第十讲 动词和动词分类

Grammatical teaching plan Liudan

Lecture 10

10.1 Classification of verbs 1) Main verbs and auxiliaries

2) Primary auxiliaries：又叫实义动词

助动词：a:基本助动词 be, do,have. Will, shall 与主要动词一起构成动词性合成谓语。 补充：代动词do

Bones absorb the X rays much more than do the soft skin and muscle tissue.

The number of neutrons may vary and often does.

b: Modal auxiliaries: 与其后面的主要动词构成动词性合成谓语

补充：cannot 或 can+ scarcely 等否定副词的特殊用法： 当这一形式与某些副词（too, enough, perfectly. Sufficiently 等） 或某些副词，形容词的比较级或某些动词（ overemphasize,overrate, overestimate, exaggerate 等）连用

时，意为“无论... 都不过分”，“越...越好”如： In doing an experiment, one cannot be careful enough.

We cannot emphasize too strongly that the principles of chemistry derive from experiment; chemistry is an experimental science.

C：Semi-auxiliaries: 某些动词（主动式）+动词不定式（主要有 appear, seem,happen, remain, prove, turn out等）一起构成动词性合成谓语。

Eg: This technological problem remains to be solved. 2) Transitive verbs, intransitive verbs and linking verbs A:及物动词和不及物动词构成实义动词，它们表示具体动作或状态，具有明确的词义。 Eg: Cells vary a great deal in size.

B: Transitive verbs ：接双宾（常见的有，give， show, tell, convince, inform 等） C: linking verbs

1.不能单独做谓语，而要与其后面的表语构成名词性合成谓语；常见的系动词有be, become; 由其他实义动词演变而来

的系动词有remain, look, appear, seem, prove,, get, go,stay, turn, sound, measure, feel等。 3) Dynamic verbs and stative verbs 10.2 Classification of verbs

4) single-word verbs and phrasal verbs 词组动词：两个或两个以上单词构成的动词 A. 动词+介词 B. 动词+副词小品词 C. 动词+副词小品词+介词 英译汉

Account for/ take to / see to/ agree with/ agree to / come across/ come into/ amount to/ go for/ go about/ get after/ look into / look after/ rely on/ take...for... /resort to 汉译英

接管/ 爆炸/ 雇佣/ 爆发/教养/ 上当受骗/ 提出/ 装模作样/ 苏醒过来/ 堵塞/ 取消/ 出版/ 想出/ 临时解雇/ 冒出/ 提起/ 赢利/ 弥补/去世/ 发脾气/ 贯彻/ 拆开/ 理解/ 和好/ 提起/ 继续/ 英译汉

Carry over to/ own up to / talk down to / come down with/ catch on to / go in for/ keep up with/ look forward to/ get on to/ get around to,at/ go through with/ make up for/ look down on/ look up to/ put up with/ get on at/ get away with/ fill in for/ come out with

以及其他一些属于成语性质的搭配

Make fun of / make the most of / make a mess of/ take

advantage of/ take effect/ take place/. Take root/ change hands.. 1. 限定动词和非限定性动词

限定动词和非限定动词的区别为有没有时的标记 两种限定形式：现在时、过去时 三种非限定形式：——、——。—— 2. 规则动词和不规则动词 不规则动词的三种形式： ——、——、——

10.3 A survey of tense, aspect, voice and mood 1) Tense and aspect 时：过去、现在 体：进行体/ 完成体

时态分为三时四方面，以时间分：现在、过去，将来 以方面分：一般，进行，完成，完成进行 ；共十二种 2) Active voice and passive voice A: 定义

B： 被动态动词的非限定形式： 不定式和现在分词 The areas most likely to be affected by cold are the face, the ears and the extremities.

The most complicated parts of this project are believed to have been designed by Doctor Jan.

Being heated, magnetized steel will lose its magnetism. Our homework having been finished , we went to play football. The child hates being played tricks on in public.

Get 型被动语态和be 型被动态的区别

1. Indicative mood, imperative mood and subjunctive mood 2. Finite verb phrases and non-finite verb phrases

Lecture 11 Tense and Aspect ( I )

In this and the next five lectures we are going to deal with features of tense, aspect, voice and mood expressed by the verb phrase. We will start with uses of the simple present, the simple past, the present progressive and the past progressive.

11.1 Uses of simple present **Simple present referring to the future

The simple present can be used to denote future time. This use is limited to future events conceived of as “certain”, either because they are determined in advance by calendar or timetable, or because they are part of a plan

or an arrangement thought of as unalterable. Here we mention some sub-clauses in which the simple present is commonly used in the future sense. These sub-clauses include the that-clause following “I hope”, “I bet”, etc; the that-clause following such constructions as “see to it”, “make sure”, “make certain”; and the conditional / temporal clauses introduced by if / when. e.g. I hope you have a good time. I bet it rains tomorrow.

I’ll see (to it) / make sure / make certain (that) you don’t get lost.

If it isfine tomorrow, we will go to the countryside. 即在时间和条件状语从句中代替将来时，例如：

--When he finishes middle school, he will go on his studies in college.

--We will have a football match if it is fine tomorrow. --We will start as soon as you are ready.

**Simple present referring to the past

The simple present can occasionally be used to denote past time. This use of the simple present is usually found with “communication verbs” such as tell, say, hear, learn, writeto express the present effect of information received in the past .

e.g. Alice tells me you’re entering college next year. I hear poor old Mrs. Smith has lost her son.

Simple present is also used as a device of story-telling and news reporting to add vividness to the description. This use of the simple present to refer to the past is what we call “historic present”.

e.g. … I was just dozing off in front of the television when my wife rushes in shouting that the kitchen is on fire. 即在口语中hear, learn, say, tell 等动词表示已发生的动作，而且这个动作发生的时间在说话人心目中处于很不重要的地位，例如：

--They say Miss Green will teach us English. --Ken tells me the Wilsons are moving from No.12. --Yes, you answer quite well.

用于一些谚语、新闻标题、体育解说词、舞台指导说明或讲

故事等，例如：

--Pride goes before a fall.（骄者必败。） --AMERICAN PROFESSOR LEAVES BEIJING --Moor passes to Charlton; Charlton shoots, it's a good goal.

--When the curtain rises, Juliet is sitting at her desk. The phone rings.

--She picks it up and listens quietly.

--It is pitch-dark（漆黑的）that night. A cold wind is blowing from the north. Suddenly the door opens. A man bursts in with a baby in his arms. 11.2 Uses of simple past Past habit

The simple past can also be used to denote a habitual or recurrent action in the past, known as the habitual past.表示过去的习惯动作。

e.g. --Ken never smoked.

--He often went dancing before.

--He gave Mary exciting gifts every Christmas.

也可用used to和would来表达过去习惯的动作: --Tom used to eat out (下馆子吃饭) every day, but now he can't afford it.

--He didn't use to make that mistake.

--When he was young, he wouldrise early and take a walk before breakfast.

**Attitudinal and hypothetical past

In specific contexts，the simple past can also denote the present or the future time. There are two uses. One is known as the attitudinal past, that is, the past tense is associated with the present time in independent clauses expressing a question, request or suggestion. Its effect is to make the question / request / suggestion less direct, implying a polite, somewhat tentative attitude on the part of the speaker.

e.g. A: Did you want me?

B: Yes, I wondered if you could give me some help. The other is what we call the hypothetical past. In this use, the simple past refers not to a fact but to a on-fact, and is typically found in that-clauses following such constructions

as “it’s time …”, “I wish…”, “I’d rather…”, etc, and in adverbial clauses of rejected condition, ie a condition which is not likely to be fulfilled. e.g. It’s time you had a holiday. I wish you livedcloser to us. I’d rather you wentnow.

If I hadthe money now, I’d buy a car.

即用于一些虚拟句，表示现在或将来臆想或非真实的情况。 e.g. --I wish I had a better memory.

--It's five o'clock. It's time we went home. --I'd rather you lived closer to us.

--If I knew his address, I would look him up.

11.3 Uses of present progressive

**To denote an action in progress at a period of time including the present

Note that the present progressive when accompanied by an adverbial of frequency such as always, continually, constantly, or forever often imparts an emotional colouring,

often of annouyance or disapproval. By contrast, the simple present lacks the subjective, emotional tone of the present progressive and states a fact objectively. C.f She complains about the house.

She is constantly complaining about the house. She’s always borrowing money and forgettingto pay me back.

即：与副词always, forever, continually, constantly等连用，表示经常或反复发生的动作，往往带有赞赏 或厌恶等感情色彩，例如：

--Why are you always leavingthings behind? --He is always forgetting people's names. --She is always complaining.

--He was constantly producingdevices for making the tasks of ordinary life easier to perform. --The little boy is forever asking questions. To denote a future happening according to a definite plan or arrangement

The present progressive used to refer to the future, more

often than not the near rather than distant future, in connection with a definite plan, arrangement or programme, usually occurs in situations with obvious future reference.

e.g. Mr. Cameron is leaving China in a few weeks. I’ m going to Qingdao for the summer holiday. The present progressive denoting futurity also occurs in temporal and conditional clause, on condition that there is future reference in the main clause.

e.g. I’ll think about it while you’re writing the report. If you are standing at the corner, I’ll give you a lift. 即：表示计划中即将发生的将来动作，例如： --My uncle is visiting us soon.

--Are you doing anything tomorrow afternoon? --Yes, I'm playing tennis with Ann.

--I'm meeting Peter tonight. He is taking me to the theatre.

11.4 Uses of past progressive

The use of the past progressive has much in common with that of the present progressive, only the time reference being pushed back to the past. To denote a past habitual action

The habitual action denoted by the past progressive is most clearly characterized by its temporariness, in contrast with the past habit denoted by the simple past.

e.g. George was getting up at vive every day that week. My brother was always losing his keys. To denote futurity in the past

This use is also found in some adverbial clauses of time or condition.

e.g. They were leaving a few days later. He told me to wake him up if he was sleeping.

To make polite requests and express hypothetical meanings

The past progressive is the most tentative in making polite requests.

c.f. I hope you can send me some books.

Of the following three forms, the past progressive is the most tentative in making polite requests: I hoped that you could send me some books. I am hoping you can send me some books. I was hoping you could send me some books.

11.5 Contrast between past progressive and simple past

More points to note :

1. To denote an action in completion, we use the simple past; to denote an action in progress, we use the past progressive.

2. To state a mere past fact, we use the simple past; to lay emphasis on the duration of the action, we use the past progressive.

3. When tow actions co-occur in a sentence, the action of shorter duration is to be denoted by the simple past, while that of longer duration by the past progressive.

4. In colloquial speech, the past progressive is sometimes used to show what one says is casual, unimportant and

aimless, whereas the use of the simple past means differently.

c.f. I was talking to Margaret the other day. I talked to Margaret the other day.

5. Compare the time sequence of the two actions in the following sentences:

c.f. When we arrived, she was making some fresh coffee. When we arrived, she made some fresh coffee.

In the first sentence, the action of making coffee was already in progress when we arrived, whereas in the second sentence, the action of making coffee followed our arrival in time sequence.

11.6 Topics for discussion

1. “Apples cost a lot this time of year.” (p.208，Ex.11F，No.29) 这里能否用“are costing”表示很贵呢？为什么？ 解答：不能。cost是静态动词第二类词，通常不能用于进行体。教材中的进行体例句（p.166, “The mistake is costing us dearly”）是为了表达一个错误带来的损失越来越多，而苹果的价格应该是相对稳定的，不适合用进行体。

2. 两个“时”和两个“体”的动词体系：

“时”（Tense）和“体”（Aspect）是两个不同的语法范畴。“时”是表示时间区别的动词形式；“体”是表示一个动作处于何种状态，或者以什么方式存在的动词形式。传统语法中，Tense通常译作“时态”，而不讲Aspect。从二十世纪五十年代以来，国外有影响的语法著作，对于Tense和 Aspect作了不同的处理，认为英语动词有两个“时”和两个“体”：两个“时”是现在时和过去时；两个“体”是进行体和完成体。这个新体系的前提是：一是Tense和 Aspect是两个不同的语法范畴，是可分的；二是认为英语动词没有“将来时”，从而也没有“过去将来时”。理由是：

第一，Tense 和Aspect是两个独立的语法范畴，但它们都与动词所表示的动作有关，因此常常结合在一起使用，从而引起一种错觉，好像Tense 和Aspect不能分开。我们知道，英语动词的两个“时”是采取屈折形式表示的，而动词的两个“体”采取分析形式，即采取助动词be + -ing分词（进行体）和助动词have +-ed分词（完成体）的形式表示的。当be和have在句中采取限定形式时，助动词 be和have便以其本身的“时”的形式，来表示处于一定状态的动作的时间关系。例如：He is writing a letter. He has written a letter. 这两个句子只有“体”的区别而没有“时”的区别，说话人讲得都是现在时间的事，只是一个表示动作在进行，而另一个则已经处

于完成的状态。但如果说：He was writing a letter. He had written a letter. 和前两句比，是“时”变了，而“体”并没有变。因此is / was writing 和 has / had written 并不是不同的Tense，而仅是四个不同的时——体结合形式。

第二，英语动词的进行体形式和完成体形式，有时也可以不和“时”的形式相结合而独立存在，这就是它们的非限定形式。如：It is unusual for Mike to be having a rest in work time. They seem to have workedfor a long time. They seemed to have been working for a long time.

这些体的结构本身并不表示动作的时间关系。它们只有借助主句谓语动词的时才能确定这些动作究竟发生在什么时间。然而传统语法把“时”和“体”混为一谈，从而认为进行体和完成体的非限定形式也可表示时间概念。 117 Homework: do the exercises

Lecture 12 Tense and Aspect 1. 动词形态 have/has +p.p 2. 用法：完成、经验，继续

3. 表示“曾经去过某处”用“have been\；而”have gone\指的是“已去某处了” eg: He has gone to America/ He has been to America.

翻译： 你去过美国吗？ 4. For/since 用法之比较

A. For+一段时间/since+ 时间的一点 He has been ill __two weeks. ?

Since 后不能接带有数字的时间，如 two weeks, three months 等。比如： for three days/ for a long time Since Monday/ since breakfast

He has been here from/ since? last Monday. 他从上周一开始就在这儿。

From 仅表示起点，不指延续到某一点 Since 不仅表示起点也表示延续到某一点。

It is/ has been + 一段时间+since + 过去时间点/ s+ 一般过去时

例： 自从上次见到他一来，已经有三个月之久了。 翻译：

Ever since 是 since 的 加强型“从。。。以来一直。。。” 翻译：从我上了高中以来就一直很用功读书。

Since 用法整理：

Since+ 过去时间 eg: since 1982 Since+ 名词 since his arrival Since+ 一段时间+ ago since two years ago Since+ 主语+一般过去式v since he left here.

表示瞬间动作之动词，如 die arrive/get/ come/graduate/buy/sell 不能用现在完成时+for +时间，应该改为be+ adj+ 时间副词

Eg: He has died for three years 改错

He died three years ago He has been dead for three years It is three years since he died.

过去的经验若果时间不确定，用现在完成时，但如果时间确定，则用一般过去式。 I have met him before I met him two days ago.

5. When 或what time 引导之疑问词，不用现在完成时。 When did you visit New York? When have you visited New York? What time did you come home? What time have you come come?

2) 现在完成时与现在完成进行时的不同

1.He has been reading the book. (不需时间副词就能表示持续） He has read the book for an hour.（需要时间副词连用才能表示持续）

He has read the book。（ 他看过书了）

2. 表示持续性的动词（如： stay, wait, study. Learn. Read, lie..等） 多用完成进行体，引起本身表示继续到现在。 Have you been waiting for a long time?

3) 过去完成时

1. 过去的两个动作，当甲动作发生了之后，才发生乙动作，那么甲动作用过去完成时，乙动作用过去时。

2. 如句中有before, after 等连词时， 因为可以明显区分两件事情发生的先后，所以两者皆可用一般过去时表示。如： After you went/had gone, I went to sleep You went/ had gone before I went to sleep.

3. 一般过去式和过去完成时之比较 I lost the watch that I had bought the other day. My uncle bought a coat in London and send it to me.

4. Hope/expect/intend 等动词如果与过去完成时连用，是表示过去想做但没有实现。 I had hoped to go to Japan in July = I hoped to have gone to Japan in July

过去完成进行时

试比较下列各句的用法：

He was phoning you when I got there He had already phoned you when I got there He had been phoning you when I got there.

Exercises

1. \ \

A. has been b. being c. was d. will be 2. I __an old friend on the way home yesterday. A. meet b. met c. have met d. had met 3. The weather __fine for many days this month. A. is b/ has been c/had been d/ was 4. Since last century, his family__teachers.

A. are b/are being c/ have been d/were being 5. The old man repented that he__idle when young. A/has been b/ having been c/ had been d/ were being 6. When I came to see him last evening, he __his dinner. A/has eaten b/ was eaten c/ eats d/ was eating 7. By next Sunday you__with us for three months. A/will have stayed b/ will stay c/shall stay d/have stayed

8. Keep an eye on the children while I ___. A. go to shop b/go shopping

C/am doing some shopping d/will do some shop 9. The accident __right here a week ago. A. Happened b/was happened c/has happened d/was happening

10. The whole area was flooded because it __ for weeks. A/rains b/ has rain

c/ had been raining d. Was raining

11. After she __told the news, she ran home to tell her mother. A/would have b/would have been C/had been d/should have

12. By next May they __ the bridge for nine months. A/will build b/will have been building C/will have been built d/will be built 13. When I __on the street, I met Mary. A/leaving b/left c/ leaves d/ leave 14. I have not seen John since he __ here.

A/walked b/had walked c/walk d/ was walking 15. They sang a song which they __before. A/ did not sing b/had not sung C/sang d/ would have sung

16. He __ his homework before I came.

A/has done b/ has been doing C/has done d/would have done

17. He will be happy when he __ the good news. A/hears b/is hearing c/will hear d/ will have heard 18. My little brother is always good while my mother _. A/looks b/ will be looking c/has been looking d/is looking

19. By the end of this week, __ for a month exactly. A/ i'm travelling b. I'll have been travelling C/i'd be travelling d/ i'll travel

20. When you called me up last night, I __ a bath. A/was taking b/had been taken C/would be taking d/has taken

21. No sooner had the thief seen the policeman than he __to his heels.

a/ was taking b/took c/has taken d/had taken

22. The teacher steeped into the classroom and __ the students to open the windows at once.

A/to ask b/asking c/asked d/had asked 23. Don't worry. If he said he __ help you , he will. A/shall b/will c/would d/ought

24. It is expected that the bridge __ completed by next April.

A/would be b/is being c/ had been d/will have been 25. __ so many visitors today that I feel exhausted. A.We'd been having b. We were having C. We've been having d. We'd had

26. They __ to see us more often when we were living in Shanghai.

A/came b/ have been coming C/have come d/would be coming 27. __ you have bought some new shoes.

A. I was seeing b. I see c. I am seeing d. I saw

28. The thief took the diamond necklace, opened the door, and __.

A/running b/run out c/ran away d/ to run out 29. I will go home for vacation as soon as I __my exams. A/will finish b/finish c/am finishing d/finished 30. There __ a lot of changes here in the last twenty years. A/have been b/ have had c/had been d/will have (2)

31. Our sales __for months, so we are now in great financial difficulties.

A/have been dropping b/had been dropping C/have been dropped d/are dropping

32. These students __ English five years by the end of this year. A/will be studying b /will have been studying C/will study d/will have been studied

33. His sprained ankle prevented him form walking, so he __ to the nearest road to catch the bus. A/has to crawl b/had to crawl

C/having crawled d/ having been crawling

34. We have been told the final outcome of the negotiations, but we shall never know what __ on behind the scenes. A/goes b/will go c/went d/ will have been going 35. I have seen this movie twice already. How many times __ shown in this city?

A/has it been b/has it c/have it been d/had it been 36. I __ to telephone a friend in New York for the last two hours but the line is still engaged.

A/tried b/have been trying c.had been trying d/had tried 37. When you __ back to Beijing next month, let me know the exact date and flight number beforehand.

A/will come b/had come c/be coming d/ bcome 38. I shall be happy to hand in my resignation as soon as you __ somebody to take my place.

A/have found b/are finding c/ had found d/ will have found

39. My wound has been aching ever since it __ to rain. A/has started b/ started c/ will start d/is starting

40. If it __ tomorrow, the meeting will be put off until further notice.

A/ will rain b/is going to rain c/would rain d/rains (3)翻译

1.过去十年中，大城市的人口一直在增加

During the past ____population in large cities __ greatly __. 2. 在这最近二十年中这里的变化很多

There __ a lot of changes here in the last twenty years. 3. 你昨天打电话来的时候，我们正在吃午饭 We __ lunch when you called on the phone yesterday. 4. 我整天都在研究这个问题，到现在还没解决 I ____ the problem all day, but it is not solved yet.

5. 我们很高兴，当我们到达那里的时候，戏尚未开场We were glad __ the time we got there the play hadn't begun. (4)

1.我小时候在中国南部的乡下读小学

——————————————————————— 2.以前每个周末我都和朋友到河边钓鱼

——————————————————————— 3.我的童年不仅快乐而且充满回忆

——————————————————————— 4.在我现在所住的都市里，空气污染严重

——————————————————————— 5.如果都市的空气和乡下一样新鲜，那该多好啊 ——————————————————————— （5）

I usually _1_very early, but last Friday I _2_ until seven-thirty in the morning because I _3_ very late the previous night. For fear that I _4_ late for school, I _5_to take a taxi to school. No sooner _6_ a quick breakfast than I ran out of my home and got in the first taxi I saw.

On the way to school, the taxi driver _7_ at full speed. He ran through red lights and the taxi zigzagged along the street. I was so frightened that I told the driver to slow down _8_ he paid no attention.

When I got out of the taxi, I felt glad I was still alive. I am sure I must have looked pale at that time because when Tom, my best friend , saw me , he asked me if anything _9_ to me. I am determined that I _10_ a taxi again.

1. A.am getting up b.got up c.was getting up d.get up 2. A.didn't get up b.didn't go to bed c.got up late d.went to bed late

3. A.had sat up b.was sitting up c.has sat up d.am sitting up

4. A.may be b.would have c.will have d.might be 5. A.decide b.was deciding c.decided d.have decided 6. A.do I take b.have I taken c.was I taken d.had I taken

7. A.drives b.drove c.had driven d.was driven 8. A.but b.which c.because d.and

9. A.was happening b.has happened c.was happened d/had happened

10. A.have never taken b.will never take c.had never taken d. Will be never taken.

Lecture 8 Pronouns

1) Pronouns : personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, reflexive pronouns, reciprocal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, interrogative pronouns, relative pronouns, and indefinite pronouns

8.1 Pronoun concord in number

A. Personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and corresponding determiners have their singular and plural forms

B. I/ we noun plurals: boy/boys

C. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number 1) Pronoun concord with every-, some- any-compounds as antecedent

A. Everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody-----usually follow the principle of grammatical concord and take the singular form

B. In informal style, they can follow the principle of notional concord and take the plural form, esp when the antecedent is everybody or everyone. C. Everything, something, anything and nothing----only take the singular form.

2) Pronoun concord with coordinate construction as antecedent

The number forms of the pronoun and corresponding determiner are generally determined by the plural or singular meaning of the coordination 3) Pronoun concord with collective noun as antecedent

The choice depends on the meaning of the collective noun in the context.

4) Pronoun concord with \plural noun/pronoun +each\as antecedent.

The choice depends on the position of the appositive each: if the appositive occurs before the verb,then we take the plural form, if, on the other hand, the appositive appears after the verb, the pronoun and corresponding determiner take the singular form.

8.2 Pronoun concord in gender

In English, when we follow the traditional description and say that English nouns have four genders(the masculine, feminine, neutral and common gender), we only mean the differences of natural sex denoted by the lexical meaning of nouns.

Some English pronouns , however have overt grammatical contrasts personal and nonpersonal gender, and between masculine and feminine gender. These gender distinctions are largely restricted to the third person singular of personal, possessive, and reflexive pronouns and corresponding determiners. In the use of these pronouns and determiners we

must see to it that they agree with their antecedents in gender. 1) Pronoun

concord

with

male/

female

noun

as

antecedent----should be masculine or feminine respectively.

Doyle prides __ upon __skill as a pianist

Ally is thinking of going abroad. That idea of __ has found favour with __ parents.

Francis said that __ had bought the house

Frances said that __ would buy these pearls for __mother.

2) Pronoun concord with common gender noun as antecedent Common gender nouns such as baby, parent, etc, are duel in nature

He---a kind of practice that is opposed by feminists---use plural forms instead or avoid using any pronoun or determiner at all------he or she/ his or her(formal writing)

Some common gender nouns such as baby, infant---personal or nonpersonal pronoun---who/which, he/she/it it( not know or not interested in the sex of sth) A

common

gender

pronoun

is

used

for

specific

reference---should be taken a gender form according tho the actual sex indicated in the context.

3) Pronoun concord with neutral gender noun as antecedent A singular noun of neutral gender--it/itself/its

Also---he or she to show one's favourite feeling

An animal noun/celestial bodies or abstract ideas---it----she or he (be spoken of with emotion or be personified)

Countries uses as geographical units__neutral---- if used as political/economic units, --often feminine and are generally referred to as she or he. 8.3 Pronoun concord in person

In English, personal, possessive, and reflexive pronouns and corresponding determiners have three special forms that tell of reference to the speaker( first person), to the one spoken to( second person), and to the human being or thing spoken about(third person)

A. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person on the sentential level

B. In a broader context, that is , in text or connected discourses, the speaker or writer must keep a consistent person in the use of pronouns.

C. A story may be told either in the first or in the third person. Whichever person is used, it must be consistent from beginning to end.

1) Pronoun concord in person on sentential level 2) Pronoun concord in person on textual level

As we strode through the alleyways between the houses, we met a few shy, ragged children who were gleefully playing with an equally ragged dog. From the stoop of his front door, a wrinkled old man with a red bandana （丝质大手帕）wrapped around his head meditatively（沉思地） surveyed the distances beyond the mesa(平顶山）. In the distance, one could discern the dim shapes of the farmers in their sparse(稀疏的） corn patches. The rhythm of a woman grinding corn could be heard along the yellow street from within one of the small apartment.

Lecture 9 ProunounsⅡ

This lecture will deal with some other problems in the use of pronouns: chiefly the choice of pronoun case forms, the use of the possessive pronouns and reflexive pronouns, the generic use fo personal pronouns, and some problems concerning pronoun refernce.

9.1 Chocie of pronoun case forms

Generally speaking, when a personal pronoun is used as the subject of a sentence, it takes the subject case; when used as the object, the objective case; when used to show possession, the genitive case.eg:

The twins were bored. They (subjective case) found nothing which interested them (objective case). Their(possesive case) vacation was fast becoming a disaster.

With regard to the chocie of pronoun case forms, the following points are to be noted.

1) Choice between subjective and objective case

1.In informal style, when a personal pronoun functions as the

subject of a minor sentence that stands without a predicate or with only a nonfinite verb as the predicator, the pronoun ususlly occurs in the objective rather than subjecitve case.

2. In informal style, the choice between subjective and objective case follows the general rule in comparative clauses, a cleft sentence, a who-question, a relative clause introduced by who, a nominal clause introduced by whoever. Pay attention to the exceptions:

2) Choice between objective and genitive case

9.2 Possessive pronouns, reflexive pronouns and generic use of personal pronouns 1) possessive pronouns

a. Possessive pronouns can perform most of the syntactic functions of a noun phrase. They can act as subject, object, complement on the sentential level and as prepositionla complementation and appositive on the phrasal level.

b. Possesive pronouns also occur in the so-called “double genitive”, functioing as genitive nouns, eg He is a friend of mine.

We were absorbed in that song of yours.

c.When to use the possessive pronouns

1. to avoid repetition----This hat is mine. Where is yours? 2. double genitive ---This is no business of yours

3.to avoid the compare between different things—His house is larger than I---His house is larger than mine The following points should be mentioned:

1. 任何两个限定词同时修饰一个名词，必须用双重所有格， 其句型如下—限定词+名词+of 所有格代词 改错： I like his those books,--- He is my a friend 2)Reflexive pronouns

a) Reflexive as appositive: In emphatic use. Reflexives ofthen follow a noun phrase or another pronpoun as its appositive to reinforce its meaning. When the reinforced item is the subject of a sentence, the reflexive pronoun may have positional mobility.

b) reflexives as prepositional complementation.

Collocated with certain prepositions, reflexvies can express special, often metaphorical and emotive, meanings.

C）reflexives as object---used as object, reflexives often appear in

such

collocations

as

“verb+reflexive+averb”

and

“verb+reflexive + preposition”, as well as in some idioms. This is a kind of umemphatic use

1.Collocated with behave, conduct, and deport in SVO construction, reflexives do not receive nuclear stress, it is ususlly used to show the acceptability of one’s conduct or behaviour. Eg

He behaved himself fairly well when he was at college. 2. as indirect object in SvoO constructions, reflexives are preferable to corresponding objective pronouns except in spoken American English, where reflexives and objective pronouns can be used interchangeably in such contexts. He promised himself a rapid progress.

3. 含有自身代词的习惯用语

By oneslef for oneself of oneself beside oneself Enjoy oneself seat oneself absent oneself from=be absent from

Dress oneself in devote oneself to help oneself to Pride oneself on=be pround of=take pride in come to oneself make oneself at home

4. Demonstrative pronouns

A.This(these) 用以指较近的人或物 /that/those用以指较远的人或物

B.that与those 可用以代替前面所提过的名词，以避免重复（但this 和these 不可以），前面所提过的名词单数用that 复数用those。

The climate of South China is much better than that of Janpan The ears of rabbit are longer than those of a cat.

C.thisthat可以代替前面所提过的句子或从句，以避免重复/and that +修饰语（adv）(…而且。。。) D.this= the latter that=the former

eg: Health is above wealth, this cannot give so much happiness as that

3) Generic use of personal pronouns 补充

It、one 的区别 It-them one-ones

The climate of South China is uch better than __of Japan The climate of South Chnia is mild, I like__very much Do you want this pen? Yes, I want__

Do you have a knife? Yes , I have __

Have you read the books I lent you? Yes, I have read__ Give me apples, I want big__ Each/every

Each 着重个别，可做形容词和代词，用于两个或两个以上的每一个

EVERY 着重全体，只能做形容词，用于三个以上的每一个 Each of my hands/each one of the two sisters has a new pen Every one of my fingers….every one of my fingers (×) Not 不与 each 连用

Not +every (并非每一个)表示部分否定 Not every student walks to school.

9.3 Pronoun reference

1) Anaphoric, cataphoric and situational reference 2) Personal reference 3) Demonstrative reference

Lecture 14 Passive Vocie 1.

14.1 Active sentence and passive sentence

A sentence/clause whose predicator is active is called an

―active sentence‖, and a sentence clause whose predicator is passive is called a ―passive sentence‖ 1)usage 用法

1.在施动者不明确的情况下或者不必说明动作的发出者时，要使用被动句。如：

The stolen car was abandoned in the Fifth Street. Something must be done to reduce air pollution.

2．为突出动作的接受者时，可使用被动句但强调施动者的时候最好也用带by 的被动句： Heat is created by fiction.

The experiment was completed on Wednesday and the conclusions were reported to the Chief Executive Officer the next day.

3.受上下文和语境支配而不得不使用被动结构

Eg: These engines used to be started by hand. Now we start them by electricity/Now they are started by electricity

The injured were allowed home after treatment at the local hospital, but one of the firemen was detained for observation/but the hospital detained one of the firemen for the observation.

4.避免主观或武断，而用“It is+p.p” 的句型或be+p.p+动词的不定式。

It was believed that the earth was flat before Magellan’s trip round the world.

It is suggested that we postpone the meeting until tomorrow. He is believed to be ill

其他用于此种特殊结构的动词还有：estimate,expect,fear,prove,report, rumor,think,acknowlege…

2) General rules of change into the passive

a. the verb should be transitive verb or transitive verb phrases.

b. the tense of the new one should agree with the orginal one

c. there should be an agreement between suject and predicate verb in number

d. sturcture be+p.p+by/through…

e.rules of transformation for the SVO/SvoO/SVOC patterns are as follows: 1.SVO

They bulit this house in 1968 No one has ever beaten him at tennis They are repairing my piano at the moment

If there is a modal or semi-auxiliary in the active verb phrase, it is the infinitive that follows that is made passive. Eg:

You can’t wash this dress；you must dry-clean it. They will have to adopt a different attitude People mustn’t leave bicycles in the hall 3. SvoO

They will ask you several questions 4. SVOC

People proved him wrong

5.含 “感官或使役动词“的被动语态

主语+be+seen/heard/felt/made+to+v I saw him enter the room I made him go

注意：如果感官动词与使役动词（see,hear,feel,make…）在主动句中其宾语补语用动原，但在被动句中必须用to+V.

6.祈使句的被动语态 主动=原型v+ 宾语

被动=let+宾语+be+p.p Do it at once…

7. by 的省略及翻译方法

a.

往往可以添加主语“我们，人们，大家“等：The needle is said to have been magnetized. b.

也可译成无人句：The dishes can be washed in half an hour. c.

或译成“。。。是。。。的“ In actual practice separate substractors（减法器） are not used. 【尽量少使用被字】 2.被动句的翻译方法

a. “被…” “由…” “遭到…” “受到…” “挨…” “让…” They were praised for their excellent work. Do you know why Jack was scolded? b.有时汉语中不用被动句而用主动句：

Many old houses were pulled down, and new houses were built up in their places.

c.有时候也可以翻译成无主句： A picture by Picasso is hang on the wall. eg:

Who wrote it?

Why did no one inform me of the change of plans? Didn’t they tell you to be here by six o’clock? You should bear in mind that he wasn’t present/

It must have disappointed him terribly that people told him they didn’t want him. 8.by 以外的介词：通常用by，但有时也用到其他介词.eg: to/in/at/with/through…但要注意区分 p177页 a.

be+acquainted/pleased/covered/satisfied/equipped/crowded/filled+with

b.

be+amazed/surprized/astonished/schocked/startled/disappointed/frightened+at

c. d.

be+dressed/interested/absorbed/engaged/caught+in be+accustomed/used/devoted/ known/married/obliged/ engaged+to

eg. The montain is covered __snow. He is pleased __his new job. I was surprised__the news. He is interested __music.

I am much obliged__you for your help. I was caught__a shower on my way home.

9. Voice constraints

不能构成被动句的几种主要情况

1. 一些及物动词（如表示状态或思想情感的及物动词）的某些意义不用于被动语态 如：cost/enter/lack/equal/ like/hold/wish/let/reach/ have/afford/fit/resemble… We will hold the meeting next Monday.

Eg: 翻译：我认为黄色不适合你 这笔要五元钱。 2. 及物动词+名词=不及物动词 (时) 如“ take place” break out

4. 表示被动含义的不及物动词+介词belong to/ consist of/result from、arise from/serve as/act as/function as/behave as 翻译： 这房子现在属于我了、 这台设备主要是由五部分构成的。

5.连系动词如： look/feel/taste/smell/remain等没有没动形式 翻译：咖啡尝起来有点苦

6.下列的动词短语虽然有被动形式，但没有被动的含义。 Be used to+n. / be accustomed to+n Be devoted to+n be dedicated to+n Be absorbed in be engaged in Be acquainted with/be concerned about be opposed to+n/ be supposed to+v be exposed to+v/ be well-known for be made up of be inclined to+v

be wounded be seated be located be dressed

注意：be wounded=be injured=be hurt Be located= be situated Be dressed=dress oneself Be made up of=be composed of （也见书上）

6.在下列场合，习惯上用不定式主动态，而不用被动态，尽管不定式的逻辑主语是动作的承受者 The house is to let

You are not to blame for what happened

exercises

1.He lacks confidence.

2,We could hardly see each other in the fog. 3.They have four children and a nice apartment 4.Their plans haven’t borne fruit. 5.The property has changed hands recently 6.When will the football match take place?

14.2 Passive vocie of phrasal verbs

When used transitively, phrasal verbs can be made passive.

1) Passive voice of basic phrasal verbs

1. We shall then deal with it more fully. 2. Have you looked into this matter? 3. Her story didn’t take them in.

4. Special coaching got me through the written papers. 5. She is facing up to the responsibilities badly. 2) Passive voice of “verb+noun” +preposition” Eg: Two ways:

One is to treat the combination as a single transitive verv;the second

is

to

treat

and the put combination the whole as”verv+object+preposition”,

prepositional phrase after the passive verb.

1.I have taken careful note of your remarks

2. Brown makes rather too much of his aristocratic connections 3. Mary realized that they were making fun of her

4. In the article he made no mention of the importance of combating pollution in the process of industrialization.

14.3 Passive voice of non-finite verbs 1) Passive infinitive/passive ing- participle

1.When the logical subject of the infinitive( the –ing participle) is the recipient of an action, the infinitive ( the –ing participle) should take the passive form.The logical subject of the passive infinitive( the –ing participle) need not be expressed if the infinitive ( the –ing participle) shares the subject with the main clause.

Eg； I hate to be sent/ being sent in the wrong direction I expect him to be paid immediately. They allowed him to be admitted. I wouldn’t mind being interviewed.

What upset the child was his not being allowed to visit his mother in the hospital.

2.get –passive( check it on the book) 3. there be….

3)Contrast between passive infinitive and passive –ing participle

Passive Voice 2

1) Two related types of passive sentences—There is a kind of active sentence which may be transformed into two possibel passive forms. And the following possibilities should be noted:

1. when the predicator of the that-clause is a will-form or the present progressive denoting futurity, the infinitive in type II generally takes the progressive form, eg:

Pepople think that he is coming--- We think that he will be late--

2. In case the main verb in type I is expect, the infinitive in type II usually takes the simple form instead of the progressive

People expect tht electricity supply will be adequate next year.---

It is expected that the president will speak today—

3. When the predicator of the that-clause is the simple resent denoting a present habitual action, the infinitive in typeII takes the simple form. If the predicator of the that-clause is the present progressive denoting a present happening, the infinitive in typeII takes the progressive form,

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