外语系老师整理的翻译笔记

翻译理论知识概要

第一部分：翻译术语 1. Definitions of translation

Translation can be roughly defined as a reproduction or recreation in one language of what is written or said in another language. Being a very complicated human activity, its whole picture is never easy to describe. Scholars with different academic backgrounds have attempted to define it from various perspectives.

(1). Linguistic Views on Translation

Translation theorists from the linguistic school conceive of translation as a linguistic activity and some believe that translation theory is a branch of linguistics, approaching the issues of translating primarily from the viewpoint of the linguistic differences between source and target texts.

Translation may be defined as the replacement of textual material in one language (the source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (the target language). (Catford, 1965: 20).

Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. (Nida & Taber,1969:12).

Translation theory derives from comparative linguistics, and within linguistics, it is mainly an aspect of semantics; all questions of semantics relate to translation theory. (Newmark, 1982 /1988:5).

(2). Cultural Views on Translation

In the cultural approach, translation is regarded not only as a transfer of linguistic signs, but also as a communication of cultures, i.e. translation is an \communication\hence the terms of \cooperation\\\

Translation is a process which occurs between cultures rather than simply between languages {Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:35).

A translator who uses a cultural approach is simply recognizing that each language contains elements which are derived from its culture (such as greetings, fixed expressions and REALIA), that every text is anchored in a specific culture, and that conventions of text production and reception vary from culture to culture (Shuttleworth & Cowie1997:35).

For truly successful translating, biculturalism is even more important than bilingualism, since words only have meanings in terms of the cultures in which they function. (Nida, 2001:82).

翻译不仅涉及语言问题,也涉及文化问题。译者不仅要了解外国的文化, 还要深入了解自己民族的文化。不仅如此, 还要不断地把两种文化加以比较, 因为真正的对等应该是在各自文化中的含义、作用、范围、感情色彩、影响等等都是相当的。翻译者必须是一个真正意义的文化人。人们会说：他必须掌握两种语言; 确实如此, 但是不了解语言当中的社会文化, 谁也无法真正掌握语言(王佐良,1989)。

(3).Literary Views on Translation

Translators who hold this view believe that translation is an artistic recreation or a recreated art. Some modern Western scholars from the literary school take literary translation to be \

文学翻译的任务是要把原作中包含的一定社会生活的映象完好无损地从一种语言移注到另一种语言中, 在翻译过程中追求语言的艺术美, 再现原作的艺术性。用茅盾的话说, 是\使读者在读译文的时候能够像读原作时一样得到启发、感动和美的感受\。

语言是塑造文学形象的工具, 因而文学的形象性特征必然要在语言上表现出来。文学语言的特征, 诸如形象、生动、鲜明、含蓄、凝练、准确、风趣、幽默、辛辣、滑稽、悦耳、民族特点、地方色彩, 还有行业习语、民间的俚语、谚语等等, 都是作家根据塑造形象的需要, 从现实生活中提炼创造出来的。文学作品的艺术形式与思想内容是辩证统一的, 翻译要保存原作风格特点, 因此要求译文生动形象、形神毕肖、雅俗等同、简洁精美、词情并茂(《译学辞典》2004: 291)。

(4). Semantic Views on Translation

This view focuses on the semantic equivalence between the two languages,as well expressed by Eugene Nida(1986):\

Translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text (Newmark,1988:5).

Semantic translation: the translator attempts,within the bare syntactic and semantic constraints of the target language,to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the author (Newmark,1982:22).

In semantic translation, greater attention is paid to rendering the author's original thought-processes in target language than to attempting to re-interpret source text in a way which the translator considers more appropriate for the target setting (Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:151).

(5).Functional Views on Translation

Functionalists believe that translation is a specific form of human action with a certain purpose, a kind of linguistic service provided to the society.Translators should take into account the needs of the client, the reader as wellas the purpose or use of the translation:

It is not the source text, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, but the prospective function or purpose of the target text as determined by the initiator's, i.e.client's needs (Baker,2001:236).

(6).Communicative Views on Translation

This approach views translation as a communicative process which takes place within a social context.

Communicative translation:the translator attempts to produce the same effect on

the target language readers as was produced by the original on the source language readers (Newmark, 1982:22).

Communicative translation is generally oriented towards the needs of the target language reader or recipient. A translator who is translating communicatively will treat source text as a message rather than a mere string of linguistic units,and will be concerned to preserve source text's original function and to reproduce its effect on the new audience (Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:21).

The above views help us to understand the complex nature of translation. Since there are many factors which affect the translation process, translation is a complicated human activity.

2. Translation Criteria Put Forward by Famous Translators or Translation Theorists

Some well-known translators or translation theorists at home and abroad have put forward criteria to judge the quality of a translation.

(1). 严复 (1853-1921):Triple Principle of Translation

信 (faithfulness): 忠实准确 达 (expressiveness}: 通顺流畅 雅 (elegance): 文字古雅

Yan Fu put forward this \character Guide‖ in his preface to the translation of T.H. Huxley's book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays (《天演论》译例言 1898): 译事三难信达雅。求其信己大难矣。顾信矣不达。虽译犹不译也。则达尚焉...... 易曰修辞立诚。子曰辞达而已。又曰言之无文，行之不远。三者乃文章正轨。亦即为译事楷模。故信达而外，求其尔雅。此不仅期以行远已耳。实则精理微言。用汉以前字法句法，则为达易。用近世利俗文字，则求达难。往往抑义就词，毫厘千里。审择于斯二者之间，夫固有所不得已也。岂钓奇哉。......

Translation has to do three difficult things: to be faithful, expressive, and elegant. It is difficult enough to be faithful to the original, and yet if a translation is not expressive, it is tantamount to having no translation. Hence expressiveness should be required too.??

The Book of Changes says that the first requisite of rhetoric is truthfulness. Confucius says that expressiveness is all that matters in language. He adds that if one's language lacks grace, it won't go far. These three qualities, then, are the criteria of good writing and, I believe, of good translation too. Hence besides faithfulness and expressiveness, I also aim at elegance. I strive for elegance not just to make my translations travel far, but to express the original writer's ideas better, for I find that subtle thoughts are better expressed in the vocabulary and syntax of pre-Han prose than those of the vulgar writings of today. Using the latter often leads to distortion of meaning, which, however slight, results in vast misunderstanding. Weighing the pros and cons, I opted for the former, as a matter of necessity, not trying to be different ??

Yan Fu‘s first two criteria of being faithful to the original text in content and being expressive in translation are generally acceptable, but his interpretation of \has aroused plenty of criticism because, in his opinion, one has to resort to the vocabulary and syntax of pre-Han prose to achieve \Yan Fu's criteria are also controversial for his emphasis on the equal status of the three conflicing principles. Despite this, Yan‘s criteria are still popular in China, but the interpretation of his criteria has changed. Nowadays to many translators, \implies \safe and sound preservation of the taste and shade of the original‖(黄龙, 1988:90) or \运用读者所最乐于接受的文体, 使译文得以广泛流传，扩大影响\劳陇，《翻译通讯》1983年第10期).

(2). 鲁迅 信（faithfulness)

顺（smoothness)

翻译必须有异国情调，就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也不会有完全归化的译文，倘有，就是貌合神离，从严辨别起来，它算不得翻译。凡是翻译，必须兼顾着两面，一当然力求其易解，一则保存着原作的丰姿，但这保存却又常常和易懂相矛盾：看不惯了。不过它原是洋鬼子，当然谁也看不惯，为比较的顺眼起见，只能改换他的衣裳，却不该削低他的鼻子，剜掉他的眼睛(《鲁迅全集》第6卷，48页)。

(3). 林语堂 忠实{faithfulness)

通顺(smoothness) 美(beautifulness)

翻译的标准问题，大概包括三方面。我们可依三方面的次序讨论。第一是忠实标准，第二是通顺标准，第三是美的标准。这翻译的三层标准，与严氏的\译事三难\，大体上是正相比符的。??我们并须记得这所包括的就是：第一、译者对原文方面的问题，第二、译者对中文方面的问题，第三、是翻译与艺术文的问题。以译者所负的责任言，第一是译者对原著者的责任，第二是译者对中国读者的责任，第三是译者对艺术的责任。三样的责任全备，然后可以谓具有真正译家的资格。(《论翻译》,林语堂名著全集,1995:306)

(4). 傅雷:神似 (resemblance in spirit) 以效果而论，(文学)翻译应当像临画一样，所求的不在形似而在神似。(《高老头》重译本序，1951)

(5). 钱钟书：化境 (reaching the acme of perfection)

文学翻译的最高境界是\化\，把作品从一国文字转变成另一国文字，既能不因语文习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，又能完全保存原有的风昧，那就算得入于\化境\。十七世纪有人赞美这种造诣的翻译，比为原作的\投胎转世\transmigration of soul), 躯壳换了一个，而精神姿致依然故我。换句话说，译本对原作应该忠实得以至于读起来不像译本，因为作品在原文里绝不会读起来像经过翻译似的。(《林纾的翻译》，1964)

(6). 刘重德：信（faithhlness）

达（expressiveness） 切（closeness)

信于内容 (to be faithful to the content of the original); 达如其分 (to be as expressive as the original);

切合风格 (to be as close to the original style as possible). (《浑金璞玉集》，1994: 9)

(7). 许渊冲：三重标准 (three levels of criteria) (《翻译的艺术》，1984: 26) 标 准 低标准 中标准 高标准 内容忠实(信) 明确 准确 精确 (三似) 意似 形似 神似 (三化) 浅化 等化 深化 形式通顺(达) 易懂 通顺 扬长(雅,或传神) (8). Alexander Fraser TytIer (泰特勒): Three Principles of Translation

Alexander F.Tytler, a famous British translation theorist, put forward the classical criteria in his Essay on the Principles of Translation (1790):

1) The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work (译作应该完全传达原作的思想)；

2) The style and manner of writing in the translation should be of the same character with that of the original (译作的风格与笔调应当与原作保持一致)；

3) The translation should have all the ease of the original composition(译作应当和原作一样流畅).

Tytler further points out that the above-said three principles are arranged and ranked according to the order of their significance, and that, when they are not simultaneously attainable, the first should be held to at the sacrifice of the third principle, then the second .

(9). Eugene A. Nida (奈达): Functional Equivalence (功能对等)

Eugene A.Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward his recent interpretation of functional equivalence in his Language and Culture: Context in Translating(2001:87):

1) A minimal, realistic definition of functional equivalence:The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the

original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (最低限度而又切合实际的功能对等定义：译文读者对译文的理解应当达到能够想像出原文读者是怎样理解和领会原文的程度).

2) A maximal, ideal definition of functional equivalence: The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did. (最高限度合乎理想的功能对等定义：译文读者应当能够基本上按照原文读者理解和领会原文的方式来理解和领会译文).

3. Classification of translation

(1). Jakobson (1896-1982)

1) Intralingual translation or rewording is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language.

2) Interlingual translation or translation proper is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language.

3) Intersemiotic translation or transmutation is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of nonverbal sign systems. e.g.

1) 原文：子曰：“学而时习之，不亦乐乎!有朋友自远方来，不亦乐乎!人不知而不愠，不亦君子乎!”

译文一: 孔子说:“学习了而时常温习，不也高兴吗！有朋友从远方来，不也快乐吗!别人不了解我，我并不怨恨，不也是君子吗？” (徐志刚 译)

译文二: The Master said，\， Is that not after all a pleasure? That friends should come to one from afar, Is this not after all delightful? To remain unsoured even though one‘s merits are unrecognized by others, Is that not after all what is expected of a gentleman? (Waley 译)

[点评] 原文同译文一之间的转换属于语内翻译 (intralingual translation), 即用同一语盲的其他语言符号对原文迸行阐释或者重述 (rewording)。原文同译文二之间的转换属于语际翻译 (interlingual translation)，即两个不同语言之间所进行的转换。

2) 原文：A: What does your watch say?

B: It says ―five past three‖.

[点评] 在这一对话中，B实际上是在迸行一种翻译，这种翻译叫做符际翻译(intersemiotic translation)，即语言同非语言符号之间的代码转换。当A询问B几点钟的时候，B只能看钟或者看手表，而钟或者手表并不能说话，B只能根据钟表的时针和分针来确定具体儿点钟了。而B所言实际上是言语传达一个非言语信息 (non-linguistic message)。将非言语信息用言语传达出来是翻译的一种方式，这不是从一种语言到另一种语言的转换过程，而是从非语言交际系统到语言交际系统的过程。非语言交际系统和语言交际系统的共同特征是两者都属于\符号系统\即用于交际的系统)。雅可布逊 Jakobson)将这种由非语言交际系统到语言交际系统的转换过程称为符际翻译是恰当的。其实，我们每个人每一天、每一刻都

在迸行着符际翻译而不自知也。从这个意义上说，我们每个人都是某种意义上的译者 (Hervey et.al 1995:8-9).

(2). Peter Newmark (纽马克): Communicative and Semantic Translation (交际翻译与语义翻译)

Peter Newmark, a famous British translation theorist, put forward his concepts of communicative and semantic translation in his Approaches to Translation (1982/1988:39):

1) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. (交际翻译力图对译作读者产生尽可能接近原作读者所获得的效果).

2) Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. (语义翻译力图在译作语言的语义结构和句法结构允许的情况下，译出原作在上下文中的准确意义).

(3). Christiane Nord

“译文的功能并非由分析原文自动得出，而是由跨文化传意的目的决定的”。（Nord,1991:9）而译文可以按照其传意功能分为两种类型，一种是能在目标文化的新情景中独立地起传意作用的工具；另一种是纪录作者与原文接受者如何在来源文化里传意的文献。换言之，翻译有两种方法：工具性翻译和文献性翻译。 a) 工具性翻译 (instrumental translation)有三种：

1）等功能翻译：对目标读者发挥原文功能，例如，使用说明书；

2）异功能翻译：发挥相似功能，例如把《格列佛游记》翻译给儿童阅读； 3）相应翻译：在目标文学语境中再现原文在来源文学语境中的功能，以发挥与原文相应的效果，常见于诗歌翻译。 b) 文献性翻译(documental translation) 1）逐字翻译：再现原语系统； 2）字面翻译：再现原文形式；

3）语文学翻译：结合字面翻译和文外阐释，再现原文的形式和内容；

4） 异化翻译：保留原文的文化背景，给译文接受者营造异国情调（Nord,1997:47-52； 1991：73）

4. Nature and Scope of Translation

What is translation? Some people believe it is a science, others take it as an art, and yet many consider it a craft, or rather, a skill.

Of these varied opinions, which one holds true for our purpose? The answer depends on how we understand or interpret the word \for the very word \itself is ambiguous, and the Chinese equivalent \sounds even fuzzier. Fanyi, in Chinese, may either stand for a subject of the curriculum, a job

people engage in, a piece of literary work, or the translating or interpreting work itself. Sometimes, \

If the word \refers to a subject, namely, the study of translation theory and skills, it is no doubt a science, just as any subject is, with its own rules, laws and principles for the translators to abide by; however, if it refers to some specific pieces of translation, then it is more like an art, with each piece manifesting its own charms and style in the creative hands of the translator; whereas, if it refers to a process, in which something is translated, then we may regard it as a craft or skill. For unlike any branch of natural science, the process of translation has its peculiarity, and none of its rules and principles are universally applicable. Besides, it entails a lot of practice—particular craftsmanship and skills are displayed by the touches of different translators.

Translation covers a very broad range. In terms of languages, it can be divided into two categories: from native languages into foreign languages and vice versa; in terms of the mode, it can be divided into oral interpretation, written translation and machine translation; in terms of materials to be translated, there is translation of scientific materials, translation of literary works such as novels, stories, prose, poetry, drama, etc. , translation of political essays such as treatises on social problems, reports, speeches, etc. , and translation of practical writing (as official documents, contracts and agreements, notices , receipts, etc.); in terms of disposal, it can be either full-text translation（全文翻译）, abridged translation（摘译）or adapted translation（编译）.

5. Principles or Criteria of Translation

The so-called principles and criteria of translation are actually the two sides of the same thing. The former lays emphasis on the translator, who should follow them while translating; while the latter on the reader or critic, who may use the criteria to evaluate translation works. Whenever principles or criteria of translation are under discussion in China, Yan Fu’s \guide\which was first proposed in 1898, would evoke controversy, namely, the principle of \信、达、雅\expressiveness and elegance ).

In the past decades Mr. Yan's principle of translation has been generally regarded as a plumb-line for measuring the professional level of translation and a goal for translators to strive after. However, in the application of this principle, people have come to find some limitations to the three characters and put forward a variety of new standards instead.

Three kinds of opinions are expressed on the principle of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The first group maintains the original three characters, and in the meantime, adds some new concepts to the character \雅\According to them, \雅\

means far more than the English word \Apart from the traditional interpretation, it also means classicism, the adherence to the original style and flavor. The second group, however, argues that the word \雅\is out of place in translation. While adopting the first two characters of Mr. Yan Fu's principle, it discards the character \雅\and tries to find some other new criteria instead. Noticeably, there are revisions such as \信、达、切 \信、达、贴 \fitness), and so on. The third group of people, by casting away the three-word guide, propose some new principles or criteria of translation of their own. Of the various popular theories two of them are most influential: spiritual conformity (神似) and sublimated adaptation (化境). The former, proposed by Fu Lei emphasizes the reproduction of the spirit or the flavor of the original, while the latter, advocated by Qian Zhongshu, focuses on the translator's smooth and idiomatic Chinese version for the sake of the Chinese reader.

Despite the variety of opinions, two criteria are almost unanimously accepted, namely, the criterion of faithfulness/accuracy（忠实、准确) and that of smoothness (流畅). We may also take these two criteria as the principles of translation in general. By faithfulness/ accuracy, we mean to be faithful not only to the original contents, to the original meaning and views, but also to the original form and style. By smoothness, we mean not only easy and readable rendering, but also idiomatic expression in the target language, free from stiff formula and mechanical copying from dictionaries.

6. Literal Translation and Free Translation

The process of translation consists of two phases: comprehension and expression. Generally speaking, comprehension is of foremost importance, and expression is the natural consequence of thorough comprehension. However, in the practice of translation we may find that now and then some words in their usual senses are very difficult to deal with because of the disparity between the English and the Chinese languages. In this case, we have to resort to some special means of translation. Literal translation and free translation are two useful approaches in dealing with such awkward situations.

The so-called literal translation, superficially speaking, means \to alter the original words and sentences\style of the original\It takes sentences as its basic units and takes the whole text (discourse) into consideration at the same time in the course of translation. Furthermore, it strives to reproduce both the ideological content and the style of the original works and retains as much as possible the figures of speech. There are quite a lot of examples of successful literal translation that have been adopted as idiomatic Chinese expressions. For example, crocodile's tears, armed to the teeth, chain reaction, gentlemen's agreement, and so on. Similarly, some Chinese idioms also

find their English counterparts through literal translation. For example, 纸老虎 (paper tiger), 一国两制 (one country, two systems ), and so on.

Free translation is an alternative approach which is used mainly to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without trying to reproduce its sentence patterns or figures of speech. This approach is most frequently adopted when it is really impossible for the translator to do literal translation. For example:

·Adam's apple 喉结

·at sixes and sevens 乱七八糟

·It rains cats and dogs. 大雨滂沱 ·Don't cross the bridge till you get to it. 不必担心过早。(不必自寻烦恼) ·Do you see any green in my eye? 你以为我是幼稚可欺的吗?

The above illustrations can not be translated literally，otherwise，the Chinese rendition would make nonsense at all，let alone the original meaning.

Literal translation and free translation, however, are relative concepts. In other words, there is no absolute ―literal‖，nor entirely \and overemphasizing either of them would result in ridiculous consequences. Let's scrutinize the following two practical cases.

Original English 1

I love tiger cat, … British movies on public television，fluffy blouses, the nuclear family, (Helen Snow，My China Years)

Chinese Version A:

我爱虎猫, …… (爱)电视上放映的英国影片，有绒毛的短衫，核心家庭，…… Chinese Version B:

我喜欢豹猫, …… 喜欢公共电视台播放的英国电影，喜欢蓬松、柔软的棉毛衫，喜欢一夫一妻制的家庭，……

Comment:

Apparently, these two Chinese versions are far from being perfect. Other things aside, the rendering of the phrase nuclear family poses a serious problem of representation. Version A renders \核心家庭\However, this version is too stiff, therefore it fails to convey the original meaning to the Chinese reader—for most Chinese, they have hardly any idea what \核心家庭\really means. Version B adopts the approach of free translation and puts it into \一夫一妻制\；evidently it goes too far and distorts the author's original intention, and in doing so, the translator abuses the practice of free translation. In fact, the nuclear

family has nothing to do with either of the versions. A close examination of its definition in an English-English dictionary sheds light on this phrase: nuclear family, a family group that consists only of father, mother and children. Therefore, the proper rendering of the phrase should be words to this effect: a cozy small family, namely, the Chinese equivalent \小家庭\

Original English 2 :

Mao Tse-tung was well bred, but inside he was made of steel, of hard resistance, of tough tissue—the kind of tissue the Boxers thought they had by magic, and bared their solar plexuses to foreign bullets.(ibid. )

Chinese Version A:

毛泽东有很好的教养，内部是钢，有坚强的抗力，是坚韧的材料制成的。这是义和团设想的由于神力具有的，可以把腹部袒胸给外国人的子弹的那种材料。 Chinese Version B:

毛泽东教养有素，精神支柱铁铸钢打，不怕高压，是由坚韧的组织构成的。这 种组织，就是义和拳认为他们通过魔法得到的那种组织袒胸露体，刀枪不入。

Comment:

The word \hardly be rendered into Chinese either in literal translation or free translation，nor could the metaphor \he was made of steel\be properly rendered without grasping the essence of the whole sentence. However，since there is no corresponding expressions in Chinese, the translators tackle them according to their own understanding. Inversion A，\is freely rendered as \材料\(material)，while version B literally as\组织\—both fail to convey the original meaning and attitude of the writer. By adopting translation skills such as amplification, omission，conversion and restructuring，we may translate the original English sentence as follows:

Revised Version:

毛泽东外表温文尔雅，但内心深处却钢铸铁打，既坚韧，又抗压—在他的身上可以看到当年义和团自信所具有的那种神力，面对洋枪洋炮也敢袒胸露怀。

From the above analysis, we come to the conclusion that there is no obvious distinction between literal translation and free translation, nor is it necessary to distinguish one from the other. The key point for a translator to grasp is to comprehend the original thoroughly, and then put it into idiomatic Chinese. In the process of translation, specific approaches such as literal or free translation may be of some help, but we should avoid the two extremes. In the application of literal translation, we should endeavor to rid ourselves of stiff patterns and rigid adherence to translation rules, trying to be flexible; while in the practice of free translation, we

should be cautious of subjectivity, avoiding groundless affirmation or arbitrary fabrication. Whatever the circumstances, we may alternate or combine these two approaches when it is necessary.

7. Omission

Omission is a technique opposite to amplification. True, a translator has no right to subtract any meaning from the original work. But it does not follow that he should refrain from omitting any words at all in translation. In fact, one of the marked differences in syntax between English and Chinese is the disparity in wording. What is regarded as a natural or indispensable element in one language may be regarded as superfluous or even \stumbling block\in the other. Take the following English sentence and its Chinese version for example:

Original English: The time-keeping devices of electronic watches are much more accurate than those of mechanical ones. Chinese Version: 电子表比机械表准确得多。

A comparison between the Chinese version with the English original shows that many of the \English words have been omitted in the Chinese translation, otherwise, the Chinese sentence would sound wordy and unnatural. Therefore, a manipulation of the technique \is always called for in English-Chinese translation. On the other hand, some Chinese sentences, when translated into English, also need to be rid of redundant wording so as to conform to idiomatic English expressions.

8. Conversion

Conversion, one of the commonly adopted translation techniques, means the change of parts of speech in translation. Owing to the syntactical differences between English and Chinese, it is usually impossible for a translator to keep to the original part of speech in the process of translation. For example:

Original English: This watch never varies more than a second in a month. Chinese Version: 这块表一个月的误差从不超过一秒钟。

The English verb \can hardly be rendered into Chinese by the same part of speech without spoiling the original meaning. As a matter of fact, a word belonging to a certain part of speech in one language sometimes has to be converted into a different part of speech, so as to bring forth a readable and coherent sentence.

9. Restructuring

Restructuring, as one of the translation techniques, means the necessary or inevitable change of word order in a sentence according to the usage of the language to be translated into. It is also called rearrangement or inversion.

10. Hypotactic vs. Paratactic (形合与意合)

Hypotaxis (形合法) is the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don't come. English sentence building is featured by hypotaxis.

Parataxis(意合法)is the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives Showing the relation between them, for example, The rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. Chinese sentence building is featured by parataxis.

11. Foreignizing Translation and Domesticating Translation

(1). Foreignizing Translation

Foreignizing translation lays great emphasis on retaining the cultural flavors of the source language and enables the reader to have an alien reading experience, thus developing the reader's awareness of cultural differences. To promote cultural exchange and mutual understanding between peoples of different languages and cultures, foreignizing translation is a far better choice than domesticating translation. In this way we can better understand the source-language culture and enrich Chinese modes of expression. The weakness of foreignization is that the culture-specific expressions thus translated may not be familiar to our readers or smooth enough for us to read with ease. In this case, a semantic translation or an explanatory note may be added. However, what is unfamiliar at present may gradually become familiar as more and more intercultural communications take place, or as people read more and more such translated expressions. Here we are reminded of a much quoted saying by Lu Xun:

翻译必须有异国情调，就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也不会有完全归化的译文，倘有，就是貌合神离，从严辨别起来，它算不得翻译。凡是翻译，必须兼顾着两面，一当然力求其易解，一则保存着原作的丰姿，但这保存，却又常常和易懂相矛盾：看不惯了。不过它原是洋鬼子，当然谁也看不惯，为比较的顺眼起见，只能改换它的衣裳，却不该削低它的鼻子，剜掉它的眼睛。（《鲁迅全集》第6卷，348页）

and also a quotation from Mao Zedong:

要从外国语言中吸收我们所需要的成分。我们不是硬搬或滥用外国语言，是要吸收外国语言中的好东西，于我们适用的东西。因为中国原有语汇不够用，现在我们的语汇中就有很多是从外国吸收来的。例如今天开的干部大会，这“干部”两个字，就是从外国学来的。我们还要多多吸收外国的新鲜东西，不但要吸收他们的进步道理，而且要吸收他们的新鲜用语。（《反对党八股》）

It should be noted that skilful foreignizing translation, which may involve the techniques of necessary addition or omission, does not mean word-for-word or mechanical translation which disregards the original implication, the constraints of Chinese usage (linguistic and cultural), and the acceptability of our readers. Examples:

1). arm to the teeth

武装到牙齿 (cf. 全副武装) 2). crocodile tears

鳄鱼的眼泪 (cf. 猫哭老鼠假慈悲) 3). Beauty lies in the lover's eyes.

情人眼里出美人 (cf. 情人眼里出西施)

4). In the country of the blind, the one-eyed man is King. 盲人国里，独眼人称王 (cf. 蜀中无大将，廖化作先锋) 5). as gay (cheerful) as a lark

像云雀那样快活(cf.兴高采烈)

e.g. Ha, ha! We should be as gay as larks, Mr. Richard — why not? (C. Dickens:

The Old Curiosity Shop)

6)．Sour grapes

酸葡萄(cf.把得不到的东西说成是不好的)

e.g. But because we cannot satisfy the desires of our hearts - why should we cry

\

7). Pandora's box

潘多拉的盒子 (cf. 灾难和罪恶的来源) 8). Judas kiss

犹大之吻 (cf.虚伪的好意) 9). teach a pig to play on a flute 教猪吹笛 (cf. 对牛弹琴)

10). flog a dead horse 鞭打死马 (cf.做无用功；白费口舌)

11). a dark horse 黑马 (cf. 出人意料的获胜者)

12). as easy as ABC 像ABC 字母一样简单 (cf. 非常容易)

13). ivory tower 象牙塔 (cf. 人们避免现实生活中烦恼的小天地) 14). Beauty is but skin-deep.

(谚语) 美貌只是一层皮(cf. 不可以貌取人) 15). Can the leopard change his spots?

(谚语)美洲豹岂能改变身上的花纹 (cf. 本性难移) 16). Trojan horse

(谚语) 特洛伊木马 (cf. 诡计；隐患；从内部进行颠覆破坏的人) 17). Never offer to teach fish to swim.

(谚语) 不要教鱼游泳 (cf. 不要班门弄斧) 18). look for a needle in a haystack 在草堆里找针 (cf. 海底捞针) 19). a stick-and-carrot policy

大棒加胡萝卜政策(cf.软硬兼施；恩威并用) 20). domino effect

多米诺骨牌效应 (cf.连锁反应) 21). John is her office Romeo.

约翰是她办公室里的罗迷欧(cf. 办公室里的男情人) 22). sandwich man

三明治式广告宣传员 (cf. 身前身后挂着标语牌的广告宣传员)

In foreignizing translation, a paraphrase or an explanation, if necessary, may be added to the unfamiliar expression or a footnote may be placed at the end of the translation, so as to make the English culture-loaded expression comprehensible to our readers:

e.g. It was another one of those Catch-22 situations, you're damned if you do and you're damned if you don't.

这真是又一个如同军规第二十二条的尴尬局面：做也倒霉，不做也倒霉，令人左右为难。

注:：Catch-22 situation 源自美国小说家 Joseph Heller 于1961 年出版的小说《 第二十二条军规》（Catch-22)。该条军规规定：飞行员如果觉得自己神经不正常，可以获准不执行飞行任务，但必须提出申请并得到批准。但同时该军规又规定：如果飞行员因此提出申请，则充分证明该飞行员能意识到面临着无法克服的困难，头脑清醒，神经正常，因此不得豁免飞行任务。这是一条自相矛盾、无法执行的规定。

(2). Domesticating Translation

Domesticating translation minimizes the foreignness of the source-language text by changing heterogeneous elements into what is familiar to the target-language reader. This method of \means replacing the English culture-loaded expression by its Chinese equivalent, which may be similar in form and same in meaning (形似意同) or different in form but same in meaning (形异意同), to minimize the strangeness of the English expression by adopting a fluent, natural-sounding Chinese style for our readers' preferences. Domestication is usually employed when the translator believes that the original cultural flavor is widely different from Chinese culture and therefore too difficult for our readers to understand.

Both at present and in history, the domesticating strategy seems to have been dominant in China, for reviewers and publishers tend to lay great emphasis on readability of the translated text, which coincides with the taste of the general reader.

The weakness of domestication is that the original cultural flavors are not communicated to our readers and the translation becomes a \

It should be emphasized that many English and Chinese expressions may seem similar in form, but they are actually different in meaning or in shades of implication. Translators should guard against these \friends\the resulting mistakes (see the \

Examples:

1). Give him an inch and he will take a mile. 2). like a cat on hot bricks

3). spring (shoot) up like mushrooms

4). The spirit is willing but the flesh is weak. 5). have one foot in the grave 6). carry coals to Newcastle

7). lion in the way (来自《圣经》) 拦路虎 8). Seeing is believing.

9). What's done is done. (Shakespeare)

10). When Greek meets Greek then comes the tug of war. (谚语) 两雄相遇，其斗必烈。

12. Semantic Translation

Semantic translation means reproducing the precise contextual meaning of the English culture-loaded expression within the syntactic and semantic constraints of the Chinese language. Wemay employ the method of concretization\(具体法) or \(抽象法) to paraphrase the expression. Semantic translation is employed often after the failure of \translation\\translation\In many cases we find it difficult to translate them unless we refer to contexts or consult dictionaries. Examples:

1). apple of discord

(来自希腊神话) 不和的种子；争吵的根源 2). escape by (with) the skin of one's teeth (来自《圣经》) 死里逃生；幸免于难 3). hole-and-corner

(来自《圣经》) 偷偷摸摸；鬼鬼祟祟 4). as poor as Job

(来自《圣经》) 一贫如洗（穷得象约伯一样） 5). By George!

天啊！好家伙！糟糕！(used as an exclamation of surprise or approval.)

e.g. It couldn't be, by George, that she was deceiving him. (Th. Dreiser: Sister Carrie) 6). Mickey Mouse (= small and unimportant; not to be taken seriously, LDCE 1998: 952)

e.g. ·A \Mickey Mouse course\

· He calls himself the managing director but his company is just a Mickey Mouse operation that he runs from his own home. (LDCE 1998: 952) 7). in for a penny, in for a pound

(= if something has been started it should be finished, whatever the cost may be,

LDCE 1998: 1108) e.g. Now gentlemen, I am not a man who does things by halves, being in for a penny,

I am ready, as the saying is, in for a pound. (The Curiosity Shop) 8). bite off more than one can chew

(= attempt more than one can deal with or succeed in finishing, LDCE 1998: 130) e.g. I told him he would be biting off more than he could chew if he tried to rebuild the house himself, (ibid) 9). be in good company

(= be able to take comfort from the fact that many other [skilled or clever] people are the same as yourself, esp. in not being able to do something, Longman Dictionary of English Idioms, 1979)

e.g. —\

—\ in good company— neither can I!\10). a square peg in a round hole

(= someone who is not suited to the job they hold, the group they belong to, LDCE 1998: 1489)

e.g. Horace hated his work in the office as he had always worked out of doors; he was

a square peg in a round hole.

13. Affixation

Affixation is an important means of coining new English words and technical terms, with prefix and suffix as inseparable elements, of the words being coined. The advantage of affixation is evident: it is the most flexible means of forming new words and its potential of creation is almost boundless, therefore it is extensively used in the formation of technical terms. Besides prefix and suffix of English origin, there are some foreign borrowings, noticeably the Latin ones, e.g. bio-(生命、生物), thermo-（热）, electro-(电), aero-(空气) carbo-(碳), hydro-(水), -ite(矿物), -mania(热，狂), etc. If we are familiar with these prefixes and suffixes, many technical terms of such formation can be translated appropriately. The following are some typical examples. · miniultrasonicprober = mini + ultra +sonic +prober 微型超声波金属探测仪 · macrospacetransship = macro +space + trans + ship 巨型空间转运飞船 · teletypesetter = tele + type + setter 电传排字机

· bathythermograph = bathy +thermo + graph 海水测温仪 · barothermograph = baro + thermo + graph 气压温度记录器 · deoxyribonucleic = de + oxy + ribo + nucleic 脱氧核糖核 · photomorphogenesis = photo +morpho + genesis 光形态发生

14. Compounding

Two or more words combined to form a new word is called compounding. English technical terms formed by compounding generally take three forms: combining with a hyphen (e. g. salt-former 卤素, dew-point 露点, pulse-scaler 脉冲定标器) or without it (e.g. fallout 放射性尘埃, waterlock 水闸, thunderstorm 雷暴) or two or more separate words forming a word combination (e. g. verbal translator 逐字翻译机, hover craft 气垫船, satellite antimissile observation system 卫星反导弹观察系统).

Most of such compound words may be translated literally, i.e. put the Chinese equivalents of the separate elements together and we get the Chinese equivalents of the compound words. Sometimes, however, there are exceptions. For example, bull's eye, cat-and-mouse, dog house etc.—literal translation in tackling such terms may lead astray. Therefore whenever we are confronted with unfamiliar terms and are not sure of their meaning, we should frequently consult dictionaries of relevant specialties. In many cases some additional explanations are needed to make the original meaning clear and accurate.

15. Blending

This is a variant of compounding, omitting the latter part of the first word and clipping off the first part of the second word. Sometimes, however, either the first part or the second part of the overlapped word may be a full word. Generally speaking, this blending of words possesses the combined meaning of both, therefore, literal translation is used in translating such terms, with one element modifying the other. ·smog = smoke + fog

·telex = teleprinter + exchange ·gravisphere = gravity + sphere ·medicare = medical + care ·biorhythm == biological +rhythm ·copytron == copy + electron

16. Acronym

An acronym is a word made up from the first letters of the name of something. Since it is very convenient to use this brief form, acronym is widely adopted in English technical terms. With the rapid development of science and technology, more and

more acronyms are extensively used in various fields, therefore, it is up to the translator to discern their actual meaning in different context. · ADP automatic data processing

· AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome · EDPM electronic data processing machine · GSV guided space vehicle

· Laser light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation · RAM random access memory

Sometimes, an acronym happens to be a significant English word, or it may possess more than one meaning. In this case, special attention is necessary to pick out the proper one.

MOUSE minimum orbital unmanned satellite of the earth SALT Strategic Arms Limitation Talks SNAP subsystem for nuclear auxiliary power space nuclear auxiliary power

systems for nuclear auxiliary power AS air scoop air seasoned air speed air station American Standard atmosphere and space automatic sprinkler automatic synchronizer

第二部分 常用翻译技巧

英汉两种语言在句法、词汇、修辞等方面均存在着很大的差异，因此在进行英汉互译时必然会遇到很多困难，需要有一定的翻译技巧作指导。常用的翻译技巧有增译法、省译法、转换法、拆句法、合并法、正译法、反译法、倒置法、包孕法、插入法、重组法和综合法等。

1增译法：指根据英汉两种语言不同的思维方式、语言习惯和表达方式，在翻译时增添一

些词、短句或句子，以便更准确地表达出原文所包含的意义。这种方式多半用在汉译英里。汉语无主句较多，而英语句子一般都要有主语，所以在翻译汉语无主句的时候，除了少数可用英语无主句、被动语态或\be…\结构来翻译以外，一般都要根据语境补出主语，使句子完整。英汉两种语言在名词、代词、连词、介词和冠词的使用方法上也存在很大差别。英语中代词使用频率较高，凡说到人的器官和归某人所有的或与某人有关的事物时，必须在前面加上物主代词。因此，在汉译英时需要增补物主代词，而在英译汉时又需要根据情况适当地删减。英语词与词、词组与词组以及句子与句子的逻辑关系一般用连词来表示，而汉语则往往通过上下文和语序来表示这种关系。因此，在汉译英时常常需要增补连词。英语句子

离不开介词和冠词。另外，在汉译英时还要注意增补一些原文中暗含而没有明言的词语和一些概括性、注释性的词语，以确保译文意思的完整。总之，通过增译，一是保证译文语法结构的完整，二是保证译文意思的明确。如： （1）What about calling him right away?

马上给他打个电话，你觉得如何？ （增译主语和谓语） （2）If only I could see the realization of the four modernizations. 要是我能看到四个现代化实现该有多好啊！（增译主句） (3) Indeed, the reverse is true 实际情况恰好相反。（增译名词）

(4) 就是法西斯国家本国的人民也被剥夺了人权。

Even the people in the fascist countries were stripped of their human rights.（增译物主代词） （5）只许州官放火，不许百姓点灯。

While the magistrates were free to burn down house, the common people were forbidden to

light lamps. （增译连词）

（6）这是我们两国人民的又一个共同点。

This is yet another common point between the people of our two countries.（增译介词） （7）在人权领域，中国反对以大欺小、以强凌弱。

In the field of human rights, China opposes the practice of the big oppressing the small and the strong bullying the weak.（增译暗含词语）

（8）三个臭皮匠，合成一个诸葛亮。

Three cobblers with their wits combined equal Zhuge Liang the mastermind.（增译注释性词语）

2. 省译法：这是与增译法相对应的一种翻译方法，即删去不符合目标语思维习惯、语言习

惯和表达方式的词，以避免译文累赘。增译法的例句反之即可。又如： （1）You will be staying in this hotel during your visit in Beijing. 你在北京访问期间就住在这家饭店里。（省译物主代词） (2) I hope you will enjoy your stay here. 希望您在这儿过得愉快。（省译物主代词） （3）中国政府历来重视环境保护工作。

The Chinese government has always attached great importance to environmental protection. (省译名词)

3转换法：指翻译过程中为了使译文符合目标语的表述方式、方法和习惯而对原句中的词

类、句型和语态等进行转换。具体的说，就是在词性方面，把名词转换为代词、形容词、动词；把动词转换成名词、形容词、副词、介词；把形容词转换成副词和短语。在句子成分方面，把主语变成状语、定语、宾语、表语；把谓语变成主语、定语、表语；把定语变成状语、主语；把宾语变成主语。在句型方面，把并列句变成复合句，把复合句变成并列句，把状语从句变成定语从句。在语态方面，可以把主动语态变为被动语态。如： (1) 我们学院受教委和市政府的双重领导。

Our institute is co-administrated by the States Education Commission and the municipal government. (名词转动词)

（2）Too much exposure to TV programs will do great harm to the eyesight of children. 孩子们看电视过多会大大地损坏视力。(名词转动词)

（3）由于我们实行了改革开放政策，我国的综合国力有了明显的增强。

Thanks to the introduction of our reform and opening policy, our comprehensive national strength has greatly improved. (动词转名词) (4) I'm all for you opinion. 我完全赞成你的意见。（介词转动词）

（5）The reform and opening policy is supported by the whole Chinese people. 改革开放政策受到了全中国人民的拥护。（动词转名词） （6）In his article the author is critical of man's negligence toward his environment. 作者在文章中，对人类疏忽自身环境作了批评。（形容词转名词）

（7）In some of the European countries, the people are given the biggest social benefits such as medical insurance.

在有些欧洲国家里，人民享受最广泛的社会福利，如医疗保险等。（被动语态转主动语态） （8）时间不早了，我们回去吧！

We don't have much time left. Let's go back. (句型转换)

（9）学生们都应该德、智、体全面发展。

All the students should develop morally, intellectually and physically. (名词转副词)

4.拆句法和合并法：这是两种相对应的翻译方法。拆句法是把一个长而复杂的句子拆译成

若干个较短、较简单的句子，通常用于英译汉；合并法是把若干个短句合并成一个长句，一般用于汉译英。汉语强调意合，结构较松散，因此简单句较多；英语强调形合，结构较严密，因此长句较多。所以汉译英时要根据需要注意利用连词、分词、介词、不定式、定语从句、独立结构等把汉语短句连成长句；而英译汉时又常常要在原句的关系代词、关系副词、主谓连接处、并列或转折连接处、后续成分与主体的连接处，以及意群结束处将长句切断，译成汉语分句。这样就可以基本保留英语语序，顺译全句，顺应现代汉语长短句相替、单复句相间的句法修辞原则。如：

(1) Increased cooperation with China is in the interests of the United States. 同中国加强合作，符合美国的利益。 （在主谓连接处拆译）

（2）I wish to thank you for the incomparable hospitality for which the Chinese people are justly famous throughout the world.

我要感谢你们无与伦比的盛情款待。中国人民正是以这种热情好客而闻明世界的。（在定语从句前拆译）

（3）This is particularly true of the countries of the commonwealth, who see Britain's membership of the Community a guarantee that the policies of the community will take their interests into account

英联邦各国尤其如此，它们认为英国加入欧共体，将能保证欧共体的政策照顾到它们的利益。（在定语从句前拆译）

（4）中国是个大国，百分之八十的人口从事农业，但耕地只占土地面积的十分之一，其余为山脉、森林、城镇和其他用地。

China is a large country with four-fifths of the population engaged inagriculture, but only one tenth of the land is farmland, the rest being mountains, forests and places for urban and other uses.（合译）

5.正译法和反译法：这两种方法通常用于汉译英，偶尔也用于英译汉。所谓正译，是指把

句子按照与汉语相同的语序或表达方式译成英语。所谓反译则是指把句子按照与汉语相反的

语序或表达方式译成英语。正译与反译常常具有同义的效果，但反译往往更符合英语的思维方式和表达习惯。因此比较地道。如： （1） 在美国，人人都能买到枪。

In the United States, everyone can buy a gun. (正译)

In the United States, guns are available to everyone. (反译) （2） 你可以从因特网上获得这一信息。

You can obtain this information on the Internet. （正译） This information is accessible/available on the Internet. （反译） （3） 他突然想到了一个新主意。 Suddenly he had a new idea. (正译) He suddenly thought out a new idea. (正译)

A new idea suddenly occurred to/struck him. （反译） （4） 他仍然没有弄懂我的意思。

He still could not understand me. (正译)

Still he failed to understand me. (反译)

（5） 无论如何，她算不上一位思维敏捷的学生。 She can hardly be rated as a bright student. (正译) She is anything but a bright student. (反译)

（6） Please withhold the document for the time being. 请暂时扣下这份文件。（正译） 请暂时不要发这份文件。（反译）

6. 倒置法：在汉语中，定语修饰语和状语修饰语往往位于被修饰语之前；在英语中，许多

修饰语常常位于被修饰语之后，因此翻译时往往要把原文的语序颠倒过来。倒置法通常用于英译汉, 即对英语长句按照汉语的习惯表达法进行前后调换，按意群或进行全部倒置，原则是使汉语译句安排符合现代汉语论理叙事的一般逻辑顺序。有时倒置法也用于汉译英。如： （1）At this moment, through the wonder of telecommunications, more people are seeing and hearing what we say than on any other occasions in the whole history of the world. 此时此刻，通过现代通信手段的奇迹，看到和听到我们讲话的人比整个世界历史上任何其他这样的场合都要多。（部分倒置） （2）I believe strongly that it is in the interest of my countrymen that Britain should remain an active and energetic member of the European Community. 我坚信，英国依然应该是欧共体中的一个积极的和充满活力的成员，这是符合我国人民利益的。（部分倒置） （3）改革开放以来，中国发生了巨大的变化。

Great changes have taken place in China since the introduction of the reform and opening policy.(全部倒置)

7.包孕法：这种方法多用于英译汉。所谓包孕是指在把英语长句译成汉语时，把英语后置成分按照汉语的正常语序放在中心词之前，使修饰成分在汉语句中形成前置包孕。但修饰成分不宜过长，否则会形成拖沓或造成汉语句子成分在连接上的纠葛。如：

(1)You are the representative of a country and of a continent to which China feels particularly close. 您是一位来自于使中国倍感亲切的国家和大洲的代表。

(2)What brings us together is that we have common interests which transcend those differences.

使我们走到一起的，是我们有超越这些分歧的共同利益。

8 .插入法：指把难以处理的句子成分用破折号、括号或前后逗号插入译句中。这种方法主

要用于笔译中。偶尔也用于口译中，即用同位语、插入语或定语从句来处理一些解释性成分。如：

如果说宣布收回香港就会像夫人说的\带来灾难性的影响\，那我们要勇敢地面对这个灾难，做出决策。

If the announcement of the recovery of Hong Kong would bring about, as Madam put it, \

9. 重组法：指在进行英译汉时，为了使译文流畅和更符合汉语叙事论理的习惯，在捋清英

语长句的结构、弄懂英语原意的基础上，彻底摆脱原文语序和句子形式，对句子进行重新组合。如：

Decision must be made very rapidly; physical endurance is tested as much as perception, because an enormous amount of time must be spent making certain that the key figures act on the basis of the same information and purpose.

必须把大量时间花在确保关键人物均根据同一情报和目的行事，而这一切对身体的耐力和思维能力都是一大考验。因此，一旦考虑成熟，决策者就应迅速做出决策。

10．综合法：是指单用某种翻译技巧无法译出时，着眼篇章，以逻辑分析为基础，同时使

用转换法、倒置法、增译法、省译法、拆句法等多种翻译技巧的方法。如：

How can the European Union contribute to the development of a European film and television program industry which is competitive in the world market, forward-looking and capable of radiating the influence of European culture and of creating jobs in Europe?

欧洲联盟应该怎样做才能对欧洲的电影电视工业有所贡献，使它在国际市场上具有竞争能力，使它有能力发挥欧洲文化的影响，并且能够在欧洲创造更多的就业机会呢？

第三部分：不同文体翻译

散文翻译

一、散文的特点

散文是文学中常见的体裁,它选材广泛,结构灵活,表现手法多样,如叙事!抒情!议论等,主要特点是：体物写志,行散神聚。“形散“是指散文运笔如风,不拘形式,清淡自然; “神聚”指意旨明确,紧凑集中,既散得开,又收得拢;既有豪放的特色,又有清幽的特征。真正的散文是充满诗意的,就像苹果里饱含着果汁一样(巴乌斯托夫斯基语)。优美的散文艺术性在于新颖的构思,充沛的感情,丰富的想像,简洁精粹的语言和耐人寻味的意境\散文也常常被比作小而境界深邃的园林。作者运笔看似信手拈来,实则字斟句酌,环环相扣,使读者浮想联翩。文论家刘勰说道: “情动而言行,理发而文见”,由此可见散文贵在以巧取胜,以巧妙的语言、巧的意境来打动读者,给读者以最大审美愉悦。既然散文有丰富的艺术魅力,那么它的审美效果又如何在译文中传达呢?俄国著名翻译家吉加切奇拉泽在《文艺翻译与文学交流》一书中谈到文艺翻译的总的指导原则时认为:“理想的文艺翻译首先是在艺术上,而不是在语言上和原文一致。即使达不到这一目标,也应全力以求,离目标越近越好”。在加氏看来,作家的

思想表现在文字形象以及一定的语调和节奏结构上，每个句子由若干语调、意群或若干句素组成,它们的意义合构成句子。因此,他认为文艺翻译的过程也应当根据上面的模式进行。不过译者不能机械地重复创作过程的所有阶段，译者应努力把通过文字形象表达的原作的思想用另一种语言再现出来,当然同时要有兼顾文学文本所特有的语调、节奏和句构特点，作为文学翻译形式之一的散文翻译,自然也要求译者在传译过程中,不仅要传达出原文的语流!节奏和句子结构等语义信息,更应着重传达原文的艺术神韵,以使目标读者在读译文时可以获得和原文读者读原文时同样的语义和美学的双重享受。 二、散文英译

以张培基的《英译中国现代散文选》为例： (一)句子短小精悍,结构简单

从理论上说,英语语言与汉语语言相比,英语句子“常常是环扣相嵌,盘根错节,句中有句”,也就是所谓的“楼房建筑法”(architecture style) 。而汉语以散句、松句、紧缩句、省略句、流水句等短句居多[4 ] (P48 - 49) 。可见,在汉英翻译中,使用英语长句是理所当然的,也是符合语言规律的。

但在张先生英译的散文中,英语短句却屡见不鲜,正是这些短句的使用,形成了张先生译文“质朴”的风格。在《差不多先生》( Mr. About - the - Same) 一文中,有这么一段话: 差不多先生的相貌和你和我差不多。他有一双眼睛,但看的不很清楚;有两只耳朵,但听得不很分明; 有鼻子和嘴,但他对于气味和口味都不很讲究。他的脑子也不小,但他的记性却不很精明,他的思想也不很细密。

Mr. Cha Buduo has the same physiognomy as you and I. | |He has a pair of eyes ,but doesn‘t see clearly. | | He has a pair ofears ,but doesn‘t hear well. | | He has a nose and a mouth ,butlacks a keen sense of smell and taste. | | His brain is none toosmall , but he is weak in memory and sloppy inthinking. (P18 - 26)

译文句子多为简单句和并列句,译文干净、利落,通俗易懂,给人一种清爽自然之美,而没有盘根错节之迷惑。 (二)用词简单、通俗

张培基先生在翻译散文时, 很少使用生僻词( bigwords) ,主要使用普通的形容词、副词和动词等,以达到言简意赅。例如:

1. 他的脑子也不小,但他的记性却不很精明,他的思想也不很细密。———《差不多先生传》His brain is none too small ,but he is weak in memory and sloppy in thinking.

2. 他用两手攀着上面,两脚再向上缩;他肥胖的身子向左微倾。??过铁道时,他先将橘子散放在地上,自己慢慢爬下,再抱起橘子走。———《背影》His hands held onto the upper part of the platform ,his legs huddled up and his corpulent body tipped slightly towards the left , ??In crossing the railway track,he first put the tangerines on the ground ,climbed down slowly and then picked them up again.

3. 燕子去了,有再来的时候; 杨柳枯了,有再青的时候;桃花谢了,有再开的时候。但是,

聪明的,你告诉我,我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢? ———《匆匆》If swallows go away ,they will come back again. If willows wither,they will turn green again. If peach blossoms fade,they will flower again. But ,tell me ,you the wise ,why should our days go by never to return ? 从以上的摘录我们可以看出,张先生翻译的风格用词方面朴实无华,对保存原文风格起到至关重要的作用。 (三)修辞上力求通俗易懂

一般说来,散文中修辞格用得相当少。但张培基先生在翻译中对于这一小部分语言要素也不忽略,认真处理,使译文没有生硬的感觉。例如:

1. 他也说我一天不写文章第二天就没有饭吃。 ———《朋友》(借代) He also says that I would have nothing to live on once I should lay down my pen.

意译法处理该句符合英语表达习惯,如直译为“have no rice to eat”,一定会引起歧义,让人费解。

2. 弓儿似的新月,挂在树梢。———《笑》(明喻)

The crescent new moon looked as if hanging on the tips of the trees.

译文仍然用比喻的修辞手法翻译原文的比喻,但却转移了喻体, “弓儿似的”如果直译成bow - like ,看似形象,但不符合英语对新月的描述习惯,译文将比喻落在了动作上,形象地再现了“新月挂树梢”的样子。

3. 木匠老陈那时不过四十岁光景,脸长得像驴子脸。 ———《木匠老陈》Carpenter Lao Chen was then only about forty years old ,with a longish face like that of a donkey ?? 此句采用直译法,既传达了意愿,又兼顾了译文的习惯。

4. 什么有轮齿的锯子啦,有两个耳朵的刨子啦? ———《木匠老陈》(暗喻) such as the saw with toothed blade ,the plane with two ear -like handles. 增词法符合英语表达习惯。

以上例句对修辞的处理恰到好处,把原文的修辞意义用朴实地道的语言表现了出来,与散文文体本身的风格是一致的。 （四）逻辑关系清晰

英语通常采用形合法连接,而汉语却用意合法连接。也就是说,英语造句用各种“形式手段”来连接词、语、分句或从句,注重显性接应,表达语法意义和逻辑关系;而汉语通过词语或分句的“含义”表达语法意义和逻辑关系。汉译英至关重要的一步就是弄清汉语各句之间的逻辑关系。张培基先生在翻译散文时,使用适当的句型表现逻辑关系,译文通俗易懂。例如: 1. 那年冬天,祖母死了,父亲的差使也交卸了,正是祸不单行的日子。 ———《背影》Misfortunes never come singly. In the winter of more than two years ago ,grandma died and father lost his job.

原文事实在前,结论在后;译文结论在前,事实在后。调整结论与事实的顺序,更符合西方人逻辑思维习惯。

2. 世代为地主耕种,家境是贫穷的,和我们来往的朋友也都是老老实实的贫苦农民。

———《母亲的回忆》From generation to generation ,they tilled land for landlords only to eke out a bare subsistence.

“only to”表明一种结果关系。

3. 可是她的时间大半给家务和耕种占去了,没法照顾孩子,只好让孩子们在地里爬着。———《母亲的回忆》But she was too busily occupied with household chores and farming to look after the kids so that they were left alone crawling about in the fields. too…to表示一种逻辑上的因果关系, so that 表示结果。 (五)对文化障碍进行增补或诠释

文化因素如果处理不当,就会成为理解的障碍。对于散文来说,任何令人费解的成分都是应该清除的。张培基先生采用了增词法、意译法等消除了这些障碍。例如:

1. 有时也兼做点农作, 芒种的时节, 便帮人家插秧. ———《为奴隶的母亲》Sometimes he also worked in the fields ;early each summer he turned farm – hand.

芒种是中国的24 节气之一,直译法必须加注,否则会让人费解,意译法简洁明了。 2.那真是祖宗三代的楣都要倒尽,那里还有什么“官人请! 娘子请!”的唱随之乐可说呢? ———《谈结婚》With such a terrible misfortune be falling your family , how could you still have wedded bliss to speak of ?

“官人请! 娘子请!”是中国文化表达闺房之乐的典型例子,如果直译,西方人一定会茫然不知其意。用类属词就克服了文化差异。

3. 他姓差,名不多。———《差不多先生传》His surname is Cha and his given name ,Buduo ,which altogether mean―About the Same‖.

此句用增补法,补充了中文“差不多”的意义,目的语读者就能理解这篇文章的中心内容了。

文化因素经过合理处理,以读者能够理解的形式进入目的语。对保存散文“质朴”的风格也起了很大的作用。

(六) 再以朱自清的《荷塘月色》为例，来看散文翻译的节奏和意境的传递：

曲曲折折的荷塘上面,弥望的是田田的叶子。叶子出水很高,像亭亭的舞女的裙。层层的叶子中间,零星的点缀着些白花,有袅娜地开着的;有羞涩地打着朵儿的;正如一粒粒的明珠,又如碧天里的星星,又如刚出浴的美人。微风过处,送来缕缕清香,仿佛远处高楼上渺茫的歌声似的。

All over this winding stretch of water, what meets the eye is a silken field of leaves, reaching rather high above the surface, like the skirts of dancing girls in all their grace. Here and there, layers of leaves are dotted with white lotus blossoms, some in demure bloom, others in shy bud, like scattering pearls, or twinkling stars, or beauties just out of the bath. A breeze stirs, sending over breaths of fragrance, like faint singing drifting from a distant building.

原文共有四个句子,结构并不复杂,语调平和,节奏舒缓.叠词的交错使用,使文章读来富有音乐美,如“曲曲折折、田田、亭亭、层层、粒粒、缕缕、”等具有明显放慢节奏的功能。

作者似乎在营造一种复杂的氛围,表达“淡淡的喜悦、淡淡的忧愁\译者也是着意塑造一种幽雅、恬静的意境,选用winding stretch把蜿蜒曲折的荷塘、一望无际的荷塘夜景呈现给读者;也会

使读者想到荷叶像丝绸那般轻盈美丽,同时也增添了朦胧感;非常形象地传达了原文的神韵,风姿绰约的舞女形象飘然而至,译出了原文的内含;breaths of fragrance译“缕缕清香”完全活化出了这一段,读者仿佛能透过纸背闻到荷花的清香.译者在用词上是下了工夫的,用小词译深意,以常用词写景,表达非常之心境.整段译文用词丰富\\声调悦耳,完美而准确地表达了原作者的心情.从音节上来看,词汇以单音节为主,间或有多音节,使译文读来错落有致,舒缓有度,富有变化\可以说译者从音、形、义等层面均成功再现了原文的情韵。

篇章节奏是一种语言组织现象,有规律的重复,行成一种感觉,营造一种气氛,激起一种感情。节奏一般包括押韵、长短句的分布、对偶、排比和重复等。原文的节奏在译文里可以用平行结构和借助音律、头韵、变语等修辞手段来传递其美学效果\请看下面的引文:

我爱热闹,也爱冷静;爱群居,也爱独处

I like a serene and peaceful life, as much as a busy and active one; I like being solitude, as much as in company.

原文结构对称,表达作者自己对自由而安宁的生活的向往.译者用了两个非常巧妙地把前后部分紧密地连接起来,不但保留原文的平行结构,原文的韵味藏于字里行间,也传递了原文的均衡美. 三、散文汉译

下面以英国著名学者和文学家本·约翰森的的名篇《致切斯菲尔德伯爵书》为例探讨散文翻译的若干技巧。

《致切斯菲尔德伯爵书》原文： My Lord(1)，

I have been lately informed, by the proprietor of The World(2), that two Papers, in which my Dictionary is recommended to the Public(3), were written by your Lordship. To be so distinguished, is an honour(4), which, being very little accustomed to(5) favours from the Great(6), I know not well how to receive, or in what terms to acknowledge(7).

When, upon some slight encouragement(8), I first visited your Lordship, I was overpowered, like the rest of Mankind(9), by the enchantment of your address; and could not forbear(10) to wish that I might boast myself Le vainqueur du vainqueur de la terre(11)— that I might obtain that regard for which I saw the world(12) contending; but I found my attendance(13) so little encouraged, that neither pride nor modesty would suffer(14) me to continue it.(15)

When I had once addressed your Lordship in public, I had exhausted all the art of pleasing which a retired and uncourtly scholar

(16)

can possess. I had done all that I could; and no Man is

well pleased to have his all(17) neglected, be it ever so little.

Seven years, My Lord, have now past, since I waited in your outward Rooms, or was repulsed from your Door(18); during which time I have been pushing on my work through difficulties, of which it is useless to complain(19), and have brought it, at last, to the verge of Puhlication, without one act of assistance, one word of encouragement, or one smile of favour(20). Such treatment I did not expect, for I never had a Patron before.

The Shepherd in Virgil grew at last acquainted with Love, and found him a Native of the Rocks(21).

Is not a Patron, My Lord, one who looks with unconcern on a man struggling for life in the water, and, when he has reached ground, encumbers him with help?been pleased to take of my Labours,

(26)

(23)

(22)

The notice which you have

had it been early,

(24)

had been kind; but it has been delayed

(28)

till I am indifferent, and cannot enjoy it; till I am solitary,(25) and cannot impart it; till I am known, and do not want it

. I hope it is no very cynical asperity

(27)

not to confess obligations where no

benefit has been received, or to be unwilling that the Public should consider me as owing that to a Patron, which Providence has enabled me to do for myself.(29)

Having carried on my work thus far with so little obligation to any Favourer of Learning,shall not be disappointed though I should conclude it

(32)

(31)

(30)

I

, if less be possible, with less; or I have

been long wakened from that dream of hope, in which I once boasted myself with so much exultation

, My Lord,

Your Lordship‘s Most Humble,

Most Obedient Servant,

Sam: Johnsone

February 7,1755

伯爵大人：

近日从《世界报》馆主得知，该报刊载了两篇文章，对拙编词典颇多举荐滥美之词，这些文章据悉均出自阁下您的手笔。承蒙您如此的推崇，本应是一种荣耀，只可惜在下自来无缘得到王公大人的青睐，所以真不知道该如何来领受这份荣耀，也不知道该用些什么言辞来聊表谢意。

回想当年，也不知哪来的勇气，我竟第一次拜访了大人阁下。我像所有的人一样，深为大人的言谈丰采所倾倒，不禁玄想他年能口出大言“吾乃天下征服者之征服者也。”—虽知此殊荣是举世学人所欲得，仍希望有朝一日能侥幸获取。然而我很快发现自己的趋走逢迎根本没有得到鼓励。不管是出于自尊也好，自矜也好，我反正无法再周旋下去。我本是一个与世无争、不善逢迎的书生，但那时我也曾用尽平生所学的阿谀奉承的言辞，当众赞美过阁下。能做的一切我都做了。如果一个人在这方面付出的一切努力（不管是多么微不足道）受到完全的忽视，他是绝不会感到舒服的。

大人阁下，从我第一次候立于贵府门下，或者说被您拒于门外时算起，已经7年过去。7年多来，我一直苦苦地撑持着我的编撰工作。这些苦楚，现在再来倾诉，已经没有用处。所幸我的劳作而今终于快要出版，在这之前我没有获得过一个赞助的行为，一句鼓励的话语，一抹称许的微笑。我固然不曾指望这样的礼遇，因为我从未有过一位赞助人。

维吉尔笔下的牧童最后终于和爱神相识，这才发现所谓爱神只不过是岩穴土人而已。 大人阁下，有的人眼见落水者在水中拼命挣扎而无动于衷，等他安全抵岸之后，却才多余地伸出所谓援手，莫非这就叫赞助人么? 大人而今忽有雅兴来关照在下的劳作，这原本是一桩美意，只可惜太迟了一点。迟到我已经意懒心灰，再无法快乐地消受；迟到我已经是孤身一人，无从与家人分 享；迟到我已经名闻海内，再不需阁下附丽张扬。我既然本来就没有得到过实惠，自然母需怀感恩之心；既然是上帝助我独立完成这桩大业，我自然不愿让公众产生 错觉，似乎我曾受惠于某一赞助人。但愿上面这番话不致被认为太苛刻、太不近人情。

我已经在根本没有所谓学术赞助人赞助的情况下使自己的工作完成到目前这个地步，那么，尽管我将要在更艰难无助的情况下—假如还有可能更艰难无助的话—完成全稿，我也绝不会感到沮丧。因为我已经早就从那个赞助的美梦里幡然猛醒；曾几何时，我还在那梦中得意非凡地自诩是大人您门下最卑微最驯顺的仆人

塞缪尔·约翰逊 1755年2月7日

文章作者及背景简介

塞缪尔·约翰逊（Samuel Johnson，1709-1784）是英国著名的学者、语言学家和文学家，英国古典主义代表人物之一，在散文写作方面堪称一代大家。约翰逊在1747年开始酝酿编撰《英语词典》)，因为自己境况十分窘迫，便将他的编撰计划呈送给当时英国最显赫的达官贵人切斯菲尔德伯爵（The Earl of Chesterfield，1694-1773），希图获得他的支持与赞助。可是切斯菲尔德不识英才，对约翰逊的选题不置可否，使约翰逊吃了闭门羹。约翰逊不得已，只好自力更生，苦干了整整7年， 终于编成词典。然而，切斯菲尔德闻讯突然抢先在当时的一家流行的报纸《世界报》上连续发表了两篇推祟约翰逊词典的文章。切斯菲尔德之所以这样做，或许是由 于最初冷遇了约翰逊，而今想以歌功颂德之辞弥补前嫌；但也可能是由于看到约翰逊词典的份量，因而想沾一点光，通过撰写颂扬文字的作法，暗示他似乎是约翰逊 词典的幕后赞助人。约翰逊因为受了7年苦楚，旧怨难消，遂给切斯菲尔德写了这封信，断然否认切斯菲尔德或其他任何人是他的赞助人。此倍措辞柔中有刚，虽语气谦卑，而内藏讥嘲。 把切斯菲尔德巧妙地比作附庸风雅实际上并没有文化修养的、心肠冷酷的所谓“草野之夫”。

此文系散文名篇，在欧洲文学史上，历来被看作作家的“独立宣言”。从此以后，欧洲文人被迫“摧眉折腰事权贵”的历史，开始了一个崭新的转折。 翻译此文的理论准备

根据翻译标准多元互补论，翻译本身具有多种功能（或曰目的性）：如模拟信息功能，揭示思维模式功能，审美娱乐功能或丰富译入语功能等。其次，具体翻译标准之所以是多元的，还在于人类审美趣味的多样化以及读者和译者的多层次等。（参见前文。）

我们先从模拟信息来看。要模拟信息，先要弄清原作的信息存在原型。信息存在原型与信息存在的时空关系紧密相联。从时空关系来看，原作(源语作品)写于1755年的英国，正值英国古典主义文风盛行的时候。作者约翰逊即当时有代表性的古典主义作家，其散文正如李赋宁先生所言“既具有拉丁散文的典雅、气势和音调的铿锵，又兼备英文散文的雄健、朴素和简练。”再从当时中英对应时空关系来看，1755年 前后的中国正值清朝乾隆年间，当时正是桐城派散文相当流行的时候。同期文学大师有郑板桥、吴敬梓、全祖望、曹雪芹、袁枚、纪昀、蒋士铨、赵翼、钱大昕、王文治、姚鼐、翁方纲、李调元、高鹗等。假如由上述中的任何一位大师来翻译约翰逊的文章，我们自然会期望他们把这位同时代人的大作译成颇为高雅的文言文（即使不是地道的桐城派文风），而绝不是白话文，这是毫无疑义的。因此，为了能最大程度地近似中英时空对应关系，较为理想的处理手段就是把它译成比较雅致的文言文。这就等于在风格方面定了一个翻译标准。然而，站在读者的角度来看，我们现在的翻译主要是为当代人服务。不用说，当代人在时空关系上已经和约翰逊所处时代有了255年的时空错位，因而不能指望当代人能比较充分地体会理解当时的文风，至少对一部分读者来说要做到这一点已经颇不容易。因此，译成白话文，也是符合多数读者层的需要的。更何况今天大陆上的翻译出版物差不多一律是白话文，绝少看到有新的文言文翻译出版物，所以，译成白话文已经是大势所趋。这就等于在风格上定了第二个翻译标准。再从译者的角度来看。译者抱定的宗旨，往往是声称要“忠实”于原作。如果要真正“忠实”于原作，那么就不能译成白话，因为我们期望古人写的 就是古文。如果把王勃的《藤王阁序》译成白话文，那么，无论译者的手段有多么高明，原有的那种文采必然是所剩无几了。（当然，现代人也尝试把它们译成白话，但主要是为了帮助不大懂占文的读者理解文意，而非主要为了传辅原作的文采。此当别论。）这样看来，若能将约翰逊的原作译成雅致的文言文，看来也是需 的。怎么办呢? 若译文以达意为主，译成白话就可以了（何况白话文也有一定的文采）；若译文以模仿表现原作的古雅风味，则宜译成文言文。若想二者兼得，那就两种译文并存，或者再来一种文白兼具的译文（虽难以讨好，但也不妨一试）。那么，就等于认定了双标准并存或三标准并存了。姑不论其他的许多条件，单就上述三个角度，在风格上就产生了三个标准。如果面面俱到地加以理论分析（尚包括其他微观处理手段），则必定要建立一个标准系统才能济事。此文主要是为了用作翻译练习，篇幅有限，不能展开阐述，亦不可能将原作按各类标准译成若干种风格。为简便计，此处只提供较普通的文言文和白话文译例各一，聊供参考。 文本理解与翻译策略注释

(1)

My Lord，文言表现不宜过实，故译成“大人阁下”，稍见婉致；白话宜更实在些，不妨译作“伯爵大人”或“爵爷”之类。

(2)

The World，可译《世界》或《世界报》，1753-1756在伦敦发行，颇有影响。由爱德华·莫

尔（Edward Moore）主编。

(3)

is recommended to the Public，已向公众推荐。由于“扬善举荐”或“举荐溢美”之类的用语，已经暗示是向公众推荐的，加之前面已知文章是登在报纸上，当然是给公众看的，所以to the Public就略去不译了。注意：文中一些字母故意大写（例如Papers，Public），以示作者对某种含义的强调，这是当时的写作文风。

(4)

To be so distinguished, is an honour，亦可译作：“推重如此，可谓荣耀有加。”或“受到如此的赏识，深感荣幸。”

(5)

very little accustomed，很不习惯。其真意是：很少得到过此类荣耀。 favours from the Great，王公大人的青睐（惠顾）。

此句中的which是动词to receive和to acknowledge的宾语，在文言中可省；在白话中则宜加以重复，例如译作“这份荣耀”，使得有较完整的动宾结构。

(6)

(7)

(8)

When及upon短语搭配极妙。When后逗号，使人产生停顿感，与回忆的情状相类。故译作“忆当年”。同时，upon短语的插入，给人一种小心翼翼的不安感。描摹了当年约翰逊想要得到王公大人青睐的微妙心理。那个some一词也用得很令人回味。此句的白话译文采用意译法“也不知哪来的勇气”，正是为了表达此种心理。

(9)

Mankind，此词系夸张语。实指那些奔走于公卿门下希图获得杯羹的文坛寒士，即“语惊四座”中的“四座”。也只有这些人才会听到伯爵的只言片语便故作惊惶叹服之色，以博得伯爵大人先生的宠爱。

(10)

could not bear，不禁，禁不住。

Le vainqueur du vainqueur de la terre 法语， 意为“conqueror of the conqueror of the earth．”此句来自法国古典派文艺理论家布瓦洛的作品L’ Art Poetique (《诗艺》)。引用外文虽是那时候英国文人的嗜好，但此处采用引用法实可窥见约翰逊踌躇满志又欲盖弥彰的心态。 故翻译时宜以洋味或古味出之。此句在白话文中仍用文言译法“吾乃征服天下者之征服者也”，其意在此。

(11)

(12)

the world，提喻，意为“世人”，或更准确点，指那些试图收名定价于切斯菲尔德大人attendance，暗指“侍立、逢迎”。 suffer，容许。

此句语序有所更动。continue据上下文活译为“周旋”。 a retired and uncourt]y scholar，不尚交际、逢迎的书生。

的文人学者。

(13) (14)

(15)

(16) (17)

all，意为all that he did。

was repulsed from your Door，见拒门外。

Of which it is useless to complain，抱怨曾遭受的这些困难是没有什么用了。此句插在这里，在英文中像是随手着一笔，没有什么牵强处。但译成汉语，则会觉得突兀、牵强，文气蹇涩。处理的办法是将它挪到全句后面，起补充文意的作用。

(18)

(19)

(20)

without one Act Of assistance, one word of encouragement, or one smile of favour, 这三个短语的排比用法甚有威力。译文通过重复“无??相”这种句法，造成一种回环往复的效

果，以传达原作的气势。三个短语相连，前二个短语尾字皆用仄声，最后一个短语尾字宜用平声压住。

(21)

a Native of the Rocks，岩穴土人，草野之夫。典出古罗马诗人维吉尔（Virgil, 70 BC-19

BC） 的《牧歌》（Eclogue, 第VIII章，第43行）：“我现在终于知道爱神这男孩是什么样的人，知道他出生在特迈罗斯或罗多彼山脉的岩穴蛮荒之地，\\或大地的边沿地带加拉曼特斯——\\他和我们非故非亲，血统上毫无联系。”约翰逊显然将切斯菲尔德比作是出生在岩穴蛮荒之地的爱神，认为他徒具虚名，实际上既无文明血统，也像岩石一样冰冷无情。他根本无法赏识约翰逊的才学。

(22)

encumbers，妨碍；以??增加累赘。此句较长，是反义疑问句。翻译时，采用分句法，将全句意思解透，从定语从句wholooks?开始译（“设有人??”），意思表达清楚之后，再回过头翻译最前边的疑问部分。这样做，在语序上做了很大的改变，但符合汉语措辞习惯。意思也就显豁了。如直译，必定佶屈聱牙。

(23)

Labours，劳动成果、作品。

had it been early，假如再早一点的话。虚拟句子。此句可正译，亦可反译，视译文

(24)

上下文而定。译文采用反译法的好处在于译“早”（early）为“迟”，以便与后文中连用三次的“迟到”（delay）相呼应，造成文气上的贯通。

(25)

till l am solitary，直到我孑然一身。约翰逊的妻子逝世于1752年。词典编成后，约翰逊已经丧偶三年。此句感人至深，读之令人动容。文言译文沿用“头白鸳鸯失伴飞”的旧体诗词意象，比原句意味稍更浓郁。

(26)

do not want it,不再需要这种延誉之词了。翻译it时，蒙前而增词，使文意更清楚。注意句子中的两个cannot表示了某种客观性，而do not则传达了较强的主观情绪。约翰逊一不做，二不休，宣布和权贵们彻底决裂了。

(27)

cynical asperity刻薄、严厉、不信人间有真情善意。 to confess obligations，领情。

此句又是长句。除采用分句法之外，也采用了前面用过的翻译反意疑问句的技巧，即将

(28)

（29）

最前边的主句移到最后，贯通全句文气。此类句子最容易显示出操印欧语系语盲者的逻辑思维模式，同时也可以看出中西民族思维习惯的典型区别。

(30)

Favourer of Learning，学术赞助人、庇护人。 conclude it，完成全稿；杀青。

in which I once boasted myself with so much exultation，我曾在梦中得意非凡地自诩是??。“曾几何时”是以once为依据、同时根据全文的表意趋势做了增强语势的处理后译出的。 文言译法更加了“堪笑”一词，实由体味全文所漾溢着的一种大功告成后、睥睨王侯的气概而增。注意此种增词译法不可滥用，只有在最紧要处不损文意的前提下才可以偶尔使用。

(31)

(32)

(33)

注 意约翰逊这里把信尾的客套话和签名等和信的内容从语法上连缀成一个完整的句子。

在突出两个“最”的同时，让人感到一种嬉笑调侃的反讽效果。又，根据中国人 的书信格

式，日期多半署在后边。这里也移到后边。但是，如果为了强调西洋书信的洋味道，亦可仍将日期书写在信纸的右上方。

旅游翻译

一、汉英旅游文本的差异

旅游文本是一种应用文体，其形式灵活多样，内容包罗万象，文体类别丰富多彩。本文所说的旅游翻译主要是指旅游指南的汉英翻译。 （一）汉英旅游文本的词汇差异

其一，汉语旅游指南大量使用四字结构而英文多用词浅易。四字结构包括固定的四字成语和一些通过并列、重叠或排比等方式组合而成的词组。四字结构是中华民族语言文化的瑰宝，恰当地运用可以起到加强语义、增强语势的作用，还可以使读者感受到旅游文章的艺术感染力，从而达到宣传旅游景点的效果。英文旅游景点介绍多以行文简洁、读者易于接受见长。描写常用词基本上是生活中的浅显易懂的词汇。从读者角度考虑旅游文本的撰写，在有限的篇幅内将提供的服务和旅游项目交代清楚。

其二，汉英之间文化对应词少。中英文化属于全世界文化差异最大的两种文化。汉语旅游指南文本中与特定文化有关的词非凡多，但这些词在译入语英语中多元对应词，即出现所谓的词汇空白现象。对于这些具有鲜明文化特色的词汇，不仅英语读者难于理解，即使中国人有时也会出现理解不到位的情况。这些布满了具有鲜明中国特色的文化词汇，在英文中不可能有对应的文化词汇，这是汉英旅游资料翻译时的特点和难点。 （二） 汉英旅游文本的修辞差异

其一，中文旅游指南往往引经据典而英文则直扣主题。在汉语旅游指南的文章中，往往喜欢引用大量的古诗词和名人典故，因为典雅清新的古诗词和名人典故，能给人以美的享受。但这种引经据典的方法不符合英语的修辞习惯。大量的英语旅游文本则显示出一个共同特点：句句说理连贯，切中中心目的，中间很少穿插看似与主题无关的内容。

其二，中文旅游指南经常采用华丽的修辞而英文则多客观描述。中文旅游指南常用比喻的修辞手法。出色的比喻能使文章增添感人的魅力。庐山是我国闻名的风景名胜，除了得益于其风光秀丽的地理条件，更得益于李白在《望庐山瀑布》里巧妙的比喻。英文旅游景点的介绍则侧重于客观的描述，在平淡的客观描述中给读者以充足的信息。 （三） 汉英旅游文本的句型差异

中文旅游指南常用陈述句和省略句，内容表述清楚明白但有时行文平铺直叙略显呆板，对读者缺乏吸引力。英文旅游指南常用问句，其间穿插陈述句、否定句和否定疑问句，行文灵活多变，在有限的篇幅内容纳了更多的信息。 二、汉英旅游翻译策略

由于中西方文化的巨大差异以及汉英两种语言的不同，非凡是汉英旅游指南材料在词汇、句型、修辞等方面的差异体现出中西方在思维方式以及由于思维方式的差异所导致的不同的信

息编排方式，决定了汉英旅游文化信息的等效传递是不可能的。因此，旅游翻译的原则应突出实用型的特点，应是文化信息的有效传递，而并非等效传递。有效传递要求译者考虑译文的可读性和读者的接受效果，要。边译边作。，即不是对汉语材料进行全译，而是要对原作实施变译。

三、汉英旅游翻译实例

在进行分析之前,现将一则旅游文本简介及其原译文呈现如下： 李白纪念馆简介

江油李白纪念馆位于江油市区风景秀丽的昌明河畔,是国家AA级景区,全国最大的仿唐建筑群落,中国百家名园之一。融观光旅游、学术研究、陈列收藏、旅游服务于一体。以其独特的园林风光、丰富多彩的陈列收藏、声情并茂的讲解、热情周到的服务以及极高的学术地位而享誉全国,蜚声海外。被誉为文化的殿堂,镶嵌在九寨沟旅游环线上璀璨的明珠。 The Libai Museum, located in the beautiful Changming riverside of urban area of Jiangyou, is a national AA grade senic spot, the largest imitative Tang Dynasty building community in the whole country, and is one of the 100 most renown gardens of China. It integrates sightseeing, traveling, academic research, display, collecting, and tourism service into an organic whole. With its unique garden scene, rich exhibitions and collecting, vivid interpretations, warm and good service, as well as extremely high academic position, it enjoys high reputation in China and foreign countries. It is praised as the paradise of culture and the bright pearl inland Jiuzhaigou tourism circle. (原译文) (一)原文分析

11翻译目的和委托人的要求

该译文的委托人是李白纪念馆的负责人,译文是给来李白纪念馆参观的外国游客视读。翻译的目的是吸引外国游客,激发他们参观该景点。因此,信息性和诱导性是该文本翻译的出发点。由于译文和汉语必须制作在一张公示牌上,因而译文不能太长,原文中的冗余信息必须删除。 21目标读者

目标读者是外国游客,他们来此参观的时间有限,希望用最短的时间了解该标示牌上的内容。译文必须符合英语旅游文本规范和英语本族人的审美标准和需求。 31原文语篇特点

原文本发送者主要针对的读者对象是中国游客,遵循的是汉语旅游文本规范,迎合中国人的审美标准。因此,文中用了很多优美的四字词(如:风景秀丽、丰富多彩、声情并茂、享誉全国、蜚声海外),文采浓郁;且文中用了比喻和夸张的修辞手段(如:极高的学术地位、文化的殿堂、璀璨的明珠),以突出文本的呼吁功能。该语篇具有典型的中国旅游文本特色。

正如诺德所言:。如果作者想要实现他的交际意图的话,就必须符合文本规范;同时,文本接受者也只能从文本的形式规范推断出作者的意图。因此,如果译者想要实现文本的交际功能,就应当符合译语文本体裁规范。

其次,原文中的。融观光旅游、学术研究、陈列收藏、旅游服务于一体。以其独特的园林风光、丰富多彩的陈列收藏、声情并茂的讲解、热情周到的服务以及极高的学术地位而享誉全国,蜚声海外。,前后两句出现了语义重复,前一句是概括,后一句是扩展第一句的内容。两者并置,显得累赘。 (二)翻译策略的制定 1．中英文旅游文本规约差异

上文的分析说明,原文遵循的是中文旅游文本规约,那么中英语旅游文本规约有何差别?对此,贾文波做了详细的研究并总结如下:行文用字习惯和审美标准不同。英语旅游文体大多风格简略,结构严谨,行文简洁明了,表达直观通俗,注重信息的准确性,追求的是一种自然理性之美。相反,汉语旅游文本文采浓郁!使用四言八句、注重渲染诗情画意盎然的氛围,因而,显得过于笼统和失真。当然,中国读者的审美标准和中华文化息息相关。中国讲究模糊,天人合一,旅游文本重在意境的凸显,而非实体的客观描述。 2、中英文文本类型

该汉语语篇既具有旅游文本特色,又有广告文字特点。文本发送者看似提供信息,而实则是为了吸引更多的游客,因此,从文本类型上来说,这则简介是信息型加呼吁型。英语译文的文本功能和类型与原文一致,然而,原文的目标读者和译文的目标读者所处的语言文化!所遵循的规约、期待视阈、审美标准都各不相同。基于以上的分析,应采取变译策略。 (三)翻译方法 1、删减

(1)原文中的”国家AA级风景区””中国百家名园之一”,都是中国特色的旅游景点等级划分,国外则没有;此外,中国百家名园的评比标准是什么?谁发起的这些评比活动,可能很多中国游客也不一定非常清楚。文本发送者旨在说明该旅游景点有参观价值。但是,这些信息对外国游客来说不具有实质意义。因此,如果像原译文那样忠实于原作,不顾目标读者,直译的话,译文在其交际环境中不能实现其应有的功能,且影响外国游客理解;译文的文内连贯法则更是无法实现。只有解释性翻译才能让外国人了解这一具有中国特色的旅游景点等级划分和国家百家名园评比的意义,但标示牌的空间有限,不能容下如此冗长的翻译,所以采取省译。 (2)原文中“融观光旅游、学术研究、陈列收藏、旅游服务于一体。以其独特的园林风光、丰富多彩的陈列收藏、声情并茂的讲解、热情周到的服务以及极高的学术地位而享誉全国,蜚声海外”,前后两句语义重复,给人以累赘感。为使译文不冗长,选择翻译后一句。因为后一句提供了一些具体的信息,这符合英文的旅游文本行文习惯,具体简约而不失空泛。 (3)将原文中的夸张成分,“享誉全国,蜚声海外”进行省译,在中文中里这种夸张司空见惯,

而英文中很少这种自吹自擂。 2、合并

将原文中的“以其独特的园林风光、丰富多彩的陈列收藏、声情并茂的讲解、热情周到的服务以及极高的学术地位而享誉全国,蜚声海外。被誉为文化的殿堂,镶嵌在九寨沟旅游环线上璀璨的明珠。”合并成一句译文,使得译文结构更符合英文习惯。 3、虚实互换

汉语讲究描写虚,而英语讲究具体实际。因此,将原文中的“丰富多彩的陈列收藏、深情并茂的讲解、极高的学术地位”的内容进行具体化处理,这不但符合英文习惯,更能体现文本的呼吁功能。其次,将原文中的把李白纪念馆比作为“镶嵌在九寨沟旅游环线上璀璨的明珠”具体化,将其改成“九寨沟旅游环线上一个必经或必不可少的旅游点”。 41增译

将原文中的九寨沟进行直译,并加上意译，进而凸显原文本中的呼吁功能,这样不仅宣传了李白纪念馆,也宣传了九寨沟。外国游客一般对藏族文化非常好奇,但到西藏去旅游需要特殊申请,审批期限较长;因此,对于短期停留的外国游客来说,到九寨沟一游,不仅能欣赏到美丽的自然风光,还能了解藏族文化,不失为一石二鸟的好选择。改译如下:

The Li Bai Memorial, located by the scenic Changming River in Jiangyou city proper, is the biggest example of Tang-style courtyard architecture in China. Its unique garden scenes, its extensive art collections, its excellent guides and interpreters, and its Center for Li Bai Studies combine to make it a culture treasure and a must-visit site for tourists en route to Jiu Zhai Gou ( The Ravine of Nine Tibetan Villages).

文言文翻译

一、文言文翻译存在的难点分析 1，文言文的语言准确表达难

一般的翻译过程可解析为“理解--表达”两个阶段而文言文翻译的过程却包含着三个不同的阶段，即“理解（古汉语）--转换（现代汉语）--表达（外语）”由于文言文翻译多了这样一个中介过程，就会使原文信息面临二度丢失的危险。 2，对文言文原文的理解难

三点：一是汉语古今字面相同，而含义和用法不同的词。二是古今词义相同的部分是主要的，相异的部分是次要的。在大同而小异的地方还有微殊的地方，译者往往容易忽略这个细微的差别，造成错误；三是古今词义相同的部分是次要地，而相异的部分是主要的。在基本意义相同的情况下，由小的相同。 二、文言文翻译需要把握的原则 1，坚持民族性原则：

文言文虽然与现代文学有着相同的社会功能，但因其具有特殊的认识体系，在思想原则、概念范畴方面，都有自身独到的规定性，在观念系统、理论系统与操作系统方面，都有与现代文学强烈的不可通约性。所以就文化特征而言，文言文还只是中华民族特有的文学体系，因而具有鲜明的民族性。

2，坚持规定性原则：规定性原则指的是对文言文名词术语译语的内涵加以界定，使其不能另有解释。由于英语中缺乏文言文对应语，所以英译的文言文名词术语常常使人觉得有言不尽意的感觉。在翻译文言文名次术语时，我们可以对其译语的内涵加以规定，这样既能保证其释义的一致性，又能消除种种误解。 三、做好文言文英语翻译的主要方法 1，通过信息转换实现准确语言表达。

根据这些规则, 尝试着对医文言文进行解析式的翻译。具体做法是采用排比对译的方式解析出医文言文的具体翻译步骤, 从而使语义、词汇、句法等的转换过程一目了然, 使抽象的翻译程序变得具体、直观, 具有较强的可操作性,文言文翻译目前尚处在探索之中,况且解析式对译往往要同时照顾到两种语言的行文, 要作到完全契合实为不易。有时为了追求对应效果, 不得不采用文外补救的办法, 使得译文显得不够精练。

2．弄懂古今词义的细微差别。汉语言从古至今, 绝大多数词汇的意义已经发生了程度不同的变化, 正是这种变化造成了理解文言文的困难。因此翻译文言文时, 就要在理解上注意古今词义显著不同的词, 特别是要注意古今词义只有细微差别的词。弄懂古今词义差别的方法是要了解词的古义, 特别是它的本义。文言文译成英文时, 如遇专有名词或己被淘汰的词, 要勤查工具书, 决不可望文生义。

掌握词的古义办法只有一个, 这就是抓住词的本义。汉字是表义文字, 它的形体结构和意义有密切的关系, 特别是甲文言文、金文, 在字形辨认上又有所补充。因此, 历来的文字学家都是从分析字形入手探求本义的。如贾宜《过秦论》“ 追亡逐北” 中的北, , 作名词, 指败逃者（defeated troops）。“ 北” 字又假借为方位名词, 指北方。古籍中经常见到“ 北面” 一词, 是“ 面朝北” 的意思, 与今之 “ 北面” 不同。古之“ 北面” 有两个意思第一是指古代君主面朝南坐, 臣子见君主时则面朝北, 所以对人称臣则为“ 北面” , 如司马光《赤壁之战》的“ 北面而视之” (译文称臣而伺候他(曹操)(be subject and wait on him))。第二是指学生敬师之礼。

3. 通过直译和意译相结合。这两种翻译方法当以直译为主, 意译为辅。重要的是要能先理解大意, 然后要熟练掌握一些文言词语, 翻译文言文不要逐字翻译, 要翻译意思。最重要的是先要通读全段, 最好能翻译出大概意思。通过通读全文, 找出人名、地名、事名、物名、朝代名、国名、官职名等。文言文中有一些特殊的语序, 还有一些特殊的句式。准确把握这些特殊语序和特殊句式, 对文言文句读会有很大帮助。翻译时要做到修辞、文化、历史形式统一。文言文句子翻译除了涉及到语法和词义的知识以外, 还需要了解修辞格、文化意义以及

特定的历史条件等常识。例如“人非生而知之者，孰能无惑？惑而不从师，其为惑也，终不解矣。”可以翻译为“human is not know the truth when they were born, who is no question? There are some questions but do not ask teacher, question is still question and never be answered in the end”。

外事翻译 1, 外事翻译特点

外事翻译从形式上可以分为外事笔译和外事口译。外事翻译与科技翻译、新闻报道翻译、文学作品翻译不同,这一点在原作就体现得十分明显,因此翻译时一定要使用合适的文体. 翻译是一种跨文化的交际行为,能否圆满地完成这种交际任务,与翻译的目的密切相关. 关于翻译的目的,翻译理论者各有自己观点. 如有的人认为翻译的目的是向受众介绍异域民族不同的社会生活、文化、思想、观念,从而推动社会的进步. 2，翻译过程注意的问题 1) 翻译主体的意图性

作为外事翻译主体,必须清楚其翻译的目的和意图. 外事翻译是政治性翻译,译文除了要严格忠实于原文以外,在选择词语和句式时,还要仔细推敲,要准确表达原文的立场和态度. 也就是说,政治翻译要做到文字和思想的统一例如1984 年12 月19 日,中国政府与英国就香港问题共同发表了一份声明,即《中英联合声明》. 在英文中不少词都能够表达出“声明”这个含义,如 “statement”、“resolution - decision”等. 但作为外事翻译主体,必须清楚其翻译的目的和意图,外事翻译强调翻译的程式化和庄严化,所以在翻译时可以采用的策略受到严格限制.《中英联合声明》不是一个简单的条约或者协议,因此在翻译的时候为了明确表达《中英联合声明》的内在意义及庄重性,选择的词汇是“Joint Declaration”. 同样的道理,在《联合声明》中,一个重要的内容就是表明中国政府对香港“恢复行使主权”. 但是在“恢复行使主权”的翻译上,中英双方有很大分歧. 中方最初先提议用“recover sovereignty”,英方提议用“a transfer of sovereignty”。很明显,由于翻译主体的不同,彼此表达的意义完全不同. 中方的翻译是“收回主权”,而英方的翻译是“主权移交”,而且由于不定冠词“a”有贬低“移交”的意义,因此英方的翻译是我方不能接受的. 最后,经过我国法律专家的研究后,认为使用“resume the exercise of sovereignty”较为恰当,这一译文表明:我们国家以前对香港的主权,并不是“丧失”,而是由于种种原因“未能行使”,现在则是重新“恢复行使主权”。可见,定稿后的译文就正确的反映了翻译主体的意图 2) 译文的可接受性

译文的可接受性指的是译文是否符合目的语的文化和体裁惯例,是否通俗易懂. 可接受性的高低直接影响翻译的效果. 外事翻译与文学翻译不同的是,它并不强调语言的优美而侧重于语言的可接受性及理解性. 作为传递信息的主要载体,翻译中应侧重于忠实和连贯:即要遵守

外事翻译中的准确性及精确性、一致性及同一性、专业性和规范性原则.例如1999 年10 月我国外交部发言人曾就巴基斯坦局势发表看法:“我们十分关注巴基斯坦的局势发展,正在进一步了解情况. ”我国翻译人员把这句话译成“We are very much concerned about the developments in Pakistan and making further investigation into it”. 这样的翻译就不符合巴基斯坦的文化惯例. 因此,巴基斯坦驻华大使在新闻发布会后,立即要求中国政府做出澄清. 因为“concerned”一词含有否定意思,即有不好的事情发生时,某人对此表示“关注”.。巴基斯坦大使认为,中国和巴基斯坦是“全天候朋友”,中国政府不应该用与西方国家相同的词来表达态度. 因此,将原文译成“We have been watching the developments in Pakistan very closely and are waiting for further information”,则既能表明中国政府在巴基斯坦问题上的一贯立场,又能够避免上述矛盾的产生. 3) 文化的特殊性

翻译目的论认为翻译不仅是语言的翻译,而且也是文化的翻译,翻译涉及两种文化的比较. 文化的特殊性是指在进行两种文化对比时,存在于一种文化而不存在于另一种文化的现象. 外事翻译首先就是一种跨语言、跨文化的翻译. 我们不仅要掌握语言的表面形式,还要熟悉语言深层的文化内涵. 如果我们不尊重和不了解外国受众的思维习惯,超越语言和文化的差异,熟练地运用贴近其信息需求和思维习惯的英语语言,我们的传播效果就会受到很大影响. 例如,央视国际网站有关中国新闻的一则报道:

“Chinese leaders have joined noted intellectuals at a party to celebrate the Lantern Festival . The event took place at the Great Hall of the People in Beijing. ”

分析: 对中国受众来说, 没有必要对“Lantern Festival”加以说明,因为都知道这是元宵节,农历正月十五,是家人团聚的时刻. 但这一点需要向外国受众说明,不然他们会感到困惑:为什么中国领导人要与著名知识分子一起欢度这个节日呢? 当然,在新闻里,不能提供太具体的背景知识,要恰到好处,呈现出最重要的信息.

建议:“Chinese leaders have joined noted intellectuals at a party to celebrate the Lantern Festival ,an important day for a family reunion ,which marks the end of the Spring Festival celebration.

3 外事翻译中的主要失误 1) 语言性翻译失误

这种失误主要包括语句型和语意型两种. 前者如语法误解、单词误看、短语误识等等;后者如过度意译、断章取译、逻辑混乱等等. 例如,1999 年3 月朱总理在回答《时代》周刊记者时说:“我不认为我对美国的访问将要进入‘地雷阵’,但是确实会遇到很多敌意和不友好的气氛”. 译文: I don’t think my visit to the United States will bring me into a minefield ,but I do expect to encounter some hostile or some unfriendly at mosphere there. 该译文用了“bring into”和“I do expect to encounter”,似乎访问美国就是进人地雷阵并确实期待敌意. 若改为involve

entering 和may really meet 则更贴切. 改译: I don’t think my trip to the United States involves entering a minefield ,but I may really meet with much hostility or unfriendliness there. 2) 文化性翻译失误

与语言性失误相比,文化性翻译失误是一种宏观与具体层次上均存在的“功能性翻译失误”. 目的论所说的文化性翻译失误指译文中与译语文化规范和惯例相冲突之处,在外事翻译中主要体现在术语的随译. 例如:计划经济时代,我国提到的“外向型经济”就是指以出口为主的经济,因此译文可以是“export - oriented economy”,但是改革开放以后“, 外向型经济”已经发展成为一种全球化模式的经济,我国甚至在境外开设工厂来发展经济,因此“外向型经济”的词义已经扩大了,在翻译的时候也不应该再追求完全的直接对等翻译,译文应改成“global - market -oriented economy”. 又如,对于“五讲四美三热爱”的译文:“the movement of five stresses ,four points of beauty , and three aspects of love ,”这就是一个存在失误的译文,很多外国人误解为“五个重点,四个美女,三个情人”. 这就是一种文化性的失误,直译导致了内容的歪曲,信息的损失,理解上的困难. 因此,可以采取补加译注或解释性的翻译,使原语内容准确传递给读者. 改译为:“stress on decorum ,manners ,hygiene ,discipline and morals ;beauty of the mind ,language ,behavior , and the environment ;love of the motherland ,socialism and the Communist Party. ”对于这种中西文化差异以及汉语表达的浓厚中国特色带来的障碍,就要求译者具备娴熟的双语基本功和广博的文化知识,能根据上下文准确理解原文习俗语的喻义并加以变通。

第四部分 翻译流派

1. 解构主义学派概述：

解构主义是二十世纪六十年代末自法国兴盛起来的一股颇为引人注目的后现代主义思潮。它发端于哲学,其影响却渗入到了社会生活的各个层面。解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的,以消解性为主要特征,系统地解构了结构主义关于结构和意义等重要概念,故名曰―解构主义‖。解构主义的重要代表人物有雅克·德里达(Jacques Derrida)、麦克·福柯(Michel Foucault)等,在翻译界的代表则有劳伦斯·韦努蒂(Lawrence Venuti)等。其中,雅克·德里达是提出解构主义的第一人,因此被称为―解构主义之父‖,劳伦斯·韦努蒂作为翻译理论家和实践家,积极地著书立说,以实际行动极大地推动了解构主义翻译理论体系的确立和发展。 二十世纪伴随着哲学和文学领域的变革,翻译研究也不断出现新的转向,如语言学转向、文化转向等等,翻译研究被置身于一个更大的背景之下,从而得到了迅速的发展。

The profile of Deconstructionism Deconstruction is a post-structuralism trend of thought which inaugurated in the late 1960s in France. It originates in philosophy but penetrates into every aspect

本文来源：https://www.bwwdw.com/article/j2c.html