in water-that is, dissolve-because the negative part of the water molecule is attracted to the positive part of the molecules in the solute (dissolying substance) , and the positive part of the water molecules is attracted to the negative part of solute molecules. Substances (such as salts) that are composed of atoms (or groups of atoms) held together by ionic bonds tend to dissociate into separate cations and anions in water. Thus, the polarity of water allows molecules of many different substances to separate and become surrounded by water molecules.

第二,极性的水使它成为一个优秀的disolving中型或solvent.many

极性物质(独立)游离water-that中的个别分子,dissolve-because消极部分的水分子被吸引到积极的分子的一部分溶质(dissolying物质),积极的部分水分子被你吸引溶质分子的消极作用。物质(如盐)组成的原子(或群体中的原子)通过离子债券维系在一起的倾向于分开成单独的阳离子和阴离子在水里。因此,水分子的极性允许许多不同的物质分离,成为水分子包围。 Third, polarity accounts for water's characteristic role as a reactant or product in many chemical reactions. Its polaritv facilitates the splitting and rejoining of hydrogen (H+ ) and hydroxide (OH ) ions. Water is a key reactant in the digestive processes of organisms, whereby larger molecules are broken down into smaller ones. Water molecules are also involved in synthetic reactions--water is an important source of the hydrogen and oxygen that are incorporated into numerous organic compounds in living cells.

第三,极性占水的特性作为反应物或产品在许多化学反应。它有利于分裂和重新polaritv氢(H +)和氢离子(哦)。水是一个关键的反应物在消化过程的有机体,因此更大的分子分解成较小的分子。水分子也参与——水是合成反应的重要来源,氢气和氧气纳入许多有机化合物在活体细胞。

Finally, the relatively strong hydrogen bonding between water molecules makes water an excellent temperature buffer, A given quantity of water requires a great gain of heat to increase its temperature and a great loss of heat to decrease its temperature, as compared with many other substances. Normally, heat absorption by molecules increases their kinetic energy and thus increases their rate of motion and their reactivity. In water, however, heat absorption first breaks hydrogen bonds rather than increasing the rate of motion. Therefore. much more heat must be applied to raise the temperature of water than to raise the temperature of a nonhydrogen-bonded liquid. The reverse is true as water cools. Thus, water more easily maintains a constant temperat

最后,较强的水分子间的氢键使水成为优秀的温度缓冲区,给定数量的水需要一个重大收获的热增加它的温度和一个伟大的热量损失降低温度,相比而言,许多其他的物质。正常情况下,由分子吸收热量增加,从而增加动能的运动速度和反应。在水里,然而,第一个打破氢键吸收热量的速度,而不是增加运动。因此。更多的热量必须应用水的温度升高的温度升高一个nonhydrogen-bonded液体。事实正相反作为冷却水。因此,水更容易建立保持不变 when inorganic salts such as sodium chloride (NaCl) are dissolved in water, they undergo dissociation, or ionization. That is, they break apart into ions. Substances called acids and bases show similar behavior.

当无机盐如氯化钠(盐)溶解在水中,他们经历了分离、或游离。也就是说,他们分裂成离子。物质称为酸和碱显示类似的行为。

An acid can be defined as a substance that dissociates into one or more hydrogen ions (H+ ) and one or more negative ions (anions). Thus, an acid can also be defined as s proton CH+ ) donor. A base dissociates into one or more positive ions (cations) plus on or more negatively charged hydroxide ions (OH- ) that can accept, or combine with, protons. Thus, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is a base because it dissociates to release hydroxide ions, which have a strong attraction for protons and are among the most important proton acceptors. A salt is a substance that dissociates in water into cations and anions, neither of which is H or OH

酸可以被定义为一种物质dissociates成一个或多个氢离子(H +)和一个或多个负离子(阴)。因此,一个酸也可以被定义为s质子CH +)捐献者。基地dissociates成一个或多个正离子(阳离子)加上或更多的带负电荷的氢离子(哦-),可以接受,或者结合、质子。因此,氢氧化钠(氢氧化钠)是一个基地,因为它dissociates氢离子的释放,这有一个很大的吸引力,为质子质子中最重要的杂质。盐是一种物质dissociates阴离子在水变成阳离子,这两者都是H或哦

历史老照片不能说的秘密慈禧军阀明末清初文革晚清

Where the definition in a monograph states the tolerances as being "calculated on the dried (or anhydrous or ignited) basis, " the directions for drying or igniting the sample ptor to assaying are generally omitted from the Assay procedure. Assay and test procedures may be performed on the undried or unignited substance and the results calculated on the dried, anhydrous, or ignited basis, provided a test for Loss on drying , or Water , or Loss on ignition , respectively, is given in the monograph. Where the presence of moisture or other volatile material may interfere with the procedure , pr

evious drying of the substance is specified n the individual monograph and is obligatory. 在美国的定义中公差的专著是“干计算(或无水或点燃)的基础上,发展的方向ptor干燥或点燃,样品分析测试通常是被检测程序。检测、试验程序可以进行物质或unignited未晒干的话,计算结果在干燥、无水,或点燃的基础上,提供了一个测试损失干燥、或水点火或损失,分别在专著。在存在水分或其它挥发性物质可能干预程序,以前是指定的干燥物质n个人专著,是必须的。 Throughout a monograph that includes a test for Loss on drying or water, the expres, sion +previously dried" without qualification signifies that the substance is to be dried as directed under Loss on drying or Water (gravimetric determination).在一篇有关,包括试验干燥或水损失、表情,“以前干“未经资格意味着要干物质是按照损失干燥或水(重力坚定)。

Unless otherwise directed in the test or assay in the individual monograph or In a general chapter, USP Reference Standards are to be dried before use, or used without prior drying, specifically in accordance with the instructions given in the chapter USP Reference Stand, ards, and on the label of the Reference Standard. Where the label instructions differ in de. tail from those in the chapter, the label text is determinative.除非特定,在测试或分析个人专著或一般章,USP参考标准要干在使用前,或者使用未经干燥,特别是按照指示USP参考站在这一章里,ards,并在标签上的参考标准。在不同的标签上的说明de.尾巴的一章,标签文本是决定性的。

In stating the appropriate quantities to be taken for assays and tests, the use of the word "about" indicates a quantity within 10% of the specified weight or volume. However, the weight or volume taken is accurately determined and the calculated result is based upon the exact amount taken. The same tolerance applies to specified dimensions.在适当的量,说明采取截流式合流制、测试法等研究方法,使用的词“大约”量在10%以内,显示指定的重量或体积。然而,重量或体积可以准确地确定了,计算结果是基于准确的数目缠住了。同样的宽容适用于指定的尺寸。

Where the use of a pipet is directed for measuring a specimen or an aliquot in conducting a test or an assay the pipet conforms to the standards set forth under Volumetric Apparatus, and is to be used in such manner that the error does not exceed the limit stated for a pipet of its size. Where a pipet is specified, a suitable buret, conforming to the standards forth under Volumetric Apparatus, may be substituted. Where a"to contain" pipet is specified, a suitable volumetric flask may be substituted.在使用移液管直接衡量一个或一个能整除的标本进行检测或检测符合标准的移液管提出在容积仪器,应该是用在如此的方式误差不超过极限,以求一个移液管它的大小。一个移液管指定,一个合适的滴定管,必须符合以下标准容积装置发出,可以替换下场。一个“遏制”移液管指定,一个合适的容积瓶可以替换下场。

Expressions such as "25. 0 mL" and "25. 0 mg, " used with respect to volumetric or gravimetric measurements, indicate that the quantity is to be 'accurately measured" or "accurately weighed"with the limits stated under volumetric apparatus or under weights and balances表现形

式,如“25。0毫升”和“25。0毫克,”使用就容积或重力测量、显示数量为“精确”和“准确”规定的范围与重下机器或重量和体积下平衡

the term"transfer" is used generally to specify a quantitative manipulation,

the term "concomitantly",used in such expressions as "concomitantly determine"or "concomitantly

measured",ctions for assays and tests,is intended to denote that the determinations or measurements are to be performed in immediate succession. 术语“转向”是指定一个普遍使用定量操作, 术语“相符”,用于这样几条:“与此同时决定”或“与此同时测量”,为检测和测试。可是审稿人,是用来指示出时或尺码立即履行涌现。

Blank Determination-Where it is directed that .Cany necessary correction" be made by a blank determination, the determination is to be conducted using the same quantities of the same reagents treated in the same manner as the solution or mixture containing the portion of the substance under assay or test , but with the substance itself omitted.在空白,是为了确定。藤制的必要的纠正”是由一个空白的决心,自觉进行使用相同数量的同一试剂处理在相同的方式,溶液或混合物的下部分的化验或物质的测试,但是与物质本身省略。

Desiccator-The expression "in a desiccator" specifies the use of a tightly closed contain. r of suitable size and design that maintains an atmosphere of low moisture content by means of silica gel or other suitable desiccant.干燥机表达"在干燥机”指定使用密闭容器尺寸合适的气氛和设计,保持低水分通过硅胶或其他适合的干燥剂。

A "vacuum desiccator" is one that maintains the low-moisture atmosphere at a reduced pressure of not more than 20 mm of mercury or at the pressure designated in the individual monograph. Desiccator-The expression "in a desiccator" specifies the use of a tightly closed contain. r of suitable size and design that maintains an atmosphere of low moisture content by means of silica gel or other suitable desiccant.是一种“真空干燥机”就是在保持low-moisture减压的气氛不超过20毫米汞或指定的个人专著的压力。

Dilution-Where it is directed that a solution be diluted "quantitatively and stepwise, an accurately measured portion is to be diluted by adding water or other solvent. in the pro portion indicated, in one or more steps. The choice of apparatus to be used should take into ecount the relatively larger errors generally associated with using small-volume volumetric apparatus.它在哪里下令稀释溶液和定量稀释”,一个精确的逐步部分被摊薄加入水或其他溶剂。在职业分表示,在一个或多个步骤。选择设备应考虑使用相对较大的误差一般用其有关容积装置。

Drying to Constant Weight,the specification a dried to constant weight" means that the drying shall be continued until two consecutive weighings do not differ by more than 0.50 mg per g of substance taken,the second weighing following an additional hour of drying.烘干恒重、干重规格恒”意味着干燥应一直持续到连续两个不同的称重量不高于0.50毫克每克的物质,第二个称重后采取额外的小时的干燥。

Feltration-Where it is directed to .Cfilter," without further qualification, the intent is that the liquid be filtered through suitable filter paper or equivalent device until the filtrate is clearFeltration在那里它是针对“过滤”,没有进一步的资格,意愿液体的过滤或同等适用滤纸过滤装置,直到是清楚的

(indentification Tests)The Pharmacopeial tests headed identification are provided a3 aid in verifying the identity of articles as they are purported to be, such as those taken from labeled containers. Such tests, however specific, are not necessarily sufficient to establish proof of identity: but failure of an article taken from a labeled container to meet the requirements of a prescribed

identification test indicates that the article may be mislabeted. Other tests and specifications in the monograph often contribute to establishing or confirming the identity of the article under examination. (识别测试)为首的Pharmacopeial识别测试提供援助的身份核实a3文章为他们据称是,如那些取自标记的容器中。这些测试,不过具体,未必足以建立的身份证明:但失败的一篇来自标示容器符合要求的规定的识别实验表明,可能mislabeted条。其他测试规格通常有助于在专著建立或确认身份的文章在审查中。

indicators-Where the use of a test solution ('TS") as an indicator is specified in a test or an assay, approximately 0. 2 mL, or 3 drops, of the solution shall be added, unless oth erwise directed(指标),使用一个测试解决方案(“TS”)作为一个指标是指定的测试或检测,约为0。2毫升或者3滴,要加的解决方案,除非另有指挥

Logarethms）Logarithms used in the assays are to the base 10. (Logarethms)用于使用对数基本10。

（microbile strains）where a microbial strain is cited and indenfied strain shall be directly or,if subculturedd,shall be used not more than five passages removed from the original strain. microbile系)微生物菌株在表彰和indenfied应变应当直接或者,如果subculturedd,应不超过五个章节使用取出原菌株。 Negligible-This term indicates a quantity not exceeding 0. 50 mg.可以忽略,这个术语表明量不超过0。50毫克。

Odor-Terms such as "odorless, ,, practically odorless, " "a faint characteristic odor,, r variations thereof , apply to examination , after exposure to the air for lS minutes , of either Or a freshly opened package of the article (for packages containing not more than 25 g) or (for larger packages) of a portion of about 25 g of the article that has been removed from its package to an open evaporating dish of about 100mL capacity. An odor designation is descriptive only and is not to be regarded as a standard of purity for a particular lot of an article. Odor-Terms如“无嗅、无味,几乎”、“微弱的气味,变化特点,r组合,适用于考试,在暴露于大气,或动物分钟一个新拧开包的文章(包包含不超过25克)或(更大的包)部分约25克的文章已被删除从它的包装,开放的蒸发盘大约100毫升容量。指定准确地识别出相同的味道,而不是描述只被看作是一种标准的纯度为一个特别的许多文章。

Pressure Measurements--The term 'Cmm of mercury" used with respect to measurements of blood pressure, pressure within an apparatus, or atmospheric pressure refers to the use of a suitable manometer or barometer calibrated in terms of the pressure exerted by a colurmi of mercury of the stated height, 压力测量——这个词的使用Cmm的水银”尊重测量血压、压力在一个设备,或大气压力指的是用一个合适的压力或气压计校准方面所发挥的压力的一个colurmn汞的规定的高度,

Solutions-Unless otherwise specified in the individual monograph, all solutions called for in tests and assays are prepared with Purified Water.Solutions-除非个人专著中另有说明,所有解决方案的测试和分析要求的准备与纯水。

An Expression such as o (1 in 10) " means that I part by volume of a liquid is to be dilt ted with, or I part by weight of a solid is to be dissolved in, sufficient of the diluent or ad. ent to make the volume of the finished solution 10 parts by volume.一个表达式如o(1在10)我一边”是指一个液体的体积是被稀释,或者我部分固体的重量解散,足够的稀释剂或广告。花使的体积溶液体积10部分完成An expression such as "(20:5:2)" means that the respective numbers of parts, by volunme of the de

signated liquids are to be mixed, unless otherwise indicated.一个表达式,如“(20:5:2)"意味着各自的编号的部件,在指定的体积比混合液体,除非另有说明。

the notation "VS" after a specified volumertric solution indicates that such solution is standardized in accordance with directions given in the individual monograph or under Volumetric solutions in the section Reagents, Indicators, and Solutions, and is thus differentiated form Solutions ted from solutions of approximate normality or molarity. 这个符号”和“一个指定的volumertric表明这样的解决方案是标准化按照指挥在个人专著或在容积的解部分试剂、指标,和解决方案,从而解决方案从各种类型的近似常态特德或摩尔浓度。

Where a standardized solution of a specific concentration is called for in a test or an assay, solution of other normatity or molarity may be used, provided allowance is made for the lifference in concentration and provided the error of measurement is not increased thereby. 在解决具体的浓度标准要求的是测试或检测、解决其他正常可以使用或摩尔浓度,提供补贴是为不同的浓度和提供了测量误差从而并未增加。

Specific Gravity-Unless otherwise stated, the specific gravity basis is 25c/25C, the ratio of the weight of a substance in air at 2500 to the weight of an equal volume oi water at the same temperature.(具体重力)除非另有说明,比重根据25 c / 25 c的重量之比在空气中物质在2500的重量与等体积水在相同温度下一级。

temperatures-Unless otherwise specified, all temperatures in this Pharmacopeia are expressed in centigrade (Celsius) degrees, and all measurements are made at 25T), Where moderate heat is specified, any temperature not higher than 4500 (1130F) is indicated. See Storage Temperature under Preservation , Packaging , Storage , and labeling for other definitions.(温度),除非另有说明,所有的温度在摄氏表达这药典(摄氏度)度,和所有测量在25吨),在适度热指定,任何温度不高于4500(1130 F)治疗。看到贮藏温度下保存、包装、储存、贴标签为其他定义。

（Time Limit)In the conduct of tests and assays, 5 minutes shall be allowed for the reaction to take place unless otherwise specified,

（Vacuum）he term "in vacuum" denotes exposure to a pressure of less than 20 mm of mercury unless otherwise indicated. (时间限制)在处理试验和检测,5分钟应给予反应发生,除非另有说明, (真空)他术语“真空”表示接触压力小于20毫米汞除非另有说明。

Where drying in vacuum over a desiccant is directed in the individual monograph, a vat rml desicator or a vacuum drying pistol, or other suitable vacuum drying apparatus, is m be used. 在一个地方在真空干燥除湿是为了个人专著中,真空干燥器或真空干燥的手枪,或其他适合的真空干燥设备,是被使用。

Water-Where water is called for in tests and assays , Purified Water is to be used unless otherwise specified. For special kinds of water such as .<carbon dioxidtfree water." see the ntroduction to the section Reagentst Indicators, and Solutions(水)在那里水是呼吁在测试和化验、纯化水使用,除非另有说明。对于特殊种类的水如二氧化碳自由水。“看介绍部分试剂指标,和解决方案 Water and Loss on Drying--Where the water of hydration or adsorbed water of a Pharmacopeial a

rticle is determined by the titrimetric method, the test is generally givet under the heading Water, Monograph limits expressed as a percentage are figured on a weight/weight basis unless otherwise specified. Where the determination is made by drying under specified conditions, the test is generally given under the heading Loss drying. However Loss on drying is most often given as the heading where the loss weight is known to represent residual volatile constituents including

organic solvents well as water. 水和损失,在水的干燥或吸附水的水化Pharmacopeial是由条滴定法,测试通常是在标题下面吉水、专著限制百分比来表示,在计算重量/重量相配,除非另有说明。决心是由在干燥在规定的条件下,测试通常是在标题下面损失了干燥。然而损失干燥是最常给标题的如果损失重量是众所周知的挥发性成分代表残留有机溶剂和水。

A The Microbial World

A microbe or microorganism is a member of a large , extremely diverse , group of organisms that are lumped together on the basis of one property-the fact that, normally, they are all that they cannot be seen without the use of a microscope. 细菌或微生物是一个大的、极其多样化、一个性质的集合在一起的生物体。事实上,通常情况下,他们都说他们不使用显微镜不能观察到。 The word is therefore used to describe viruses bacteria, fungi, protozoa and some algae: the relative sizes and nature of these are shown in Table 5-1,因此,这个词是用来形容病毒细菌、真菌、原生动物和一些藻类相对大小和特性的显示于表格5:1,

However, there are a few exceptions for example, the fruiting bodies of many fungi such as mushrooms are frequently visible to the naked eye； equally, some algae can grow to meters in length. Generally, microbes may be considered as fairly simple organisms.然而,有少数例外,例如,果期的尸体等许多真菌蘑菇经常是肉眼能看得见的;同样,有些藻类能长到米长。一般来说,微生物可以被看作是相当简单的生物体

Most of the bacteria and protozoa and some of the algae and fungi are single celled microorganisms, and even the multi-celled microbes do not have a great range of cell types. Viruses are not even cells, just genetic material surrounded by a protein coat, and are incapable of independent existence.大部分的细菌和原生动物和一些藻类和真菌是单细胞微生物,甚至没有大范围的细胞类型的微生物。病毒甚至没有细胞,就遗传物质包围在蛋白质外衣,不能独立存在。

The science of microbiology did not start until the invention of the microscope in the mid 16th century and it was not until the late 17th century that Robert Hooke and Antoine van Leeuwenhoek made their first records of fungi, bacteria and protozoa.微生物学的科学直到16th世纪中期直到17th世纪后期罗伯特虎克和安东尼·范·列文虎克显微镜的发明才开始——使用显微镜首次记录的真菌、细菌和原生动物The late 19th century was the time when the first real breakthroughs on the role of microbes in the environment nd medicine were made.19th世纪后期是第一个真正的突破的作用在环境医学微生物日。 Louis Pasteur disproved the theory of spontaneous generation ( that living organisms spontaneously arose from inorganic materiaD and Robert Koch's development of pure culture techniques allowed him to show unequivocally that a bacterium was respon sible for a particular disease. 路

易·巴斯德否定自然发生的理论,从无机生物自发产生的资料),并且把罗伯特·科赫纯培养技术的发展使他毫不含糊地表明,一种细菌被响应为一个特定的疾病。Since then the science has grown dramatically as microbiology impinges on aIL aspects of life and the environment.自从那时起,科学已经大幅增长,因为微生物在生活的各个方面,保护我们的环境

Within the microbial world can be found two different categories of CEll type , Prokaryole and eukaryole.在微生物世界可以发现两个不同的认同范畴的细胞类型,原核细胞和真核细胞。 Bacteria are Prokaryoies : theylack a distinct nuclear membrane,the organelles associated with energy generation ,such as mitochondria and chlorophlasts,and complex internal membrane, such as endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, which are faund in euharyotes.原核细菌他们缺少清晰的核膜,与能源相关的细胞器如线粒体和叶绿体和复杂的内部膜,如内质网和高尔基体是真核细胞所发现。 Although the basic mechanisms of DNA replication, RNA ynthesis and protein synthesis are the same in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes,there are in the components, and enzymes involved. These are discussed in the appropriate topics. 虽然基本机制的DNA复制,

历史老照片不能说的秘密慈禧军阀明末清初文革晚清

在两个原核生物和真核生物RNA合成配位化合物和蛋白质合成是相同的,在组成、酶参与。这些都是在适当的讨论话题。

Food. Microbes have been used for thousands of years, in many processes,to produce food, from brewing and wine making, through cheese production and bread making, to the manufacture of soy sauce.微生物已经使用了数千年之久,在许多过程中产生的食物,从酿造葡萄酒的制作过程,通过奶酪生产和面包制作、生产酱油。 At the other end of the scale, microbes are responsible for food spoilage , and diseast causing microbes are frequently carried on food. 在另一端的规模、微生物负责食物变质,致病微生物经常进行的食物。

Biotechnology. Traditionally microbes have been used to synthesize many important chemicals such as acetone and acetic acid.传统的微生物已经被用于许多重要的化工如丙酮、乙酸的合成。 More recently, the advent of genetic engineering techniques has led to the cloning of pharmaceuticallv important polypeptides into microbes, which may be produced on a large scale. 最近,遗传工程技术的出现导致了微生物克隆制药地重要的多肽微生物,which may then be produced on a large scale.这可能会大规模地生产。。

Research, microbes have been used extensively as model , organisms for the investigation of biochemical and genetical processes as they are much easier to work with than more complex animals and plants. 研究,微生物已被广泛用于模型、生物调查与生化和遗传过程要比更复杂的动物和植物运转容易得多,。Millions of copies of the same single cell can be produced in large numbers very quickly and at low cost to give plenty of hornogeneous experimental material 。And additional advaatage is that most people have no ethical objections to experiments with these microorganisms. 数百万份相同的单个细胞能产生大量的、低成本的基因型很快给足够的同质

试验资料和这些微生物额外的优势是,大多数的人都没有任何伦理反对实验。

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