名师串讲自考英语（二）（珍藏版）

名师串讲综合英语（二）(珍藏版)

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Grammar & Usage

SubjectVerb Agreement(Ⅰ) 1.主谓一致的三条原则

（1）语法一致，即在语法形式上取得一致。 Human beings enjoy learning.

Everybody’s understanding is incomplete.

(2)意义一致，即根据意义来处理一致关系。

The people there are fighting for the independence of their country. Ten dollars was a lot of money at that time.

（3）就近原则，即谓语动词的单、复数形式取决于最靠近它的词语。 There is a pen,two pencils and an eraser in the pencil box. Neither the boy nor his teachers know the answer. 2.集体名词作主语时与动词的一致

(1)当主语为furniture,equipment,machinery等词时，谓语动词通常用单数。 The furniture in that shop is all made in China. Office equipment is very expensive nowadays.

(2)集体名词如people,cattle,police,poultry等往往作复数用。 Some people drive madly in this country. Many cattle have died because of the flood.

(3)family,government,class,committee,audience,team,public等词被视作一个整体时，其后的动词用单数；被视为构成整体的个体时，其后的动词则为复数。 His family is a happy one.

His family are all interested in stampcollecting 3.并列主语与动词的一致

（1）当“名词+名词”表示一种事物时，用单数形式。 Bacon and eggs is a very popular British breakfast.

(2)当主语是由and,both...and连接的并列结构时，如果主语所指的不是一种事物，动词则用复数形式。

Jack and Mary are in love with each other. Both Tom and John are absent today.

(3)在由or 或 nor 连接的并列结构中，动词单、复数形式一般与or 或 nor 后面的名词或代词保持一致。

He or his brothers are to blame for this. Neither she nor you are mistaken.

(4)not only...but also 连接的结构作主语时，动词的单、复数形式依据 but also 后的名词或代词。

Not only Fred but also his parents love this small pet dog. Not only the boys but also their mother is very ill. SubjectVerb Agreement(Ⅱ)

4.带确定数量词的名词词组作主语时的主谓一致

(1)当主语是表示数目、时间、重量、距离等的复数名词时，如果该名词所表示的数量看作

一个整体，其后的动词用单数。 Four years is too long for me to wait. Sixty miles is a short run in a car.

(2)当主语是表示数目、时间、重量、距离等的复数名词时，如该名词所表示的数量看作单个个体，其后的动词用复数。

The past three weeks were the hardest time in his life. Hundreds of buildings were put up in the city last year. (3)当主语为“分数或百分数+of+名词”时，其后的动词形式依照of后名词的单复数形式来定。 Thirty percent of the oil in that country is imported. Ten percent of the eggs have gone bad.

（4）当主语为sheep,fish,deer,aircraft,means,steelworks等单数与复数同形的词时，动词的形式以名词单、复数意义为准。 Three aircraft are reported missing. Ten fish have been caught today. 5.all的主谓一致

（1）代词all表示可数的人或物时，其后的动词用复数形式。 All were hungry and desperate(渴望)for food. All who have seen the film love it.

(2)代词all表示不可数的名词时，其后的动词用单数。 All is going well.(一切顺利。)

All is quiet in the middle of the night.

(3)形容词all+可数名词时，其后的动词用复数形式。 All roads lead to Rome.(条条道路通罗马。) All things are difficult when we begin to do them.

(4)形容词all+不可数名词时，其后的动词用单数形式。 All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.

Not all food is good to eat.6.带none的词组作主语时，其后面的动词单数或复数形式都可用。 None of you have / has had my experience. None of the hotels are / is ready for guests yet.

NounPronoun Agreement

NounPossessive Case Agreement

7.名词与代词和名词所有格的一致

一般来说，代词和名词所有格对名词的指代在数的形式上是一致的。 The two sisters have their own different toys.

The men are discussing their opinions at the meeting.当名词为audience,class,committee,enemy,family,faculty,gang,government,jury,media,public,staff,team等既可视为整体名词又可视为个体名词的集体名词时，则要根据它们在句中的意思来确定代词和所有格的形式。

The public demanded that the government account for its new economic policy.

The government had discussed this problem for a long time but they had shown no sign of agreement.

8.不定代词的一致问题

one,everyone,everybody,no one,nobody,anyone,anybody,someone,somebody等作主语时，在正式的文体中其相应的代词一般用him,所有格用his，也有人用him or her和his or her，但是这种用法显得累赘。

Everybody must finish his homework by tomorrow. Nobody in that position will give his opinion right away.

注意：one作主语时，其相应的代词也可以是one，所有格可以是one’s。 One has to be careful about what one says before children.

在非正式文体中，也可根据意义，用复数代词。而且，由于him和his有语言性别歧视之嫌，虽然谓语动词仍用单数形式，现在人们普遍用复数代词。 No one has handed in their paper yet.

Everyone has given their opinion on the issue.

但everything,anything,something,nothing作主语时，其相应的代词要用单数形式。 Something has gone wrong,hasn’t it? Tag Questions

9.附加疑问句的构成

由两部分构成：陈述句+附加成分。附加成分也由两部分构成：助动词或be的一种形式+人称代词（应与陈述句的主语相应）

附加疑问句主要用于口语，表示期望对方的同意或对所陈述之事的首肯。 附加疑问句有下列几种形式：

（1）肯定陈述句+否定附加成分（附加成分除极为正式场合或老式英语中都要用缩略形式） You sure get to see things differently,don’t you? You’ve heard the news,haven’t you? (2)否定的陈述句+肯定附加成分 Peter doesn’t smoke,does he?

The party won’t start until seven,will it?

10.附加疑问句的几点特殊用法（1）凡是带有no,none,no one,nobody,nothing,hardly,seldom,rarely,never,barely,few,little,neither等否定词的陈述句，都应看作否定陈述句，后面接肯定附加成分。 She seldom leaves the room in winter,does she?

People rarely go that far to that small village,do they?(2)当陈述句的主语everybody,everyone,someone,somebody,anyone,nobody,no one,neither,none时，附加成分中的代词一般用they。

Everyone at the party had a good time,didn’t they? Neither of them said a word,did they?

(3)陈述部分是there引导的存在句时，附加成分由助动词或be的一种形式+there构成。 There is something wrong with the child,isn’t there? There is nobody in the room,is there?

(4)陈述部分是肯定的I’m...结构时，附加成分为aren’t I。 I’m the doctor ,aren’t I? I’m late,aren’t I?

(在老式或极为正式的英语中用：I am late,am I not?)

(5)陈述部分是一个带有that从句作宾语的主从结构时，附加成分应与主句的主语和谓语动词保持对应关系。

You think(that) I did it,don’t you?

He didn’t say Mary would come,did he?

注意：当陈述部分的主句是I think,I suppose,I believe等时，附加成分往往与that从句中的主语和谓语动词保持对应关系，但要注意I don’t think等结构对从句的否定用法。 I suppose you are here to study,aren’t you?

I don’t think he came here just to say goodbye,did he? I believe you are in urgent need of help,aren’t you?

如果想核实对方的看法是否与你一致，附加部分则与主句相应。 I think he’s the best person for the job,don’t you?

(6)在祈使句后加一个附加疑问成分可缓和语气，附加成分一般用will you和would you，但也可用won’t you或can’t you。 Open the window,would you? Give me a hand,won’t you?

(7)Let’s 型祈使句中附加成分用shall we。 Let’s go for a walk,shall we? Let’s get down to work,shall we?

（8）陈述部分带有used to时，附加成分用did形式，偶尔用used to形式。 He used to smoke fifty cigarettes a day ,didn’t he?

有的语法书将used not缩略式定为usedn’t to，这是老式的用法，现在很少有人使用。 11.附加疑问句的回答

要针对所陈述的内容，不受附加疑问成分的制约。 —You didn’t go there alone,did you? —No,I didn’t.

—You love coffee,don’t you? —Yes,I do.

Types of Sentence:the Imperative 12.祈使句的作用

（1）表示命令和指示 Don’t make any noise.

Let the boy say what he wants. (2)表示建议、劝告或警告 Don’t be upset.

Write to me if you need further information. (3)请求和呼吁 Come quickly.Help! Do help me,please. (4)邀请

Drop in whenever you have time. Come in and have a cup of tea. (5)解释

Take Class 5 for example.

Look at the situation in the Middle East for example. 13.祈使句的基本形式

祈使句的第二人称主语you通常省略，以动词原形开头，句尾用句号或感叹号。 Sit down.

Take your share of the water!

祈使句的否定形式是在动词前加don’t,但在正式文体中则用do not。 Do not litter in the park! Do not feed the animals! 也可在动词前加never。 Never forget the past.

Never put off until tomorrow what you can do today.(谚语) 14.祈使句的委婉形式

（1）在句首或句尾加please。 Pass me the salt,please.

Please don’t forget to come here at eight tomorrow.

(2)用附加疑问成分will you? / won’t you? / would you?等。 Come and have dinner with us,would you? Don’t come late again,will you? 15.祈使句的强调形式

（1）在动词前可加上助动词do。 Do come in and have a cup of coffee. Do tell me what’s bothering you.

(2)祈使句表示命令、建议或警告时，动词前加“you”。 You shut up.(不客气的说法) You go first.

16.祈使句的第三人称形式

祈使句的句首或句尾也可加人名和第三人称代词如everyone，everybody,nobody,anybody等，但它们不是句子的主语，只是称呼，用以唤起注意，不影响动词的形式。 Tom move the table there,and John take the rubbish out. Passengers for Flight 104 please wait at Gate Four. 17.Let’s型祈使句

如果祈使的对象包括说话者本人，就用Let’s 型祈使句： Let’s have a meeting this evening. Let’s go in and have a look.

Let’s 型祈使句的否定式为Let’s not...和Don’t let’s...: Don’t let’s argue any more. Let’s not argue any more.

注意let me do sth.表示“提出做某事”。 Let me carry your suitcase.

在极为正式的文体中，let表示愿望。 Let justice and peace live! Let all good people be happy! 18.祈使句的被动结构

祈使句的被动结构多用于否定式。 Don’t be frightened by what he says.

Don’t be surprised at what you are going to see.Rhetorical Questions & Ellipsis 19.修辞性疑问句

是用疑问句的形式表达说话人态度、感情而无需回答的疑问句。

（1）形式 ①一般疑问句的肯定形式（起否定陈述句的作用） Do you think you have the right to talk to me like that?（你觉得你有权利跟我这样说话？意思是你无权这么做。）

Is that the reason for going there alone?(这就是你单独去那儿的理由吗？意思是这不能成为理由。) ②一般疑问句的否定形式（起肯定陈述句的作用）

Don’t you want to know what it is?(难道你就不想知道这是什么东西吗？意思是你肯定想知道。)

Haven’t you had enough of her complaints?(你还没受够她的抱怨吗？意思是你已经受够了。) ③特殊疑问句的肯定形式（相当于否定的陈述句）

Now that you’ve got a wellpaid job,what else do you want?(你还要什么？意思是你不应该再要求别的什么了。)

What difference does it make?(那有什么区别？意思是没有区别。) ④特殊疑问句的否定形式（相当于肯定的陈述句） Who doesn’t know?(谁不知道？意思是谁都知道了。)

Why don’t you quit? You can’t hold out!(你为什么不罢手？你不可能坚持到底的！) （2）用法 ①表示惊讶、感叹

Don’t you love your own parents?(你难道不爱自己的父母吗？) Isn’t that a lovely park?(那公园真美！) ②表示愤怒

How dare you speak to me like that?(你居然跟我这样说话，太不像话了！) Why don’t you shut up?(你给我闭嘴！) ③表示建议或委婉的批评、责备

Why don’t we have lunch in an eating place around here? Can’t you come a bit early next time? ④表示邀请

Won’t you sit down and have a cup of tea? Why don’t you come in and have a look?

用修辞性疑问句表达以上态度和感情时语气比一般陈述句要强烈。 20.句子结构的省略

英语句子的某些成分在一定的情况下可以省略，如祈使句省略主语，比较从句省略谓语、宾语等。这里着重归纳并列句和复合句中的省略。 （1）并列句中的省略

一般说来，第二个并列从句中与第一个并列从句相同的成分通常都可省略。 My sister likes music and I(like)painting.(省略谓语)

People there will go sailing in summer and (they will go) skiing in winter.(省略主语、谓语)

He won an Oscar Award(奥斯卡奖)in 1976 and his wife (won an Oscar Award) in 1977.(省略谓语、宾语)

（2）复合句中的省略

省略如果出现在主句，则多出现在句首。 (It is) No wonder she speaks such good Chinese. (You’d) Better stay where you are.

(It’s a ) Pity I can’t go with you.

复合句中的省略多出现在状语从句中。 I’m happy as long as you are(happy).

You’ll have to wash the dishes today because I won’t (wash the dishes). If (it is) necessary,I can explain this to him.

(3)复合句中若有两个以上的宾语从句，则从第二个宾语从句开始that不能省略。

He told me (that) he enjoyed the concert very much and that he would like to meet the conductor. Everybody can see (that) this is an important issue and that they cannot afford to overlook it. (4)缩略状语从句

如果主句和从句的主语一致，状语从句可以省略主语以及谓语的一部分。 When I finished,he waited as if (he was/were) expecting more.

While (he was) recovering from his operation,David renewed an old interest in stockcar racing. When (they are) ripe, the tomatoes taste delicious. Object Complement

21.名词、形容词、介词词组作宾语补足语 The class elected him monitor.(名词) I found the film very interesting.(形容词)

I’d like to find everything in its proper place when I come back.(介词词组) 22.动词不定式、分词作宾语补足语 What did you tell her to do?(不定式)

I’m sorry to have kept you waiting.(现在分词) 23.as+名词/形容词/分词作宾语补足语

He seemed to regard it as his own achievement.(名词)

Her teacher spoke of her as gentle,kind and hardworking.(形容词) You mustn’t think of me as being rude to you.(分词词组)

The Predictive

The Subject Complement

24.表语置于系动词后，构成主语+系（动词）+表语结构 （1）名词词组、形容词词组和介词词组作表语 She is a very responsible teacher.(名词词组)

It was indeed a terrible thing to happen.(形容词词组) Your room is on the third floor,Sir.(介词词组) （2）不定式结构作表语

The question is where to get the money and how to organize the work. An artist’s business is to show the world as he sees it,not to make it better.

注意be + to do 不一定都是系表结构，这一结构常常用来表示命令或安排。 You are to wear uniforms at work.（命令） The plane is to take off at 8∶30 p.m.(安排) （3）动名词和分词词组作表语

His favourite sport is playing football.(动名词词组) The door remained locked for a whole day.(名词)

注意：过去分词作表语时，起形容词作用，没有被动的意思。

He was too excited to be able to take part in the contest. (4)代词作表语

This room is yours;the next one is mine. Don’t worry.It’s nothing serious. (5)名词从句作表语

Their idea is that we should build another school in this district. The fact is that I can’t do much about this.

25.主语补足语是在句中补充说明主语状况的成分

在主语+谓语+主补结构中谓语表示主语的行为，主补表示主语的状况。 （1）谓语为不及物动词

die,return和be born后面可跟形容词或名词作补语。 He died young.(形容词) He died a hero.(名词)

一般不及物动词后只能跟形容词或过去分词作主语补足语。 The students walked home pround and satisfied.

(2)谓语为及物动词时可由形容词或过去分词作主语补足语。 He gazed at her speechless.

She stared at the box wideeyed.

(3)带有宾语补足语的句子变成被动语态时，宾语补足语则变成了主语补足语。 The door was kicked open.(形容词)

Xiao Wang was elected President of the Students’ Association.(名词) The patient was told not to take too much salt.(不定式词组) The tap was left running all night.(分词词组) Adjectives(Ⅰ)

26.形容词用来说明人、物、事等的性质、特点、类别 I opened the two bags with my personal belongings.(类别) A great army it was, and a great story for me.(特点) The sherry was a little too dry.(性质)

27.形容词在句子中作定语、表语以及（主语或宾语的）补足语 Hughie looked very miserable in those days.(表语)

Personally he was a strange,rough fellow,with a freckled face and red,rough beard.(定语) His eyes kept watching me,narrow and dangerous.(主补) 28.形容词句型

（1）形容词+介词词组

Laura’s father was very fond of Hughie,but would not hear of an engagement. Humans are capable of great mutual compassion,love,and tenderness.

类似的词组还有：afraid of,ashamed of,(un)aware of ,full of,guilty of,innocent of,sure of,tired of,true of等。

They were very valuable to me in reporting the army’s victories. The little girl felt close to the birds and plants and animals. 类似的词组还有：accustomed to,connected to,devoted to,familiar to,related to,similar to,unique to等。

常用于形容词之后的介词还有：about,at,for,in,with等。

I am often uncertain about whether to give in to many of my children’s requests.

Don’t get trapped by the first thing you find yourself good at. (2)形容词+不定式 ①名词或代词作主语

Many parents are unable to stand up to their children’s unreasonable demands. You are bound to vacillate at times.

以上这类形容词几乎总是与不定式连用。

还有一些表示人的情绪或愿望的形容词既可与不定式连用也可与介词词组或名词从句连用。 The boy is afraid to go out after dark. I’m glad to see you in my country.

He’s ashamed to tell you what really happened. I’m sorry to break the news to you.

另有一类形容词与含有被动意思的不定式连用，说明主语的情况。 The material is easy to wash. He is difficult to get along with.

形容词前可加too,后可加enough。 You’re too pretty to be so heavy.

He thinks he is old enough to manage his own affairs.②不定式作主语的两种形式 （a）It is + adj.(+ for sb. / sth.)+ to do sth. 常用于此句型的形容词有：common,dangerous,difficult,easy,important,(un)necessary,(im)possible等。 (b)It is + adj. + of sb. to do sth.

常用于此句型的形容词有：brave,careless,clever,generous,good,kind,mean,stupid,wise等。 Was it possible for the writer to get his diaries out of Berlin safely?

It is difficult for media celebrities to pass through a crowd without being recognized. ③形容词 + 名词从句 许多形容词可用于此句型，如afraid,angry,anxious,aware,certain,confident,glad,happy,pleased,proud,sad,sorry,sure,surprised,unaware等。

He felt terribly sorry that he had given the millionaire a pound. He was afraid that the millionaire would think him foolish. 名词从句也可作主语。

It is too bad that you missed your flight.

It seems possible that peace will be restored in that country by the end of the year.

Preposition+Which/Who+Relative Clauses Split Relative and Appositive Clauses

29.定语从句中的介词+关系代词结构

英语正式的文体，尤其是法律和科技文献中，定语从句中的关系代词（主要是which）前往往加介词，介词的选择有时取决于从句中的动词结构，有时又取决于主句中关系词前面的名词结构。因此介词的选择既要注意其后的也要注意其前的搭配关系。

Physics,about which I know nothing,doesn’t seem so dull a subject.(定语从句可以转换成I know nothing about physics,可以看出 about 与 know 有关。)

This depends on the purpose for which the examination is given.(定语从句可以转换成the

examination is given for ... purpose，介词for与purpose有关。)

注意：在语义上相当于一个简单动词的短语动词中的介词不能前置，只能用在动词后。 This is a phase of history which it is sad to look back on. The baby whom she is taking care of is very lovely indeed. 口语中要避免这种结构，关系代词which往往省略。 There’s a limit (which) nobody should go beyond. That’s something (which) they can never put up with. 30.分隔型定语从句

一般情况下，定语从句紧跟在它所修饰的名词或代词之后，但有时由于修辞和语法的需要，定语从句与它所修饰的先行词分开，这就是分隔型定语从句。它有以下几种情况。 （1）先行词+介词短语+定语从句

He is the only friend of mine who is not interested in music. That was the most important day in my life that I can remember. (2)先行词+主动态动词+定语从句

He laughs best who laughs last.(谁笑到最后谁笑得最好。) The day will come when you will be proud of me. （3）先行词+分词短语+定语从句

There is someone waiting for you outside who says he must see you personally.

There are few places left on earth where man hasn’t put his foot.(4)先行词+定语从句 He is one of those people I know who do not care about money at all. That is the only film I’ve ever seen which uses that technique. 31.分隔型同位语从句

和定语从句一样，同位语从句一般紧接与之对应的名词，但有时也可分开。 The suggestion was made that they should be packed off at once in a special train.

Within a week or two he received a letter from the university that he had been accepted. Both,Either,Neither 32.both

表示一个和另一个两者都……，用复数动词。

Both sides of the street are decorated with colourful lights. She has two brothers,Both work in the city.

both...and 连接同类的语法结构（名词、动词、形容词、介词短语等），表示强调。 He has both the knowledge and capability to do this job. Both she and her husband were very pleased with the girl. 33.either

(1)表示两者中的任何一个，用单数动词。 You may take either of the roads to get there. He could write with either hand. (2)表示两边。

You can see a lot of trees on either side of the street.

Many conversations are a kind of competition that rarely leads to discovery on either side. (3)作副词，表示也，用于否定句。

A little bit of exercise won’t do you any harm,either. He didn’t go to the meeting and she didn’t turn up,either. (4)和or连用，连接相同的语法结构，表示或是……或是，不是……就是，既……又，既不……

又不，它所带的动词在数上与or后面的名词或代词保持一致。 Either you or Dick is responsible for it.

Either he or his brothers have to clean the room. 34.neither

(1)作代词，表示两者都不……，后面的动词多用单数形式。 Neither of the books is of any help to me. If you run after two hares,you’ll catch neither.

(2)作副词，表示也不。用于句首，句子的主语与谓语必须倒装。 —I have never been here before. —Neither have I.

He cannot speak English,and neither can he read it.

(3)与nor连用，连接相同的语法结构，表示既不……也不。它所带的动词在数上与nor后面的名词或代词保持一致。

Neither his friends nor he knows anything about it.

I’m afraid I have neither the time nor the money to help you. Negation 35.否定词

英语中的否定结构多以否定词来表示，常用的否定词有：not,no,never,none,nothing,nobody,nowhere,neither,nor,还有表示近似否定的hardly,seldom,scarcely,barely,rarely,little,few等。 No one has any doubt about his ability. None of the candidates has arrived yet. I shall never forget your kindness.

I seldom get any sleep after the baby wakes up.

He has hardly spoken to anyone who disagrees with him on this point. Mr. Smith had barely started speaking when he was interrupted. 注意：否定词若放在句首时，句子的主谓要倒装。 Not for one moment did he stop working. Little do I know about the city.

但否定的名词词组作主语并放在句首时，不能倒装。 Not all of the passengers escaped unhurt.

Not a single man was killed,and only three wounded. 36.否定结构

否定结构在英语中是一个常用的结构，它有几种常用的形式。 （1）一般否定。在这种结构中，not用以否定全句的意义。 This is not the right thing to do.

If you are not moving ahead,you are falling behind.

(2)部分否定。否定词not不否定全句，仅否定句中的某一部分。 What he wants is not sympathy but trust.

Don’t be afraid.I am your friend,not your enemy.

(3)转移否定。believe,suppose,think后面所带的that从句若是否定从句时，其否定词移到主句动词前。

I don’t believe (that) you two have met,have you?

I don’t suppose(that) anyone will object to my absence.

(4)接续否定。这种结构指的是在同一句子中重复使用同一否定词，以加强语气。 Although autumn was well advanced,not a leaf had fallen from the trees,not even one. I can’t go on moving,not even(for)one inch. 也可用不同的否定词。

No nation can afford to offend its allies,not even the United States.

(5)转换否定。英语中有不少形式上像肯定而实际上表示否定意义的句子。同样，也有不少形式上像否定而实际表示肯定意义的句子。 Catch me doing that again!(我决不再犯了！)

He is the last person to tell a lie.(他不可能说谎。)

That’s the last thing I should expect him to do.(他不可能做那样的事。) Who likes to do that sort of thing?(没人愿意做那种事。) This is too much for me to bear.(我受不了。)

You can’t be too careful when you cross the street.(过马路越小心越好。) I couldn’t agree with you more.(我完全赞成你的观点。) Which family doesn’t have problems?(家家有本难念的经。)

（6）省略否定。在上下文提供足够语境的情况下，否定结构可有省略的形式。 —Do you know the answer to this math problem? —I’m afraid not.

Some parents don’t know whether they should satisfy all their children’s needs or not. 37.动词的非谓语形式的否定

在这种结构中，否定词要放在动词不定式、分词或动名词短语前。 We can’t afford not to believe it’s real.

The real purpose of the discussion is not to tell parents how much or how little to give to their children.

Not having read the book,I can’t tell you whether it’s worth buying. Other Ways of Comparing Things 英语中表示比较的方法很多，除以前介绍过的形容词和副词的比较级外，还有许多习惯的比较方法，以下是几种常用的方法。 38.用such...as(像……那样的)表示比较 as后面既可接名词也可接句子。

He never remembered having known such happiness as he felt then. we’ve got such fruits as you’ve never heard of. 39.用the same as(和……一样的)表示比较 He was about the same height as George.

This city is not the same as it was ten years ago. 40.用like（像）或alike(一样)表示比较

The little girl,like many people,feels that these wonders of Nature are precious and permanent. The two office buildings are alike in both size and shape.

41.用“a+名词1+of a+名词2”表示比较（将名词2表示的内容比成名词1表示的内容） That’s a hell of a thing to do.(干那种事太糟糕了！直译为：那简直是件地狱般的事！) What a devil of a name that is!(那个是魔鬼般的名字啊！)

A giant of a man rushed into the room.(一个巨人般的男人冲进房间。) We are all afraid of him.He is a tyrant of a father.(他是个暴君般的父亲。) 42.用as if / though 引导一个从句表示比较

I remember what happened as vividly as if it were only yesterday. I’ve always loved you as if you were my own daughter. More and Most Used Other Than in Comparison 43.more

是much,many的比较级，但它有时却没有比较的意思。下面是more的几种常用的非比较级的用法。

（1）more...than相当于...rather than...，表示“与其说是……，不如说是……”。 He is more quickwitted than hardworking.(与其说他肯干，不如说他脑子快。)

After three day’s journey,I arrived home more dead than alive.(经过3天的旅行，我回到家时已半死不活。)

He is more cunning than wise.(与其说他聪明，不如说他狡猾。)

She was more hurt than frightened.(与其说她害怕不如说她受到了伤害。)

注意：同样的意思也可以用less...than来表示，只要把被修饰词语的位置对调一下就行了。 He is less wise than cunning. She was less hurt than frightened.

(2)no more+名词+than+名词，表示“不是……，也不是……”。 He is no more a writer than a painter.

I’m afraid you’ve got the wrong person.I am no more a scientist than an artist. (3)more than 表示“极其”、“不只”。

When I told them I needed their help,they were more than willing to give me a hand. She was more than happy to be left alone.

From the way they talk,I can see that they are much more than just acquaintances. It is more than probable that he will give it another try. 44.most

是much,many的最高级形式，放在多音节的形容词或副词前面构成该词的最高级形式，一般来说它的结构为“the most...”。

This is the most difficult question I have ever been forced to answer. Among all my employees,Jim works the most efficiently.

然而，most也可以表示“非常”、“很”的意思，这时most前面不加the，这一用法较正式，口语中用very更好。

I will be most grateful if you could grant me the scholarship.

It was a most beautiful morning and the birds were singing in the trees. She is a most pleasant person to talk to.

I shall be most happy to go downtown with you if I should not be in the way.(要是不妨碍你们的话，我非常愿意和你们一起去市中心。)

He argued his case most persuasively(有说服力地).

Whatever happens,I shall most certainly attend the meeting. 下册

Link Verbs

英语除动词be之外，还有一些动词也可以作系动词，如表示状态或情况的：keep,look,feel,appear,lie,remain,seem,stay,smell,sound,taste等；以及表示变化的：get,grow,turn,fall,run,become,go等。下面我们来分析一下带系动词的句子结构。

1.系动词后面带名词从句

Good manners are the happy way of doing things.

It seemed to him that he had never worked so hard in his life. 2.系动词后面带形容词

She sounded rather surprised on the phone. Sit down.Just stay calm and you will be alright.

3.to be 可以加在seem,prove,remain,appear等系动词和其后的名词或形容词之间，但也可以省略。

The task proved (to be) impossible.

They seem (to be) such friendly people,but they never replied to our invitation. What has happened remains (to be) a mystery.

The problem first appeared (to be) unsolvable,but later we came up with a very good solution. 注意：在seem,appear等词后，可加其他非 to be 的不定式，但这时，它们则不是系动词而是不及物动词。

4.系动词后面带介词词组

Their wedding will be in late June. The shop stays round the clock. Impersonal It

it在句中可以作代词，代表刚提到的东西或一个彼此都知其所指的东西；此外它还可用来代表时间、天气、自然环境、距离等。it还有一个很重要的用法，那就是作先行词，代表句子的实际主语或宾语；它也可以用来改变句子结构，使句子的某一成分得到强调。 5.作句子的形式主语 （1）代表不定式

It’s absurd to be afraid under such circumstances. It’s a great privilege to know you. (2)代表动名词

It’s no using crying over split milk.

It’s no good waiting for him this morning.He won’t come back until five in the afternoon. (3)代表that引导的从句

It is believed that he is one of the best piano players in the world. It is suggested that he (should) be sent to hospital immediately. （4）代表wh引导的从句

As long as he finishes his work,it doesn’t matter when he comes to the office. It has not been decided yet whether or not I should go on with my study. 6.作句子的形式宾语 （1）代表不定式

They found it difficult to get along with him. I feel it my duty to report this. (2)代表从句

I think it best that you (should) stay with me.

You may depend on it that these stones are really very valuable. 7.用来改变句子结构，使句子的某一成分得到强调 （1）强调主语

It was she who put forward that suggestion.

Was it you who wrote these words on the blackboard? (2)强调宾语

It is that painting that he sold at a good profit.

It was the football match that they were talking about. (3)强调状语

It was through me that he had got the present job. It was on a cold Monday night that he was shot. More Ways of Emphasis 表示强调有很多种方式，在书面语中可以将要强调的成分用黑体或斜体表示出来，也可以用大写字母表示强调的成分。在口语中可以用重读来表示强调。除此之外，下面几种方法也常用来强调句子的某一部分。

8.将强调的表语、主语补语或宾语提前，把句子的其他成分放在其后。 An utter fool I felt too.(表) Relaxation you call it!(主补)

Excellent food they serve here.(宾) 这种强调方法多用于表示对比关系。

9.用so强调听者同意说者所言，这种用法只将so提到句首，其他成分位置不变。 —You’re spilled coffee on your dress. —So I have.

—It’s raining hard outside. —So it is. 10.用wh词引导的名词从句表示强调 We need more time.

More time is what we need. What we need is more time. He’s spoilt the whole thing.

What he’s done is (to) spoil the whole thing. 11.用反身代词表示强调 John told me everything.

John himself told me everything. John told me everything himself. The queen attended the meeting.

The queen herself attended the meeting. The queen attended the meeting herself.

12.用感叹词和感叹句表示强调，Oh,Wow表示吃惊；Ah,Aha表示满意，肯定等；Ouch,Ow表示痛苦；Ooh表示高兴，舒适等。 Oh,what a beautiful present! Ah,that’s just what I wanted.

Aha,these slides are exactly what I was looking for. Wow,what a fantastic goal! Ouch,my foot!

Ooh,this cream cake’s delicious. 13.重复表示强调

It’s far, far too expensive.

I agree with every word you’ve said,every single word. 14.文字材料中用斜体表示强调 Is that the only thing?

“You say it couldn’t”said Beamish. Absolute Structure

独立结构一般用于正式语体，是描写性的文学语言。从形式上来说，独立结构可分成四类：不定式独立结构、现在分词独立结构、过去分词独立结构和无动词独立结构。

Four little girls followed the bride,two to hold her wedding gown,two to hold flowers.(不定式) Dinner was Japanese,the family sitting on the floor in the traditional way.(现在分词)

Her eyes looked from my face down to my foot,with the chalk gripped between my toes.(过去分词)

A case in both hands,Mabel walked out of the house.(无动词) 15.独立结构的构成

（1）不定式独立结构：名词词组+不定式结构

The football star testified in court this morning that he had not taken any illegal drugs,the details to be reported this evening.

We have worked out a plan to make full use of our limited money,my husband’s salary to pay for our daughter’s education fees and mine to buy daily necessities. (2)现在分词独立结构：（介词+）名词词组+现在分词结构

Here!Change into a glass bowl full of water with goldfish swimming in it. Without anyone noticing,I slipped through the window. (3)过去分词独立结构：（介词+）名词词组+过去分词结构 I wouldn’t dare go home without the job finished.

Mr. Fotheringay stood with a forefinger stretched out and the troubled face of one expecting a terrible crash.

(4)无动词独立结构：（介词+）名词词组+（介词词组）+（形容词词组或副词词组或名词词组）

The summer holidays over,we went back to work.

Two thousand people died in the earthquake,many of them children.16.独立结构在句中通常作状语，口语中常用状语从句表达相应的内容 （1）表示时间

Lunch finished(When lunch was finished),the guests retired to the lounge. Their exams finished,the students went on an outing. （2）表示原因

Christmas then only days away(As Christmas was only days away),the family was pent up with excitement.

The weather having improved(As the weather had improved),we enjoyed the remainder of the game.

(3)表示条件

With them on our side(If they are on our side),we are secure.

Weather permitting(If weather permits),we’ll go fishing tomorrow. (4)表示伴随情况

The lamp hung upside down in the air,burning quietly with its flame pointing down. Without a tear on her face,the girl watched her father being led away.

The Subjunctive Mood in It’s time..., I wish...,I’d rather...,If only...

虚拟语气表示假设的情况或主观的愿望。我们已经学过虚拟语气在由if引导的虚拟条件句中的用法，如：

In case after case the difficulty could have been overcome—or might never have arisen—if the people involved had just treated one another with common courtesy.

I think that if I were allowed to add one small beatitude as a footnote to the other it might be:Blessed are the courteous.

虚拟语气还有许多其他的用法，本课再介绍以下几种。 17.It’s(high)time+带有虚拟式动词的从句 It’s time (that) you learned to be courteous. It’s time (that) we got down to business. 18.I wish+带有虚拟式动词的从句

（1）I wish + 主语 + 动词过去时形式或were,表示与现在事实相反 I wish I could speak English as fluently as you do. It’s unbearably hot.I wish it were spring.

(2)I wish + 主语 + 动词过去完成时形式，表示与过去事实相反 I’m feeling so sleepy.I wish I’d gone to bed earlier last night.

I wished my former boss had shown some appreciation for my work.If he had,I wouldn’t have left him.

19.would rather + 带有虚拟式动词形式的从句 I’d rather he told me the truth.

I would rather you did nothing for the time being and just thought about it. 20.If only + 带有虚拟式动词的从句

（1）If only + 主语 + 动词过去式形式，表示与现在事实相反 If only English wasn’t so difficult to learn.

If only my grandmother could understand my desire for privacy.

(2)If only + 主语 + 动词过去完成式形式，表示与过去事实相反 Pollution is a serious problem.If only man had cared more about nature.

If only I had gone to that football match!They all say it was magnificent.21.虚拟条件中隐含在句中的介词、动词不定式、动名词或分词等短语中

I would have done the same in similar circumstances.(介词短语)

Legalizing this drug would have very serious consequences.(动名词短语) To drink the last canteen of water would mean death to all the sailors.(不定式) Reported Speech

22.由直接引语变成间接引语时，一般要往前推一个时态，即：现在时变成过去时；过去时变成过去完成时；将来时变成过去将来时；现在完成时或过去完成时变成过去完成时，表示时间的状语也相应调整。

“I am being paid by the hour,”she said.

She said that she was being paid by the hour.

“The exhibition finished last week,”explained Ann.

Ann explained that the exhibition had finished the week before.(注意时间状语的变化) 直接引语在变成间接引语时，如果其内容在当时仍然没过时，时态则可往前推也可保持不变。

试比较下面两句话：

He said,“The earth is like a rolling ball.” He said that the earth was like a rolling ball. He said that the earth is like a rolling ball. “Nothing can harm a good man,”said Socrates. Socrates said that nothing could harm a good man. Socrates said that nothing can harm a good man.

23.直接引语变成间接引语时，在人称上也要根据情况做适当调整，把第一人称和第二人称变为第三人称，或者把第二人称变为第一人称。 “I’ll behave myself,”he promised.

He promised that he would behave himself. “I like your tie,”she told John. She told John that she liked his tie.

注意美国人往往在间接引语里也用现在时态表示过去的情况。 “My mother can drive a car,”he said.

He said that his mother could drive a car.(英式英语) He said that his mother can drive a car.(美式英语) 英国人不接受美国人的这一用法。

24.直接引语变成间接引语时，在时间状语上也要做适当调整。以下是几个常见的时间状语的变化形式。 直接引语间接引语 nowthen todaythat day

yesterdaythe day before/the previous day

the day before yesterdaytwo days before

last night/week/monththe night/week/month before two days agotwo days before

tomorrowthe next day/the following day

the day after tomorrowtwo days later

next week/month/yearthe next week/month/year “We saw the movie yesterday,”he said.

He said that they had seen the movie the day before. “I’m reading the newspaper now,”the boy said.

The boy said that he was reading the newspaper then.

25.直接引语变成间接引语时，指示代词this要变成that，these变成those；地点状语here变成there。

“I want this book,”he said.

He said that he wanted that book.

“This kind gentleman brought me here,”her mother told her.

Her mother told her that that kind genteman had brought her there. Cohesion

英语的句子中各个部分、句子之间、段落之间都须前后照应，有机地联系起来，这就是衔接。

衔接有多种手段，如用and ,however等衔接词。本课介绍另一种衔接手段——前后照应。要了解某一词语所表示的含义，必须从该词语所指的对象中去寻找。 26.照应前面出现的人或事物 （1）用人称代词和物主代词

If I love you,I can see you as a separate person,with your own values and thoughts and feelings. People are ready to enjoy anything amusing that came their way.

it作为人称代词，表示照应关系时不仅可以指物也可以指人或是整个句子或从句。 Distance can intensify a loving bond,and it can help us rediscover ourselves.

The poor nanny shook the baby too hard that it died soon after it was sent to the hospital.

I got into the room by breaking the kitchen window,not knowing that it would cause me so much trouble.

(2)用定冠词照应前面

A man and a woman were struggling up the hill.The man was very strong but the woman seemed very weak.

An airplane crashed into the Pacific yesterday.All 88 people on board the plane died.

(3)用指示代词this,that,these和those以及相应的限定词组如this statement和those statements等来照应前面

The wording of this letter is almost the same as that used earlier by my English teacher. Do you remember the 1940s,those terrible years? Six weeks!I can’t wait that long.

在表示时间、空间概念时，指示代词this/these一般表示的含义近一些而that/those表示的含义远一些。

Sometimes we laugh when we recognize ourselves in what we hear or see.This statement,therefore,often receives a smile：“Advice is always given but never taken.” We went to the suburb last week and that was our first outing this year.

在含有比较级的句子中，that/those可以照应上文提到过的具有特指意义的可数名词，而this/these不能这么用。

The manager’s salary is twice as much as that of his secretary.

These computers are nicer to look at than those we have in our company. (4)用so和not代替前面提到过的事情或情况

We are very busy and will remain so for a couple of weeks. “You haven’t lost your ticket,have you?”“I hope not.”

(5)用the former,the latter,the former照应前者，the latter照应后者（the former,the latter常一起使用，故把它们放在一起来讨论）。

John and William are both hardworking students.The former excels in math,the latter in history. The place you are going to stay in is something between a hotel and a home.Though it somewhat lacks the convenience of the former yet it has all the comforts of the latter. 27.照应后面将要出现的人、物或者事 （1）用人称代词和物主代词

After he had retired from the service I was acquainted with the late colonel John Browne. They understood one another all right,Jack and her. (2)用指示代词this和these

Well,you might not believe this but I don’t drink very much.

I don’t know whether this is right but I do think the boy should be returned to his father.

(3)用following和below等词来照应后面

Please read the following dialogue and then answer these questions.

Now let’s examine the report given below.Reported Questions,Commands and Exclamations 28.引用他人的问句时可直接引用，也可间接引用。 （1）由wh引导的特殊疑问句变成间接引语时，把疑问句形式改成陈述句形式，人称代词、时态和状语作适当调整。

“What would you like me to buy for you?”he asked me. He asked me what I would like him to buy for me.

“How often do you visit your parents?”the teacher asked Bob. The teacher asked Bob how often he visited his parents. (2)一般疑问句变成间接引语时，先加if或whether，再把疑问句变成陈述句形式，人称代词、时态和状语也要注意适当调整。

“Are you ready now?”Mother asked her boy.

Mother asked her boy if/whether he was ready then.

“Will you be waiting for me this afternoon?”Susan asked John.

Susan asked John if/whether he would be waiting for her that afternoon.29.祈使句变成间接引语时，将祈使句改换成动词不定式，然后置于引导间接引语的I/we/he/she/they told/ased him等之后。

“Be quiet!”I told him. I told him to be quiet.

“Sit down and don’t move,”the policeman said to the young man. The policeman told the young man to sit down and not to move.

30.感叹句变成间接引语时，有两种转换形式：一种以原来的感叹词what或how为引导词，原来的词序不变；一种以that为引导词，词序由感叹句形式变成陈述句形式。 “What a good idea it is!”

He said what a good idea it was. He said that it was a good idea.

“How fantastic the students’ performance is!”

He said how fantastic the students’ performance was. He said that the students’ performance was fantastic. Modal Verbs:need,dare,used to,ought to 31.need作情态动词时，主要用于否定句和疑问句，表示“没有必要……”或“有必要……吗？” You needn’t come all the way just to see the film.

Need we accompany our aging parents wherever they go?

(1)needn’t have + ed分词表示虽然已完成但却是没必要的行为。

You needn’t have paid the admission fee,for the lecture was free for members of the club.

He needn’t have bought such a large TV set.His children would have been quite happy with a smaller one.

(2)needn’t have + ed分词与didn’t need to do sth.的区别：后者表示“不一定非干某事，而通常也并没有这样做”。

I needn’t have bought the cheese,for there is plenty at home. (我本来是根本没必要买奶酪的，家里还有很多。)

I didn’t need to buy any cheese,for in my home no one enjoys it. (我不用买奶酪，因为家里没人爱吃。)

注意：在didn’t need to结构中，need不是情态动词而是实义动词。

32.dare作情态动词主要用于否定句、疑问句和感叹句，其否定式是dare not和daren’t,过去式为dared，过去否定式为dared not。Dare not和dared not为正式语言，daren’t普遍使用。 He dared not tell the old woman the bad news because she had a weak heart. She daren’t ask her boss for leave as he seems to be in a bad mood. How dare you read my diary!

在肯定陈述句中，dare只有I dare say/daresay这一固定搭配，用于口语，表示“我想”，“我敢说”，“我估计”，“我承认”。

I daresay someone is cooking in the house;it smells delicious. I daresay we’re going to have a very hot summer this year. 注意：dare做实意动词时，常用于肯定句。 He dared to behave like that in my house!

33.used to 表示过去经常的活动或方式、习惯

She used to dislike speaking in public,but now she quite enjoys it. We used to have a blue sky and clear water,but all this is gone now. 其否定式为used not/usedn’t/didn’t use to,但used not最普通。

She used not to get up early on Sundays but now,since she has changed her job,she has to. I used not to go to work by car.I rode a bike,which was good exercise.

其疑问式最自然的形式是 did you used to/did he use to 另一种形式 used you/used they/used he 不如前一种。

Did you use to know him?You seem to understand him very well. Didn’t there use to be a lot of trees behind the house?

注意：used to与be/get used to的区别。be/get used to表示“习惯于……”，它可以有各种时态形式。

I’m used to hard work and heat and that’s why I can work in India. When you are in London,you must get used to driving on the left. 34.ought to与should的意思和用法基本相似，常可相互替换 （1）ought to 表示“义务”。

What we ought to do is to give people memorable things according to our ability. You ought to drive within the speed limit.It’s for your own good. (2)ought to表示“推测”。

If the professor says so,then it ought to be true. David ought to be in his office at this time of day.

(3)ought to + have + ed分词，表示该履行而未履行的义务。

I ought to have returned the books last week.Now they are overdue and I have to pay a fine.

You ought to have warned the boy of the danger of playing with fire.Then he wouldn’t have burnt his hands.

(4)否定式为oughtn’t to/shouldn’t,疑问式为should you/he/she等。 —You oughtn’t to eat between meals.

—I know I oughtn’t to,but I often get hungry.

You oughtn’t to smoke so much;you are inviting trouble.

Relatedness of NonFinite Verbs to the Subject of a Sentence

35.一般来说动词非谓语形式（不定式、分词和动名词）的逻辑上的主语应该跟主句谓语动词的主语保持一致。

The children,having eaten their meal,were allowed to leave the table. Reaching the river,we pitched camp for the night.

Persuaded by our optimism,he gladly contributed time and money to the scheme.36.动词非谓语形式的逻辑上的主语在固定用法中跟主句的主语不一致。 Strictly speaking,nobody is allowed in here.

Provided that a film entertains,few people care about its other merits. To put it frankly,there is nothing more I can do about it. Sequence of Tenses

37.一个句子中的多个动词如果表示同时或几乎同时发生的动作或状态，其时态应保持一致。 Whenever the alarm clock rings in the morning,I yawn,stretch,and roll over for another five minutes of sleep.(一般现在时)

The following Tuesday I raced home from school,put the bag over my shoulder,dumped the magazines in and embarked on the highway of journalism.(过去时)

On the one hand,the government will do what it can to hunt for the hackers(黑客)and ,on the other hand,internet users will have to learn how to protect themselves.(将来时)

38.在并列句中，如两个或两个以上的动词所表示的动作不是同时或几乎同时发生（或不是同时期的状态）动词的时态按照动作发生的具体情况而定。

In the past,most families in China didn’t have a TV set,but now,a lot of them have not only TV sets,but also computers.(一般过去时和一般现在时)

He broke his leg in the accident,and according to the doctors,he will never be able to walk again.(过去时和将来时)

39.在主从复合句中，从句动词的时态取决于主句动词的时态。一般来说，主句动词为现在时，从句动词的时态则根据从句动词和主句动词所表示的动作先后次序来确定。 Many people believe that morning exercises do them a lot of good. He thinks that it will rain tomorrow.

We know that we have missed an opportunity and that it may never come again. I am in good shape because I used to do a lot of exercises.

He says that they are working on a new model of Boeing(波音飞机). 当主句动词为现在完成时时，从句动词一般为过去时。

Scientists have studied the universe ever since telescope was invented.40.若主句动词为过去时，从句动词一般为过去时或过去完成时，情态动词也要相应地改成过去时。引导间接引语的动词是过去时态时，也要用时态呼应的规则

Centuries ago,people held a belief that the sun moved around the earth. He thought that it would rain the next day.

若主句动词为过去完成时，从句动词一般用过去时。 He had done all that was necessary.

By the time they found the hacker,he had already broken into the computer system of the bank. 在使用过去时态呼应规则时，应注意过去时态只与过去的事件有关，与现在的情况无关。 I got the job because I was a good driver.(并不表示我现在就不是好司机) I wanted to join the police,but I wasn’t tall enough.(不表示我现在就高了)

41.若主句动词是将来时或将来完成时，从句动词一般现在时或现在完成时

I’ll write to you as soon as I finish/have finished the final exams.

The workmen will have completed their repairs by the time the airport is reopened.

Unusual Prepositions: but,except,from,instead of

42.but除去，除开

（1）but作介词不能放在句首，它后面除了像其他介词一样可跟名词和代词外，还可跟介词短语、形容词、不定式和从句。 Everyone but me was tired.(代词)

Finally,we had packed everything but the typewriter.(名词) The car is anything but slow.(形容词)

Put it anywhere but on the floor.(介词短语) We had no choice but to obey him.(不定式短语)

We know nothing of our new neighbour but that he was a Cambridge graduate.(从句) 注意：在do nothing but和there is nothing to do but后面的不定式通常省略to。 These women there did nothing but complain.

There was nothing to do but wait until he came back. (2)区分介词but与连词but

Everyone had a good time but John.(介词)

The students had a good time but not John/but John did not.(连词) 43.except除去，除掉

（1）与but一样，expect后面除了像其他介词一样可跟名词和代词外，还可跟介词短语、不定式和从句。

They were all rescued except the captain,who stayed behind to safeguard the vessel.（名词） Everybody is here except him.(代词)

The weather in the area will be fine tomorrow except in the southeast,where we will have some drizzle.(介词短语)

To point out his mistake directly will have no effect except to make him angry.(不定式) I don’t know much about London except that it is the capital of Britain.(从句)

注意：在do nothing/everything/anything except的句型中，其后的不定式多省略to。 They could do nothing except wait for help to arrive. I’ll do everything for you except wash your underwear. (2)except和except for的区别

except后面的成分和主语或宾语的成分属于同一种类，而except for后面的成分跟主语或宾语的成分不属同类。

The office was empty,except for a desk and a chair.(the office与a desk and a chair不同类) All the students in the class went to the lecture except Li Hong.(Li Hong也是个student) (3)but和except的区别

but后面的成分一般不重要，而except则强调它后面所跟的成分，but多放在否定句或否定词nobody,nothing等之后，而except则不一定。

For a while,there wasn’t anything to do for either of us but drink beer. My papers seem to be everywhere except where they ought to be. 44.from的几个主要用法

（1）表示来源，根源

The tourists are coming to this country from all parts of the world. It is a quotation from Shakespeare. (2)表示原因

The victims suffered from cold and hunger.

The man was rushed to hospital but he died from his injuries shortly afterwards. (3)表示“从……到……”

I have to drive a hundred miles from home to work. Where were you last night from ten to twelve? (4)表示“用……材料”（成品中看不出原材料） Wine is made from grapes.

Paper is made from wood or rages.

注意from与同样表示材料的of与out of的区别。of表示成品中看得出来原材料。 I’d like to have a look at the blouse of pink silk,please. The house is built of stone. out of强调得用某物做……

She made a jacket for her son out of an old coat of her husband’s.

They made curtains out of the cotton print they had brought from Egypt. (5)可跟表示方位的介词词组或副词under,behind,above,before连用 He pulled a pistol from under the pillow.

Suddenly a boy jumped on him from behind the door. This tree has been here from before the First World War. The couple has just returned from abroad. Orders to withdraw came from above. 45.instead of 取代，代替

（1）后面跟名词、代词、动名词

Instead of a scolding,I was rewarded with a pat on the back for having the good sense to buy fruit instead of candy.(名词)

To everyone’s disappointment,his secretary came to the meeting instead of the minister himself.(代词)

Instead of sitting there,you could help me clean the kitchen.(动名词) （2）跟介词短语

I’d like to go there by train instead of by air.

We found him in the library instead of in his study as we often do.

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