高英笔记 - 图文

In return 作为(对某物)的付款或回报

What do we give them in return。 Conceive of 想像、认为

I laughed to myself at the men and the ladies. Who never conceived of us billion-dollar Babies(俚语：人).

对于那些认为我们从不会成为腰缠万贯的巨富的先生和女士们，我们总是暗处嘲笑他们。 Scores of 很多

Scores of young people. Strike sb. as … 给某人留下印象

These conclusion strike me as reasonable. 我认为他们的话是合情合理的 Drop out 脱离传统社会 Ever since 自从 In hopes of 怀着…希望

Every since civilization began, certain individuals(人) have tried to run away from it in hopes of finding a simpler, more pastoral, and more peaceful life Support oneself 自食其力 Run out of 没有，用完，耗尽

Our planet is running out of noble savages and unsullied landscapes. 我们地球上高尚的野蛮人和未玷污的地方越来越少 the other way (round) 相反

come off 成功

These are the ones whose revolutions did not come off. In need of 需要

It dawns on a familiar, workaday place, still in need of groceries and sewage disposal.

它洒在一个司空见惯，平凡庸碌的地方，一个仍然无法摆脱食品杂货，污水处理的地方。

In short supply 供应不足，短缺 Break down 瓦解，崩溃

Broke down our resolve. 丧失了我们的决心 Out of work 失业 dawn on sb. 逐渐明白

It dawned on us rather suddenly that the number of passengers on the small spaceship we inhabit is doubling about every forty years. Come down (from…) (to…) 从一处来到另一处 Eat sth. up 吃光 In profusion 大量地

She had magnificent blonde hair, in profusion. Take a shot 猜测

As a point of departure 起点

As doctors often do I take a trial shot at it as a point of departure. 作为医生我经常根据猜测可能出现的总是进行提问 as yet 到现在为止

As yet, no man has set foot on Mars. 到目前为止还没有人登上火星。 Get somewhere 有进展，取得一些成就 If only 只要

If only they wouldn’t use the word “hurt” I might be able to get somewhere. Up to sb. 取决于某人 So long as 只要

Fall in love with 爱上

After all, I had already fallen in love with the savage brat, the parents were contemptible to me. Let out 发出(叫喊)

She let out a scream of terror. 她发出恐怖的叫喊。

Hold sb. down 控制住某人，压制某人 I tried to hold myself down but I couldn’t. Open up 张开

She open up for an instant but before I could see anything she came down again and gripped the wooden blade between her molars. Reduce sth. to 将…化为(变成)

She reduced spatula to splinters before I could get it out Through with sb. 结束

We are going to through with this. Go at sth. 努力做某事

He went at the job with a lot of energy. 他工作卖力 Tear sb/sth apart 严厉地批评…, 彻底毁灭…

I could have torn the child apart in my own fury and enjoyed it. Bred of … 由…造成

But a blind fury, a feeling of adult shame, bred of a longing for muscular release are the operative.

由于渴望释放男人的体力而产生的不理智的愤怒，和成年人的羞辱而使我继续下去，坚持到底。

On the defensive 采取守势

She had been on the defensive before but now she attacked. Fly at 冲上去攻击某人

Tried to get off her father’s lap and fly at me while tears of defeat blinded her eyes. Come to light 为人所知

New evidence has recently come to light At one’s request 应某人之请求

An anonymous doctor claimed to have killed a 20-year-old cancer patient at her own request. Rumble on 继续下去

This started a debate that will rumble on into the autumn. Hardly any 几乎没有

Get sth. over with 把不得不做的事做完(表示一种耐烦) She’ll be glad to get the exam over with. 考试结束后她就高兴了。 Far gone 病重

The injured man was fairly far gone by the time the ambulance arrived. Hold out 持续

How long can the distinction between killing and letting die hold out? Stand to gain 以职谋权

A man stands to gain from the death of a certain child. On request 一经要求

Only squeamishness demands a difference between passive and active euthanasia on request.. Intrude on 干涉，介入

It is not clear why the religious objections of others should intrude on his death. Usher in 预示

By refusing to discuss euthanasia, they usher in something worse. 而拒绝讨论安乐死，将预示着更大的灾难。 Be supposed to 应该

Her role is supposed to be to vote the way her male chairman votes. 她们所做的也只是按照男主席的方式 投一样的票。 Break out of 改变生活方式 Run for … seat 竞选…职位

When I tried to break out of that role in 1963 and run for the New York State Assembly seat from brooklyn’s Bedford [5bedfEd] [5bruklin] Build up 捧某人

Why invest time and effort to build the girl up? Drop out 退出 Have kids 生孩子

You know she’ll only drop out of the game to have a couple of kids just about the time we’re ready torun her for mayor. All the time 一直 Be in for 就要体验到

I’m just telling you that you are in for a disappointment. Leave sth. along 不干涉

Why don’t you just leave it alone now? Break in 插话

“No, he isn’t,” she broke in. Let it go 不再(多说、多做)

I thought she was hinting at something but I let it go. 我想她是有所指，不过我没有理会。 Get into trouble 被捕、陷入困境

Even an experienced climber can get into trouble. Get away 逃离

But Salina wouldn’t let him get away so noncommittally. Hide out 躲藏，到一个没有人能找得到的地方

The gangsters hid out in a remote cabin until it was safe to return to the city. 暴徒

们在一个偏僻的小屋中藏了起来，直到能够安全回城 Go for 想要取得

You think he might go for the scholarship? Check up 检查

Magpie needs some relief from this constant surveillance, constant checking up. Just about 几乎 Just around 大约 Pick sb. up 逮捕某人

They picked him up for breaking the condition of his parole. Now and again 偶尔,不时

I like to go to the opera now and again. Shake out 抖开、抖出

She had taken it out of its box that afternoon, shaken out the moth-powder, given it a good brush.

Snap at 厉声地对某人说

How sweet it was to see them snap at her again from the red eiderdown. Feel like 想要 Take sth. off 取掉

He sat on the bed to take his boots off. Go on about 长时间谈论某事

I got tired of him going on about all his problems. Keep sth. on 继续穿戴某物

You don’t need to keep your hat on indoors. 在室内不必戴着帽子了。 Dress up 打扮

It was the old offer dressed up as something new. Rush/come to the/sb’s rescue 帮助某人

Carol's brother rushes to the rescue and sent her $1000

Come along 出现 Run after 追逐某人

A beautiful woan came along and dropped her bunch of violets, and a little boy ran after to hand them to her. Flick sth away (轻轻地)弹掉… Flick the match away Over and over (again) 多次 Knock over sb 撞倒某人 Trot on 小跑而来 Trot off 小跑而去

off (with sb) (对某人)不礼貌，不友好 He was a bit off with me this moring. 他今天早晨对我有些冷淡。 Get to know 认识 But then 不过，然而 Let alone 更不必说

Her skin was a rich black that would have peeled like a plum if snagged, but then no one would have thought of getting close enough to Mrs. Flowers to ruffle her dress, let alone snag her skin.

她的皮肤黝黑，如果被尖锐的东西弄破，就会像李子一样剥落下来，然而从来没有人会想到走近Mrs. Flowers, 去弄皱她的衣服，更不用说去碰她的皮肤了。 Fresh in one’s memory 记忆犹新

One summer afternoon, sweet-milk fresh in my memory, she stopped at the Store to buy provisions.

令我记忆犹新的是，一个夏天的下午，她来商店买食物。 Hang back犹豫

I hung back in the separate unasked an unanswerable questions. 但是我仍然跟在她的后边，思考着那些既没问起以无法回答的问题。

Bear in mind 记住

But bear in mind, language is man’s way of communicating with his fellow man and it is language alone which separates him from the lower animals. Set down 写下、记下

Words mean more than what is set down on paper. Boggle at 吃惊

Imagination boggle at 难以想象

My imagination boggled at the punishment I would deserve if in fac-t I did abuse a book of Mrs. Flower’.

我无法想象如果我真的没好好读Mrs. Flower借给我的书，应当受到什么样的处罚。 Try one’s hand at 尝试

She warned that she hadn’t tried her hand at baking sweets for some time. 她说她已经有一段时间没尝试烤甜点了。 Brush off 刷掉，拂去

When I finished the cookies she brushed off the table and brought a thick, small book from the bookcase.

Exchange A for B with sb. 用A和B作交换

He exchanged the black jacket for a blue one with salesman. Single out 挑选出

I didn’t question why Mrs. Flowers had singled me out for attention. Do one’s heart good 使人感到鼓舞，欢欣 Take to 对…产生好感

That do my heart good to see settled people take to you all. Trailed off 声音逐渐弱到不出声 Her voice trailed off. On the order of 大约

equipment costing on the order of a million dollars. 花费近百万美元的设备

in sb’s place 处于谁的情况

Try to put yourself in my place and think how you would feel. Get to sb. 影响某人

I has become fashionable to think that, like fast food, fast ideas are the way to get to a fast-moving, impatient public. Feed on sth 受到…滋养

Hatred feeds on envy. 因妒生恨。 Think up 想出

She was trying to think up an excuse In the shape of 以…的形式

This one was very young, with inexperience even in the shape of his mustache which he had shaved too much on the left side.

他非常年轻，从他胡子的形状看，他很缺乏经验，他左侧的胡子乔得太多了。 Number off 报数 Go away 走开 Draw lots 抽签，抓阄 Go by 遵照

We must draw lots, unless it is thought that we should go by ages. Get off (with sth.) 免受处罚 got off scot-free. 逍遥法外

picture sth to oneself 想象或设想某事物

This isn’t the last draw we shall have, and picture to yourselves what it will be like in this cell if we have a privileged class. Leave sb/sth out of sth 排除在外 Kidd has been left out of the team. Have it/things/everything one’s own way Have it your own way. 按你的意思办吧 Scrap of paper 纸片

Feel for 摸索，寻找 In one’s favor 占优势

an error in our favor. 对我方有益的错误 force on sb 勉强某人接受某事物 let sth drop 不再做或提某事(人)

Some men drew the first slip which touched their fingers, others seemed to suspect that fate was trying to force on them a particular slip and when thety had drawn one little way from the shoe would let it drop again an choose another. Break up 结束

Like a game of cards which has gone on too long, he only wanted someone to make a move and break up the table(game).

Go over (from… ) (to… ) 从一处到另一处 Draw out 抽出

He went over to his roll of bedding and drew out a writing pad. 他走到他的铺盖卷，拿出一打书写纸。 Saving grace 长处，可取之处 Humor is the saving grace of us. Depend upon 确信

You may depend upon it that before I have gone very far I fell an overpowering desire for sleep. 我敢说不管一天的什么时候，写不了多少就很想睡觉 A kind of 表示一种不确定性

Just a kind of dream. 可能就是一个梦吧。 Make for 有助于

I am making for myself a better reputation there than I am in this place. 在那儿我的声誉要比在这里好的多。 At once 同时

Plunge … into … 进入某种状态

Once in bed, when it is time to close the five ports(五官) of knowledge, most folks I know seem to find no difficulty in plunging their earthly parts into oblivion. Be given to (sth./doing sth.) 有做某事的习惯 He's given to taking long walks. 他非常喜欢长途散步。 Thanks to 由于

Some ski resorts opened early, thanks to a late-October snowstorm. Take sth to heart 把…放在心上

Take these fables to heart. 用心记住这些故事。 Cast up 计算

…, no casting up the balance of the day’s pleasure and pain. Sink into 陷入

leave to (one's) own device 让某人独立处理问题，不支配某人

They sink , at once, into stupid, heavy slumber, leaving you to your own mental devices.

马上会进入愚蠢的，沉沉的睡眠状态，剩下你自己苦思冥想。 serve turn 适用

The famous old plan of counting sheep jumping over a stile have never serve my turn. (p158) Come up 偶遇 Make up 捏造，虚构

I have the lonely child’s habit of making up story and holding conversations with imaginary persons. Get back恢复

Things will soon get back to normal. 这种情况会马上恢复正常的。 At a time 每次 In so far as 在…范围内

So it is clear what kid of books I wanted to write, in so far as I could be said to want to write books at that time. Get stuck 卡住，不能动弹 They got stuck in a traffic jam. Put aside 抛开

At any rate 无论如何，至少

Put aside the need to earn a living, I think there are four great motives for writing, at any rate for writing prose.

先不说写作是为了谋生，我认为有四种写作动机，至少写散文是这样。 Get one’s own back on 报复

She wanted to get her own back on Liz for ruining her party.

Store sth. up 储备或储存

A squirrel storing up food for the winter. Strive after 奋斗

Desire to push the world in a certain direction, to alter other people’s idea of the kind of society that they should strive after. Once again 再一次 Free form 没有

Have nothing to do with 与…无关

Once again, no book is genuinely free from political bias. The opinion that art should have nothing to do with politics is itself a political attitude. Turn the scale 扭转局面，改变形式

The Spanish war and other events in 1936-1937 turned the scale and thereafter I knew where I stood. Take side 支持、领袖

It is simply(仅仅、不过) a question of which side one takes and what approach on follow.

In any case 无论如何 In itself 就其本身而言

Most of the work that most people have to do is not in itself interesting. At a loss 茫然，困惑

Most people are at a loss to think of anything sufficiently pleasant to be worth doing. At time 有时

First and foremost 首先

In comparison with 相比之下，比较起来

In comparison to other recent video games, this one isn't very exciting. At large 整个，总的

In the long run 最后，从长远看

Continuity of purpose is one of the most essential ingredients of happiness in the long run.

Well-to-do 富裕的 Kill time 消磨时间

(As) a matter of course 理所应当的事

We will contact your former employer as a matter of course. At one’s best 处于最佳状态

It seems that men are at their best between sixty and seventy. Not a few 相当多

With/without one’s knowledge 告知(未告知)某人 He sold the car without his wife’s knowledge. 他瞒着妻子把汽车卖了。 Get by 离开，通过

He said it would never get by his desk because the Army would rescind the magazine’s accreditation to cover the war. Sink in 完全理解

The message begins to sink in. Not give a damn 毫不在乎

And the mass of people in this country literally don’t give a damn. Put on = switch sth on

After all, you can switch off the TV news and put on Dick Van Dyke. 毕竟你可以关掉电视新闻，换上Dick Van Dyke的节目。 So what 就算是我也不在乎 He’s fifteen years younger than me. So what if he is? In the form of 以…的形式 Deal in 沉溺于

But what this country doesn’t know is that America has created a monster in the form of millions of fighting men who have been taught to deal in violence. In no way 决不

Stand up for 为某人说话、工作 In a way 在某种程度上

It’s a distortion because we in no way considered ourselves the “best men” in this country, because those he called misfits were standing up for up in a way nobody else in this country dared to Tear sth apart 彻底毁灭 Tear this country apart. Want of 缺乏，不足

We found that too often American men were dying in those rice paddies(稻田) from want of support from out so-called allies. Blame sth on sb / blame sb for sth America blamed it all on the Viet Cong. Hand out 分配某物，分发

Relief workers were handing out emergency rations to the survivors. Call for 要求

The situation call for prompt action. 形势所迫，必须立即采取行动。

Part and parcel of 重要部分，不可缺少的一部分 Badly off 潦倒，穷困

The diffusion of wealth now permits those of the poor who are less badly off than their father to do the same. Long since 很久以前

I've long since forgiven her for what she did.

英国文学总结1 2009-07-15 14:54 英国文学总结（一）

Early English Beowulf ---the first piece of English literature (not native) Middle English

Geoffrey Chaucer “the father of English poetry” & the greatest narrative poets in England

The Canterbury Tales---a type of poetry---narrative poem

Epic is a long and exalted narrative poem, usually on a serious subject centered on a heroic figure.

Romance is a literary genre in verse or in prose popular in the middle ages. It deals with legendary , supernatural or anonymous subjects and characters. The romance of the middle ages was a form of chivalric and romantic literature

widely spread through Europe from the 11th century, is a form of narrative , originally song , but later written by court musician .

Ballad the anonymous folk ballad was composed to be song. It is primary based on an old legend or romance. This type of romance is usually a short and simple song. That tells a dramatic story though dialogue and action. Briefly allusive to what has gone before and such popular romance the familiar stanza of form is four lines.

ⅢThe Renaissance William Shakespeare (1564~1616)

Renaissance is an essential culture movement in the period between the 14th and middle 17th century. It first started in Italy with a flowering, sculpture and literature, emerged in 1485~1660 the renaissance is a revival of ancient Roman and Greek culture and then humanism is the essence of renaissance. Many forms of works appeared in this period. In England Shakespeare is a represent and his major work is Hamlet and others. His works achieved much in literature.

Humanism encouraged the great care in the study of the literature of classical antiquity and reformed education. Writers and poets pay more attention to literary style, dramas, novels, etc.

Renaissance poetry two greatest poets---Philip Sidney (began sonnet) Edmund Spenser the Fair Queen

Poetry---lyrical poetry, narrative poetry & dramatic poetry. Verse Strictly---refers to one line of a poem

Loosely---it refers to a whole stanza (The earliest ballad)

Stanza is a group of lines whose pattern is repeated throughout the poem. Rhyme scheme is the order in which rhymed words recur in the stanza. Sonnet-lyrical poem of 14 lines with a formal rhyme scheme, it expresses different aspects of a single thought, mood or feeling. There are two main forms of sonnet: the Italy (Patriarch) consists of an eight-line stanza and a six-line stanza.

Blank verse is a one-line pattern for a poem, it is unrhymed iambic pentameter.

Iambic- the rhythm of a foot is a weak beat/sound followed by a strong beat. English sonnet- also called Shakespeare sonnet, consists of three quatrains and a final rhymed couplet.

Meter is the result of stresses recurring at fixed intends. Hamlet①type of works---play②genre---revenge tragedy③the chief character---Protagonist-Hamlet

④setting of time---the late medieval period⑤setting of place---Denmark (written in England)

⑥the major conflict---Hamlet feels a responsibility to revenge Claudius, the present king. He struggled with the doubt whether he can trust the ghost and whether to kill Claudius.

⑦Monologue + soliloquy

“To be or not to be” It is a marvelous example of S’s ability of characterization to make his characters seem three diamotional. The audiences sense that this was more in H’s words than what is heard. These are something behind it that is never spoken or to put it in another way. The audience witness sighs of something within H’s mind, even he himself doesn’t aware. In this way, H is a fictional character who seems to process a subconscious mind.

Hamlet’s characters:①Love learning, reading and thinking: a pioneer of enlightenment movement, humanism is one of the origins of renaissance. Contrast with Claudius’ in normal (break laws to achieve his own success).H’s variability and excitability contrast with his friend Horatio’s loyalty and stability.②H’s indecisive inability (indecisiveness) to act.③Inactivity: H is in same situation with Fortinbras and Laertes, but F even wanted to start a war to revenge his father’s death, and L wanted seek revenge when he knew his father’s death.④H is forced to make choices whose consequence are unforeseeable as well as unavoidable. H found himself in a unique and traumatic situation which is so shocking that affected him for a long time. Such situation just caused into a question: the basic truth and ideals of life. He can no longer believe in religion (Christian), trust the society (his mother’s betray) and turn to philosophy (reason).

类别：学习 | | 添加到搜藏 | 分享到i贴吧 | 浏 英国文学总结2 2009-07-15 14:56 英国文学总结（二）

Ⅳ17th century ---poetry John Donne

John Milton Paradise Lost (iambic rhythm, pentameter, blank verse) Heroic couplets are two rhyme iambic pentameter lines which was made popular by pop in the 18c. This form is often used in epics and heroic dramas. Alexander emptied these heroic dramas with great effort.

Pentameter is a common pattern of beats in English poetry in which each line consists of 5 feet.

Legend is a story coming down from the past, especially a story is popularly regarded as its historical.

The metaphysical poetry A group of English lyrical poems of the 17th century. 1Characteristics: the hall-mark of the metaphysical poetry is the metaphysical conceit (a kind of comparison) which is rely on intellectual weight learned imagery and subtle argument.

2metaphysical conceit: a figure of speech that employs unusual and paradisiacal images. 3famous writer: John Donne

Elegy: is a poem written in elegiac verse, in English poetry since the 16c refer to a reflicticle poem of lamentation or regret.

Metrical form: in English poetry since 16c without set-metrical form,

generally of malent choly tone often on death. There are many famous pastoral elegies.

Allegory: is closely related to metaphor and the fable. In lecture it is a symbolic story that serves as a disguised of resprestation for the meanings rather than those indicate beneath the surface. It is man’s spiritual salvation. E.g. John Bunyan The Pilgrim’s progress

Characterization: the ~ of Paradise Lost: only two characters are people, even them are different from us, neither belongs to a family. They have power beyond our human beings. Describing them, Milton uses human terms. Is Satan a hero or a villain? Neither should be in show action, but the truth remains we would rather with Satan’s company. Ⅴ18 century --- the age of enlightenment Jonathan Swift

Gulliver’s Travels satire 1Genre: satire Type: novel

Narrator / protegnist: Lamuel Gulliver Point of view: first person point of view

Tone: the narrator’s tone (satirical---author’s intention)

Setting: time---related to atmosphere against the background of the early

th

18c

Place---primarily in England and the imaginary countries

Major conflict: on the surface Gulliver strived to understand various societies with which he come into contact but below the surface Gulliver is engaged in the conflict with the English society. Motif: can help us draw the theme of the novel Symbol: Lilliputian, Houyhnhnins.

Characters: Gulliver (narrator) --- well-educated

Emperor --- ruler of Lilliputian, in high fewer than 6 inches, but in rank high believe he can control Gulliver.

2Using genre of travelogue to heighten the satire, fantastic style, which makes no attempt to

seem truthful, accurate, traditional, weakens satire. But Gulliver’s Travels make it relavent.

The style stretches, heighten the satire by making what is important irrelevant.

Key point: a standard travelogue style.

3Time written the word is when European was the world’s military and economic dominate

power, when England despised it’s small size, England was rising with power. 4the Lilliputians is incarnation of England, Gulliver himself because Lilliputian to other English men.

Style: Classicism---suggests objective presentation formal structure and ceremonious language.

Romantic---subjective presentation, not formal structure but organic structure, obscure, efficient or everyday language.

Graveyard School: is a 18c school of English poets, who write primly about human mortality. The setting is often a graveyard, and their poems considered/mused on the solitude of death and the pain of losing a family member or friend. Their air of pensive gloomy just presage the melancholy of romantic movement. The most famous was Elegy, written in a country churchyard, by Thomas Gray

Narrator: in fiction or narrative poem, a voice or character who tells the story, generally can be divided into three types:11st---the narrator is a character in the story

23rd limited---the narrator tells the story from the point of view of one character

33rd omniscient---the narrator tells the story from as many points of views as necessary.

Point of view: in literature the point of view is the related experience of

the narrator, not the Author’s perspective.

Motif is recurrent image, words, phrases, even theme, characters or situation that can help develop and inform the major themes: food, travel, the law, symbols and genre of tone (narrative tone is quite ironic-literary devices). Theme in literature is underlying central idea or the generalization it communicates about life. The ~ expresses the author’s opinion or the themes raises a question about human nature or the meaning of human experience at times the author’s theme may not confer or agree with your own believes. The difference between subject and theme: a piece of literature may have both ~ and subject. The subject is a specific topic of the selection; the ~is the generalization about life at large that the specific selection leads you to see. A long work way contains more than one ~.

Part VI The 18th Century The Age of Enlightenment in England

1. Enlightenment:

The Enlightenment on the whole, was an expression of struggle of the then progressive class of bourgeoisie against feudalism.The enlighteners fought against class inequality,stagnation,prejudices and other survivals of feudalisms. The attempted to place all branches of science at the service of mankind by connecting them with the actual deeds and requirements of the people,

2.The enlighteners repudiate the false religious doctrines about the viciousness of human nature,and prove that man is born kind and honest ,and if he becomes depraved,it is only due to the influence of corrupted social environment. 3.The first representatives of the English Enlightenment were Joseph Addison(1672—1719),and Richard Steele(1672--1729),the publishers of a moralistic journal The Spectator,and the poet Alexander Pope(1688-1744). 4.The image of an enterprising Enlglishman of the 18th century was created by Daniel Defoe in his famous novel Robinson Crusoe.This book was one of the forerunners of the English 18th century realistic novel .But it was Henry Fielding and Tobias George Smollet who became the real founders of the genre of the bourgeois realistic novel in England and Europe. 5.The middle of the 18th century in England sees the inception of a new literary current ---that of sentimentalism（cause）：came into being as a result of a bitter discontent on the part of certain enlighteners in social reality. 6.The most outstanding figure of English sentimentalism was Laurence Sterne(1713-1768).His Tristram Shandy(1759-1767) and Sentimental Journey(1768). 7.Another conspicuous trend in the English literature of the latter half of the 18th century was the so-called pre-romanticism.It originated among the conservative groups of men of letters as a reaction against Enlightenment and found its most manifest expression in the ―Gothic novel‖,the term arising from the fact that the greater part of such romances were devoted to the medieval times. 8.The more notable of the Gothic novels are The Castle of Otranto(1765) by Horace Walpole(1727-1797) and The Mysteries of Udolpho(1794) by Ann Radcliff(1764-1823). 9.The mysterious element plays an enormos role in the Gohtic novels;it is so replete with bloodcurdling scenes and unnatural feeling that it is justly called‖a novel of horrors ‖. 10.Jonathan Swift(1667-1745)作品:Gulliver’s Travels.(格列佛游记)。 On the very first voyage ,Gulliver is shipwrecked.He swims to the shore of a strange land,inhabited by Lilliputians,the tallest of whom is six inches high. 11.William Blake(1757-1827)作品：The Song of Experience(1794)经验之歌。The Song of Innocence天真之歌。The Tiger老虎.

12.Robert Burns(1759-1796)—the greatest of Scottish poets.pome作品---To a Mouse,To a Mountain Daisy,The Two Dogs,Halloween.

Burns’ poetry is bone of the bone and flesh of the flesh of the Scottish common people.The great poet drew his inspiration from the treasury of Scotch folklore and his poems in their turn became the people’s property.

In his poems Burns glorified a natural man –a healthy,joyous and clever Scoth peasant.

13. A Red, Red Rose

nBurns spent the last 10 years of his life collecting and editing songs.

During this time, Burns also composed more than 300 original works, songs that relied heavily on the folk culture of the Scottish peasantry. “A Red, Red Rose,” first published in 1794 in A Selection of Scots Songs, is one such song.

nThis is one of burns’ popular love lyrics. The extreme simplicity of the

language and the rhythmic beat of the verse express the poet’s true sentiments toward his beloved. 直到四海涸竭，亲爱的， 直到太阳把岩石消熔！ 我会永远爱你，亲爱的， 只要生命无穷。

再见吧，我唯一的爱人， 再见吧，小别片刻！ 我会回来的，我的爱人， 即使万里相隔！

O my luve is like a red, red rose, That's newly sprung in June; O my luve is like the melodie That's sweetly played in tune.

As fair thou art, my bonie lass, So deep in luve am I;

And I will luve thee still, my dear, Till a' the seas gang dry.

Till a' the seas gang dry, my dear, And the rocks melt wi' the sun;

And I will luve thee still , my dear, While the sands o' life shall run. And fare thee weel, my only luve, And fare thee weel a while; And I will come again, my luve, Tho'it wre ten thousand mile!

Themes

nLove and Passion

nThe poem expresses love, but it does not try to stir up deep feelings of

passion — instead, it makes the speaker’s feelings sound more theoretical than real. This raises the impression that the love affair might be more for show. The poem actually says that the speaker’s love can be measured by how fair the woman is.

nLines 7 and 11 contain promises that the speaker makes to his lover. The

problem is that his promises are exaggerated. Such promises are common among passionate young lovers but are difficult to take seriously. Style

nThe poem is written in 4 quatrains, consisting of alternating tetrameter

and trimeter lines. Quatrains written in this manner are called ballad stanzas.

nThe ballad is an old form of verse adapted for singing or recitation,

originating in the days when most poetry existed in spoken form. The typical subject matter reflects folk themes important to common people: love, courage, the mysterious, and the supernatural.

Part V The 17th century

The Period of Revolution And Restoration

1. The revolution meant three things:the supremacy of Parliament, the beginning of moden England,and the final triumph of the principle of

political liberty for which the Puritan had fought and suffered hardship for a hundred years.

2. Literary Characteristics:In literature also the Puritan Age was one of confusion,due to the breaking up of old ideals.Medieval standards of chivalry,the impossible loves and romances perished no less surely than the ideal of a national church.The Puritans believed in simplicity of life.They disapproved of the sonnets and the love poetry written in the previous period,In 1642 the theatres were closed.The Bible became now the one book of the people .The Puritan influence in general tended to suppress literary art.Yet this hard ,stern sect produced a great poet, John Milton ,and a great prose writer ,John Bunyan.

3. John Donne:metaphysical poets玄学派诗人（1572？-1631）：作品—Death Be Not Proud，A Valediction:Forbidding Mourning.The metaphysical poetry A group of English lyrical poems of the 17th century.

4. A Valediction:Forbidding Mourning.

nThe word “valediction” is derived from Latin, meaning farewell. Therefore,

the title says, in essence, \

nThis poem shows many features associated with metaphysical poetry. In 1611,

Donne wrote the poem to his wife, weak and pregnant when he was about to set off France conducting government business. Donne intended to persuade his wife to release from the sadness of their departure.

nThe poem tenderly comforts the speaker’s wife at their parting, asking that they separate calmly

and quietly, without tears or protests. The speaker justifies his desire by showing that the two share a holy love. Donne’s celebration of love has often been referred to as the “religion of love,” a key feature of many other poems.

Themes

n1. Death

nDeath, a theme common to Donne’s writing, is a significant theme in this

poem. In the opening stanza, Donne makes mention of “virtuous men pass[ing] mildly away.” He uses this notion of death as a metaphor for his departure on a journey that will take him away from his wife. n2. Love

nLove is an integral theme to the poem. Donne reminds his wife that an

out-pouring of sadness and emotion over his leaving would profane their love for one another. He uses the love that is ordinary to contrast the “refined” love that he and his wife share. Thus, he reveals the nature of “religious love.”

n3. Religious Faith

nIn likening his departure to the deaths of “virtuous men,” he suggests

that pious men do not fear death. Rather, they embrace it, because they know that eternal life awaits them, and they will be welcomed by the Lord.

nFurther, the men's strong faith is also used as a metaphor for Donne’s

faith in his relationship with his beloved wife.

n4. Science

nScience is an important theme. It is present in reference to a drawing

compass, which was invented only 2 years earlier. Science, too, is present as he references the “moving of th’ earth” and the Ptolemaic spheres. Science plays a role, too, as he mentions that his love will expand “like gold to airy thinness beat,” referencing its physical property. Style

nDonne constructs the poem in nine 4-line stanzas, using a 4-beat, iambic

tetrameter line. The rhyme scheme for each stanza is an alternating abab.

nThis simple form is uncharacteristic for Donne, who often invented elaborate stanza forms and rhyme

schemes. Its simplicity permits the reader to follow the speaker’s complicated argument more easily.

1. John Milton作品： Paradise Lost (iambic rhythm, pentameter, blank verse)失乐园；Paradise Regained

2. John Milton的sonnet:On His Blindess

Introduction

nIn the poem, Milton struggles with frustration at becoming blind and with

his own sense of how important it is to use one’s talents well in God’s service.

nThe sonnet records how he comes to understand a higher notion of service:

real service is doing the will of God even if it means he must “stand and wait.”

nNotice as well the use of puns. The words with double meanings are “spent”

(in line 1), “talent” (line 3), “useless” (line 4), “account” (line 6), and “exact” (line 7). The secondary meanings run in a coherent line of images: all are images of monetary exchange. nThemes

n1. Limitation

nIn the poem, Milton meditates on the devastating effect blindness has had

on his life and work. He laments not the handicap, but the limitations it imposes on his work as a poet.

nHis poetic ability is so important to him that he calls it “that one

talent,” suggesting it is the only talent that matters. It is “Lodged with me useless” — in other words, its expression has been rendered impossible by his blindness.

nHis limitation is distressing since he desires to write poetry but seems

impossible. Blindness imposed a double limitation on Milton’s poetic activity. It made poetry an impossible activity for him. In addition, Milton’s conception of epic poetry presupposed a high level of education. The loss of his vision meant he could no longer read and could no longer learn.

n2. Light

nThe image of “light” is important. Firstly, it refers to physical light,

which the poet can no longer experience. Secondly, daylight is a metaphor for man’s life. Like each day, our lives are limited and once night comes that day is gone forever. He believes the darkness means the end of his creative life and the failure of achieving another, longer life: the immortality.

nOn yet another level, light signifies the inner light, the spiritual light

that shines in the poet. In the gospel story, Christ called himself “the light of the world,” that he was bringing God’s word to man. Milton believed that poets were also bringers of light; their works brought a special kind of enlightenment to humanity. But his blindness has snuffed out his poetic light. n3. Duty

nMilton refers to a Bible story in this poem. The moral of the story is that

each are given gifts by God, and that for all there will be a day of reckoning when all will have to “present [one’s] true account.” Milton plays upon the 2 meanings of “talent”: a form of money and a God-given ability. He fears that, because of his blindness, he will never be able to put his talent to the use God intends.

nMilton’s blindness made him similar to the wicked servant cast into

darkness. He was worried that he was also cast out of the light, out of God’s presence. He was worried that his blindness prevented him from doing his duty to God. Can God expect him to fulfill his duty without his eyesight? Finally, Milton arrives at a satisfying conclusion.

n4. Submission

nPatience prevents Milton from asking the God a foolish question. Man’s

duty to God is not to give Him anything. God has no need of humans’ work; everything they have are “his own gifts.” In the face of blindness, the only course of action is a humble resignation to God’s will. In another Bible story, Jesus cured a blind man of his blindness.

nJesus tells his disciples that the blind man did not become blind because

he had sinned, “but that the work of God should be made manifest in him.” Milton accepts his lot as part of a greater plan. Some are meant for action. But others “who only stand and wait” — as servants awaiting his master’s bidding — do God’s will as well. Style

nIn the poem written in iambic pentameter, Milton takes advantage of the

Italian sonnet form, in which the octave poses a problem, and the sestet offers an answer. The quatrains use enclosed rhyme, sometimes notated as abba abba; here the sestet’s rhyme scheme is cde cde, one of the many accepted rhyme schemes of an Italian sestet.

nIt is interesting to notice the many enjambments, the running over of one

line into another, which might be said to make the lines hurry along. All the impatient enjambments make the last line stand out by contrast; in some sense they help the last line perform what its theme is, to stand still and wait.

Pate VII The Romantic Period(1798-1832) Romanticism in England

1.The romantic period(1798-1832):It was amid these social conflicts mentioned above that Romanticism arose as a main literary trend,which prevailed in English during the period of 1798-182,beginning with the publication of Wordsworth's lyrical Ballads(1798),ending with Walter Scott's death(1832)

The eighteenth century was distinctively an ege of prose.The Age of Wordsworth-like the Age of Shakespeare-was decidedly an age of poetry. 2. William Wordsworth(1770-1850):Lyrical Ballads(抒情歌谣集)标志进入浪漫主义时代。The Rime of the Ancient Mariner(自传集诗歌)。

Some of Wordsworth's principal poems are:Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey(1798),The Prelude(1805-1806),The

Excursion(1814),miscellaneous sonnets(written at different periods of his life)

Themes

n1. Beauty

nThis poem was written in praise of a beautiful woman. It uses images of

light and darkness interacting to describe the various elements in her looks and personality. Unlike common love poetry, which claims that its subject is filled with beauty, this poem describes its subject as being surrounded by beauty, like an aura.

nThe poem stresses her goodness, serenity, and innocence, which all have

a direct causal effect on her beauty. The woman is so beautiful, inside and out, that Byron goes out of his way to mention all of the various possible sources, to show that he appreciates her beauty to its fullest.

nIt is typical of Byron’s romantic sensibilities to see beauty as a

mixture of light and darkness, admitting that the sinister, mysterious darkness of night has as much to do with a woman’s appeal as the positive aspects associated with light. Pure light is so limited in its relation to beauty as to be “gaudy.”

n2. Harmony

nByron balances light and dark within the personality of one beautiful

woman. The two things are often thought to be mutually exclusive: light does not exist where there is darkness and vice versa. However, light and dark can exist together in harmony in the beautiful woman.

nHarmony is more than different things existing together. In music, which

is where the word is most often used, it refers to a special, third tone that occurs when two tones work together with each other and make a new, pleasing sound. Similarly, Byron implies that the meeting of light and dark within this woman creates a new thing that is greater than the sum of the two. They create a well-rounded whole that is great enough to hold contrasting elements.

n3. Perfection

nSeveral places implies that the poem is giving an image of womanly

perfection. It describes how her eyes contain “all that’s best of dark and bright.” It explains that the slightest variance of light or dark would cut in half the grace that gives her the great beauty. All elements must be kept in the present proportions for her beauty to remain. This is perfection. Style

nThe poem rhymes ababab, cdcdcd, efefef. The pairing of two rhyming sounds

works well because the poem concerns itself with the two forces — darkness and light — at work in the woman’s beauty, and also the two areas of her beauty — the internal and the external.

nPoets often use their poetic structures to mirror what the poem’s chief

concerns are. Poetic form — stanzas and meter — and content — what the poem’s subject is — are always related.

nThe meter is also very regular — iambic tetrameter.

4.Walter Scott(1771-1832)

1）Walter Scott is the creator and a great master of the historical novel 2）The great realists of the 19th century made use of,and developed,the method of a realistic presentation of the past in their description and treatment of contemporary life.Thus we may say that Walter Scott's historical novel paved the path for the development of the realistic novel of the 19th century.

5.Jane Austen （1775-1817）completed six novels,Northanger

Abbey,Persuasion,Sense and Sesibility,pride and prejudice,Mansfuekd Park,and Emma

PartVIII The Victorian Age

1.The greatest English realist of the time was Charles Dickens. 2.The greatness of the English realists lies not only in their satirical portrayal of bourgeosie and in the exposure of the greed and hypocrisy

of the ruling classes,but also in their profound humanism which is revealed in thier sympathy for the labouring people.These writers create positive characters who are quite alien to the vics of the rich and who are chiefly common people.

3.Charles Dickens(1812-1870) Oliver Twist,1837-1838 4.Geirge Eliot (1819-1880)

5.Alfred,lord Tennyson(1809-1892):作品（Crossing the Bar）In his next work,however,In Memoriam(1850),the poetry interpenentrates the theme,one which was just then engaging the minds of men more passionately than ever before in the world's history-the question of the immortality of the soul.

分权的目的在于避免独裁者的产生。古代的皇帝以至地方官员均集立法、执法（行政）、司法三大权于一身，容易造成权力的滥用。即使在现代，立法、运用税款的权力通常掌握在代表人民意愿的议会中，司法权的独立在于防止执法机构滥权。

美国的总统制

美国的立国者对政府普遍采取不信任的态度。为了保障公民自由和限制政府的权力，他们接纳了孟德斯鸠的想法，在美国宪法之内清楚地把行政、司法、立法分开，而且让它们互相制衡。在当时这种宪制是前所未有的崭新尝试。至今美国联邦政府的三权分立，仍然是众多民主政体中最彻底的。而美国大部分的州政府亦有相同的宪制架构。

三权分立常见的问题是如何解决行政及立法机关之间的矛盾。其中一种方法是采用议会制。在议会制之下，行政机关的领导来自立法机关的多数派。行政、立法并不完全分离。现代一般认为，成功和稳定的自由民主政制不一定需要彻底的三权分立。事实上，除了美国以外，所有开始实行民主便使用总统制的国家，它们的首次民主尝试都以失败告终。相反议会制的成功率反而较高。

就算是三权分立最成功的美国，如何解决三个部门之间的矛盾仍然间中出现阻碍。1929年大萧条时期，罗斯福上台颁布一系列法令，并通过国会授权取得美国总统史上前所未有的巨大权力。但美国联邦法院却经常驳回一些法令。结果1935年1月最高法院以8比1的票数，宣布罗斯福的《全国工业复兴法》违宪。同年一名失业工人试图利用《最低工资法》来取得工资补偿时，被控方律师则直接指出该法案违反了美国宪法第14条修正案。罗斯福为推行新政，于1936年3

月6日进行了“炉边谈话”，将矛头直指司法部门，要求国会让他无限制增加最高法院法官的数目，间接将司法部门置于行政部门管辖下。这就引起了全国范围的激烈讨论。后来联邦最高法院判决的大法官认为《最低工资法》并无违宪。有人认为当时大法官是为了保证三权分立的政治格局而退让。

政体指的是一个国家的政权组织形式。分为君主立宪制和共和制，在现代，君主立宪制主要指的是议会制君主立宪制（简称议会君主制）。共和制分为两种：即资本主义共和制和社会主义共和制。社会主义国家的政体都是共和制，人民代表大会制是我国的政体。资本主义共和制分为两种：即议会制共和制和总统制共和制。

再说一下三权分立。三权分立学说是在17—18世纪发生在欧洲的启蒙运动期间产生和最终形成的。分权学说的最早提出者是英国的洛克，他主张国家的立法权，行政权和处理外交事务的权力应该分属议会和君主。到了18世纪，法国启蒙思想家孟德斯鸠继承和发展了洛克的分权学说，明确地提出了立法权，司法权和行政权三权分立的原则—即三权分立学说。他认为立法权应该由人民集体享有，司法独立，君主则只享有行政权。三者之间以权力的―制约和平衡‖为思想核心，互相独立，互相监督。三权分立学说就反对封建专制制度而言，具有重大的进步意义。美国1783年独立以后，于1787年制定了一部宪法—即1787年宪法。这部宪法根据三权分立学说把美国的国家职权分为立法，司法和行政三个部门，分别由国会，最高法院和总统执掌，这样，三权分立学说在它提出以后，得到了第一次成功的实践。

君主立宪制的产生及实行情况。1688年的光荣革命标志着英国资产阶级革命的完成，之后，英国在1689年通过了权力法案，其主要内容是限制王权，加强议会的权力。由此，君主立宪制便在英国最先逐渐形成起来。君主立宪制也叫―有限君主制‖，它是资本主义社会的一种政权组织形式，是指资本主义国家的君主权力受宪法制约和限制的君主制。起初，它分为议会制和二元制两种形式。在议会制的君主立宪制度下，君主不直接支配国家政权，内阁（政府）掌握行政权并形式上对议会负责，如英国；在二元制的君主立宪制度下，君主任命对他负责的内阁，直接掌握行政权，由议会行使立法权，但君主对议会的决定有否决权，如近代的德国。在以后的发展过程中，二元制君主立宪制消失，现代德国的政体是议会制共和制。所以，在现代，君主立宪制主要指的是议会制君主立宪制，实行这种政体的国家如英国和日本等，当然，在日本，君主指的是日本的天皇。

至于共和制，在现代实行这种政体的国家有美国和德国等。美国实行的是总统制共和制，它的特点是政府由总统来组织；德国实行的是议会制共和国制，它的特点是政府由议会来产生。

美国宪法确认了某些资产阶级的民主原则。包括：

（1）分权与制衡原则。立法、行政、司法三权分别由国会、总统和联邦法院行使，这三权之间分立的状态十分明显，同时又保持着一种互相牵制互相平衡的关系；

（2）有限政府原则。它与法治原则相联系，即联邦政府的权利要受法律限制，不能超越法律规定的限度； （3）代议政府原则，它与人民主权原则相联系。联邦宪法序言中显示出美国人民是宪法的制定者，但必须通过选派代表管理国家。

孟德斯鸠进一步发展和完善了洛克的分权学说，主张必须建立三权分立的政体，按照立法、行政、司法三权分立的原则组成国家。他说：“要防止滥用权力，就必须以权力约束权力。”“当立法权和行政权集中在同一机关之手，自由便不复存在了，因为人们将要害怕这个国王或议会制定暴虐的法律，并暴虐地执行这些法律” .他还根据英国的政治制度说明各种权力之间的制衡关系，指明立法机关由两部分组成，可通过相互的反对权相互钳制，立法机关的两部分都受行政权的约束，而行政权亦受立法权的约束，彼此协调前进。

孟氏的分权理论与洛克的分权理论相比有重大的发展，孟氏的三权划分比洛克更明确，且比较合理，更重要的是，孟氏不仅说明分权，而且进一步说明了权力行使过程中发生矛盾冲突时如何解决，不仅在政治上起到了鼓舞资产阶级革命的作用，而且对未来国家如何防止权力滥用，如何对权力进行有效的制约提供了参考模式。

首先，从三权分立的目的看，无论对于该理论的创始人还是运用该理论的国家来讲，三权分立就是为了制约权力，防止权力滥用，防止某一国家机关或者个人的独裁和专制，从而保证国家政治上的稳定。孟德斯鸠认为“一切有权力的人都容易滥用权力，这是一条万古不易的经验。” “如果同一个人或者是由重要人物、贵族或平民组成的同一个机关行使这三种权力，即制定法律权、执行公共决议权和制裁私人犯罪或争讼权，则一切便都完了。”而制约权力的终极目的是保障人民的权利。因此，无论对于社会主义国家还是资本主义国家对权力的制约都是一种实在的需要，只是资本主义国家制约权力的本质是维护资产阶级的整体利益，而是社会主义国家制约权力的本质是为了真正保障人民的权利。

其次，从三权分立的内容看，在英国资产阶级与封建贵族分享政权的事实已成为历史以后，按分权理论建立的资本主义的国家机关，都根据国家权力的表现形式将其分为立法、行政、司法机关，这三种国家机关分别行使不同的国家权力，并使之存在相互制约关系。在资本主义国家里，资产阶级掌握国家政权，行使

国家权力，很难说这三种权力是分立的，就连代表的代议机关实际上也是有产者的论坛和表决器，但是现代资本主义国家的三权分立仍然是资产阶级为维护其整体利益，为保证国家权力有效、正常运行而采取的一系列方法模式。

再次，从三权分立的功能来看，在国家生活中，它大体发挥了以下几种功能：1、区分功能。现代美国宪法学家柯尔文曾把三权分立总结为四个要点：<1>政府有立法、行政、司法三种固有的独特的职能；<2>这些独特的职能应由三个分别配备人员的政府部门各自行使；<3>三个部门在宪法上应该是平等、互相独立的；<4>立法部门不能把权力委托给他人。此种说明为许多学者所接受，特别在美国这个说明具有一定的权威性。现代大多数国家在实践上都有立法、行政、司法三种国家机关的设置（包括社会主义国家），使得国家职能得到合理的区分和实现，这的确是有目共睹的。2、平衡功能。国家权力在区分的前提下，根据其职能配置不同的权力机制，使得它们中的任何一个部门的权力都是有限的，不致使某一部门因权力过大而导致权力运行失衡。3、制约功能。立法、行政、司法职能的差异，机构的分离，职权的划分，相互间权力运行的牵制，使得三种权力能够达到有效的制约。4、补救功能。当三种机关中的某一机关在行使权力不当招致社会不满时，其他的机关可以行使权力，挽回影响和损失，从而维护国家的整体利益。

三、三权分立学说对我国的政治体制的影响

将三权分立看作是制约权力的手段，在我国具有重要的现实意义，这主要表现在两个方面：第一，有助于我们正确认识三权分立的地位。第二，有利于我们采取拿来主义的态度，吸收和借鉴一切有益的经验。

中国不搞三权分立，但可以吸收其合理的因素。人民代表大会制度是比较符合我国国情的根本制度，它直接反映我国人民民主专政的国家性质，体现了我国政治生活的全貌，是人民实现当家作主的民主权利的基本形式和途径。但是，人民代表大会制度还有许多地方不够完善，进一步健全和完善人民代表大会制度是我国政治体制改革以及民主与法制建设的重大课题。

理论上讲，正确认识三权分立的性质以后，就会发现它与我国奉行的“议行合一”、“民主集中制”并不矛盾。“议行合一”旨在强调立法、行政、司法三权相互间有机的结合和统一，强调代表人志的权力机关的最高地位，强调行使三种权力主体的一致性，但并非反对国家权力的分工和监督制约。而“民主集中制”强调国家机关在行使权力时要体现多数人的意志，实行少数服从多数的原则。在我国具体体现为，人民在民主选举的基础上产生人大作为代表人民行使国家权力的机关，其他国家机关由人大产生，向人大负责，受人大监

督，而人大向人民负责。因此，民主集中制本身已包含了对国家权力制衡的内容。

资本主义国家采用三权分立的方法和手段确实起到了制约权力、防止专制的目的。如美国两百多年以来，分权、制衡、总统不得连任两届以上的思想，一直指导着美国的政治生活，保持了美国政治的长期稳定。社会主义国家采取“民主集中制”以及“ 议行合一”制度来保证权力的纯洁性和人民性，但对如何防止某些人或某些机关打着人民的旗号滥用权力却没有给予足够的重视。

由于社会中没有任何一种权力可以与国家权力抗衡，国家权力之间的相互制约就显得尤为重要。可以说，三权分立的合理内核就是“以权力制约权力”，即通过国家机关内部的互相制约，使之更好地协调配合，更充分地发挥自己的作用。

总统制国家的显著特点是，总统掌握最高行政权，行政权、立法权、司法权是分立的。在总统制下，总统是行政首长，直接任命并领导内阁，总统不向国会负责，也无权解散国会。另一方面，国会也不能迫使总统及其内阁辞职；只有当总统及其政府高官违反宪法或渎职、失职时，国会才能对其进行弹劾。在西方主要国家中，虽然有总统的国家有多个（如德国、意大利等国都有总统，但只是虚职，总理是政府首长），但属于总统制国家的只有美国。由于总统是政党政治推选的代表，实质上政党政治也是美国总统制的幕后之手。

什么是资产阶级君主立宪制？英国君主立宪制有什么特点和作用？

亦称―君主立宪‖。君主立宪制是资本主义国家用宪法限制君主权力的政治制度。一切都要由法律决定，君主没有实权，而且本身也要遵循法令。 议会制君主立宪制，君主不直接支配国家政权，由内阁掌握行政权并对议会负责。如英国，从法律上看，英王是―一切权力的源泉‖、―国家的化身‖，但实际上英王的权力虚有其表，法律上赋予英王的权力都由内阁和议会行使。在现代英国，国王只是名义上的国家元首，是维护资产阶级统治的一种权力象征。

特点：①在君主立宪制政体下，国王是国家元首、联合王国武装部队总司令和英国国教的世袭领袖。但君主处于―统而不治‖的地位，而作为国家的象征的地位更为突出。②国家权力的中心在议会，议会是国家最高立法机关。由内阁掌握行政权并对议会负责，法律上赋予英王的权力都由内阁和议会行使。 作用：英国资产阶级革命确立的君主立宪政体大大削弱了国王的权力，议会及政府逐步掌握了治理国家的权力，这种政治体制虽然有其历史局限性，但它结束了英国的封建专制制度，使得英国走上资产阶级政治民主化的道路，有利于资本主义的发展。它代表了历史发展的趋势，是历史的一大进步。英国是世界上第一个建立君主立宪制的国家，这一制度的确立和不断完善，不仅对巩固资产阶级在英国的统治起了巨大的作用，而且对其他国家的资产阶级建立新的制度，也有着巨大影响 ÷÷

历史：革命发生的背景：英国资本主义的兴起和发展是革命发生的根本原因；资产阶级新贵族的形成是革命产生的领导力量；都铎王朝的改革，不仅增强了英国的实力，而且对英国资本主义经济的发展和资产阶级势力的壮大起了促进作用；斯图亚特王朝的专制统治导致社会矛盾激化，直接促使资产阶级革命的爆发。

革命过程：1640年议会召开，国王要求征收新税，而议会要求限制王权，国王与议会矛盾公开激化，革命爆发；1642年，国王讨伐议会挑起了内战。克伦威尔率领议会军打败王党，并于1649年处死国王，建立共和国，发展工商业，保护清教徒，革命处于上升阶段。克伦威尔执政后，征服爱尔兰，与荷兰争霸，解散议会，就任护国主。他死后王朝复辟，革命出现倒退。1688年，辉格党、托利党两党联合，邀请威廉来英国执政，资产阶级和新贵族最终与封建势力妥协，完成了英国资产阶级革命。

革命意义：推翻了封建专制的君主制，确立了君主立宪制，为英国资本主义经济发展和资本主义政治、经济制度的建立开辟了道路，对欧洲和世界其他地区都有广泛的影响，使世界历史进入一个新时代。

政治：运用生产力和生产关系、经济基础和上层建筑的辩证原理认识英国资产阶级革命发生的必然性。

英国资产阶级革命出现反复曲折表明：一种新社会制度的确立过程具有曲折性和复杂性，进步性与反动性的斗争始终影响着革命的进程，但进步的事业最终会取得胜利。

运用主观动机和客观效果的辩证关系原理分析认识都铎王朝的改革动机是为了加强专制统治，但客观上促进了资本主义的发展，最终促使了革命的爆发，这也是改革者所始料不及的。运用两点论及重点论的观点分析评价克伦威尔的功过。

英国是世界上最早确立君主立宪制的国家，英国的君主立宪制是英国―光荣革命‖后建立起来的。大约在13世纪中期，贵族在同英王亨利三世的斗争中获胜，成立议会。13世纪末以后，议会经常召开，议员由贵族、市民和骑士组成，由于各个阶层的利益不同，常常不在一起开会，14世纪以后，议会逐渐分成上下两院。此后，下院的权力不断扩大，15世纪末，下院已经有提出财政议案和法律议案的权力。但是，这一时期议会仍然是封建性质的等级代议机构。英国资产阶级革命前后，议会成为资产阶级同代表封建势力的斯图亚特王朝斗争的政治中心。光荣革命以后，议会相继通过《权利法案》和《王位继承法》，从法律上确认―议会主权‖原则，进一步限制王权。未经议会同意，国王不得擅自批准法律、废除法律或中止法律的实施；并规定，国王必须信奉英国国教，天主教徒或同天主教徒结婚者不得继承王位。英国的君主立宪政体初步确立。

传统马克思主义认为立宪君主制优于专制君主制，但共和制又优于立宪君主制，英国保留君主制实行君主立宪制是封建残余浓厚的表现——但现在有很多学者对此有不同看法。比如历史学家刘宗绪、刘祚昌、唐德刚等都反对简单地把君主制与封建残余等同，认为在特定历史环境下君主立宪制对社会发展的推动作用可能更大。

比如英国资产阶级革命确立的君主立宪政体大大削弱了国王的权力，议会及政府逐步掌握了治理国家的权力，结束了英国的封建专制制度，使得英国走上资产阶级政治民主化的道路，有利于资本主义的发展。它代表了历史发展的趋势，是历史的一大进步。不仅对巩固资产阶级在英国的统治起了巨大的作用，而且对其他国家的资产阶级建立新的制度，也有着巨大影响。

美国政治制度

美国是联邦制国家，政权组织形式为总统制，实行三权分立与制衡 相结合的政治制度和两党制的政党制度。

有政权组织形式 国家结构形式 选举制度政党制度 公民权利制度

日本的统治机构分设立法、行政、司法部门，采用三权分立制。国会作为立法机关，是国家最高权力机关，也是唯一的立法部门，由众议院和参议院组成。两院分别由选举产生的议员所组成。国会的权限如下：提名内阁总理大臣，作出对内阁不信任的决议，表决法律草案，决定预算，承认条约，对法官的弹劾审判，提议修改宪法等。行政权属于内阁，内阁由内阁总理大臣及其他国务大臣组成，内阁行使的有关行政权对国会负有共同责任。内阁除了处理一般行政事务以外，还要执行法律、处理外交关系、缔结条约、编制预算、制定政令。内阁总理大臣享有国务大臣的任免权，以保持内阁的统一。

司法部门是法院。法院由最高法院及下级法院（高等法院、地方法院、家庭法院、简易法院）组成。所有的法官都独立行使职权，只受宪法和法律的约束。最高法院院长根据内阁的提名由天皇任命，其他法官都由内阁任命。法院有权认定一切法律、法令是否符合宪法。

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