Does Happiness Lead to Success幸福的人更容易成功吗
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积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家:积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧
PsychologicalBulletin
2005,Vol.131,No.6,803–855Copyright2005bytheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation0033-2909/05/$12.00DOI:10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803
TheBenefitsofFrequentPositiveAffect:
DoesHappinessLeadtoSuccess?
UniversityofCalifornia,Riverside
SonjaLyubomirsky
UniversityofMissouri—Columbia
LauraKing
UniversityofIllinoisatUrbana–ChampaignandTheGallupOrganization
Numerousstudiesshowthathappyindividualsaresuccessfulacrossmultiplelifedomains,includingmarriage,friendship,income,workperformance,andhealth.Theauthorssuggestaconceptualmodeltoaccountforthesefindings,arguingthatthehappiness–successlinkexistsnotonlybecausesuccessmakespeoplehappy,butalsobecausepositiveaffectengenderssuccess.Threeclassesofevidence—cross-sectional,longitudinal,andexperimental—aredocumentedtotesttheirmodel.Relevantstudiesaredescribedandtheireffectsizescombinedmeta-analytically.Theresultsrevealthathappinessisassoci-atedwithandprecedesnumeroussuccessfuloutcomes,aswellasbehaviorsparallelingsuccess.Furthermore,theevidencesuggeststhatpositiveaffect—thehallmarkofwell-being—maybethecauseofmanyofthedesirablecharacteristics,resources,andsuccessescorrelatedwithhappiness.Limitations,empiricalissues,andimportantfutureresearchquestionsarediscussed.
Keywords:happiness,subjectivewell-being,positiveaffect,positiveemotions,meta-analysis
EdDiener
“Amerryheartgoesalltheday,Yoursadtiresinamile-a.”
—WilliamShakespeare“Thejoyfulnessofamanprolongethhisdays.”
—Sirach30:22
“Thedaysthatmakeushappymakeuswise.”
—JohnMasefield
Researchonwell-beingconsistentlyrevealsthatthecharacter-isticsandresourcesvaluedbysocietycorrelatewithhappiness.Forexample,marriage(Mastekaasa,1994),acomfortableincome(Diener&Biswas-Diener,2002),superiormentalhealth(Koivumaa-Honkanenetal.,2004),andalonglife(Danner,Snow-don,&Friesen,2001)allcovarywithreportsofhighhappinesslevels.Suchassociationsbetweendesirablelifeoutcomesandhappinesshaveledmostinvestigatorstoassumethatsuccessmakespeoplehappy.Thisassumptioncanbefoundthroughouttheliteratureinthisarea.Forexample,Diener,Suh,Lucas,andSmith
SonjaLyubomirsky,DepartmentofPsychology,UniversityofCalifor-nia,Riverside;LauraKing,DepartmentofPsychologicalSciences,Uni-versityofMissouri—Columbia;EdDiener,DepartmentofPsychology,UniversityofIllinoisatUrbana–ChampaignandTheGallupOrganization,Omaha,Nebraska.
ThisworkwassupportedinpartbygrantsfromthePositivePsychologyNetwork.WearegratefultoFaziletKasri,ReneDickerhoof,ColleenHowell,AngelaZamora,StephenSchueller,IreneChung,KathleenJamir,TonyAngelo,andChristieScollonforconductinglibraryresearchandespeciallytoRyanHowellforstatisticalconsulting.
CorrespondenceconcerningthisarticleshouldbeaddressedtoSonjaLyubomirsky,DepartmentofPsychology,UniversityofCalifornia,River-side,CA92521.E-mail:sonja@citrus.ucr.edu
803
(1999)reviewedthecorrelationsbetweenhappinessandavarietyofresources,desirablecharacteristics,andfavorablelifecircum-stances.Althoughtheauthorsrecognizedthatthecausalitycanbebidirectional,theyfrequentlyusedwordingimplyingthatcauseflowsfromtheresourcetohappiness.Forexample,theysuggestedthatmarriagemighthave“greaterbenefitsformenthanforwomen”(p.290),apparentlyoverlookingthepossibilitythatsexdifferencesinmaritalpatternscouldbeduetodifferentialselectionintomarriagebasedonwell-being.Similarly,afterreviewinglinksbetweenmoneyandwell-being,Dienerandhiscolleaguespointedoutthat“evenwhenextremelywealthyindividualsareexamined,theeffects[italicsadded]ofincomearesmall”(p.287),againassumingacausaldirectionfromincometohappiness.Weusequotesfromoneofustoavoidpointingfingersatothers,butsuchexamplescouldbegarneredfromthemajorityofscientificpubli-cationsinthisarea.Thequotesunderscorethepervasivenessoftheassumptionamongwell-beinginvestigatorsthatsuccessfulout-comesfosterhappiness.Thepurposeofourreviewisnottodisconfirmthatresourcesandsuccessleadtowell-being—anotionthatislikelyvalidtosomedegree.Ouraimistoshowthatthealternativecausalpathway—thathappypeoplearelikelytoac-quirefavorablelifecircumstances—isatleastpartlyresponsiblefortheassociationsfoundintheliterature.
APRELIMINARYCONCEPTUALMODEL
Inthisarticle,wereviewevidencesuggestingthathappypeo-ple—thosewhoexperienceapreponderanceofpositiveemo-tions—tendtobesuccessfulandaccomplishedacrossmultiplelifedomains.Whyishappinesslinkedtosuccessfuloutcomes?Weproposethatthisisnotmerelybecausesuccessleadstohappiness,butbecausepositiveaffect(PA)engenderssuccess.Positively
积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家:积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧
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LYUBOMIRSKY,KING,ANDDIENER
valencedmoodsandemotionsleadpeopletothink,feel,andactinwaysthatpromotebothresourcebuildingandinvolvementwithapproachgoals(Elliot&Thrash,2002;Lyubomirsky,2001).Anindividualexperiencingapositivemoodoremotionisencounter-ingcircumstancesthatheorsheinterpretsasdesirable.Positiveemotionssignifythatlifeisgoingwell,theperson’sgoalsarebeingmet,andresourcesareadequate(e.g.,Cantoretal.,1991;Carver&Scheier,1998;Clore,Wyer,Dienes,Gasper,&Isbell,2001).Inthesecircumstances,asFredrickson(1998,2001)hassolucidlydescribed,peopleareideallysituatedto“broadenandbuild.”Inotherwords,becauseallisgoingwell,individualscanexpandtheirresourcesandfriendships;theycantaketheoppor-tunitytobuildtheirrepertoireofskillsforfutureuse;ortheycanrestandrelaxtorebuildtheirenergyafterexpendinghighlevelsofeffort.Fredrickson’smodel(Fredrickson,2001)suggeststhatacriticaladaptivepurposeofpositiveemotionsistohelppreparetheorganismforfuturechallenges.FollowingFredrickson,wesuggestthatpeopleexperiencingpositiveemotionstakeadvantageoftheirtimeinthisstate—freefromimmediatedangerandunmarkedbyrecentloss—toseeknewgoalsthattheyhavenotyetattained(seeCarver,2003,forarelatedreview).
Thecharacteristicsrelatedtopositiveaffectincludeconfidence,optimism,andself-efficacy;likabilityandpositiveconstrualsofothers;sociability,activity,andenergy;prosocialbehavior;immu-nityandphysicalwell-being;effectivecopingwithchallengeandstress;andoriginalityandflexibility.Whattheseattributesshareisthattheyallencourageactiveinvolvementwithgoalpursuitsandwiththeenvironment.Whenallisgoingwell,apersonisnotwellservedbywithdrawingintoaself-protectivestanceinwhichtheprimaryaimistoprotecthisorherexistingresourcesandtoavoidharm—aprocessmarkingtheexperienceofnegativeemotions.Positiveemotionsproducethetendencytoapproachratherthantoavoidandtopreparetheindividualtoseekoutandundertakenewgoals.Thus,weproposethatthesuccessofhappypeoplerestsontwomainfactors.First,becausehappypeopleexperiencefrequentpositivemoods,theyhaveagreaterlikelihoodofworkingactivelytowardnewgoalswhileexperiencingthosemoods.Second,happypeopleareinpossessionofpastskillsandresources,whichtheyhavebuiltovertimeduringpreviouspleasantmoods.
Thisunifyingframeworkbuildsonseveralearlierbodiesofwork—thebroaden-and-buildmodelofpositiveemotions(Fredrickson,1998,2001),thenotionthatpositiveemotionscon-veyspecificinformationtotheperson(Ortony,Clore,&Collins,1988),theideaofpositivityoffset(Ito&Cacioppo,1999),workontheapproach-relatedaspectsofPA(Watson,2000),and,fi-nally,Isen’s(e.g.,2000)groundbreakingresearchonthebehaviorsthatfollowpositivemoodinductions.Weextendtheearlierworkinpredictingthatchronicallyhappypeopleareingeneralmoresuccessful,andthattheirsuccessisinlargepartaconsequenceoftheirhappinessandfrequentexperienceofPA.Althoughthevastmajorityofresearchonemotionshasbeenonnegativestates,abodyofliteraturehasnowaccumulatedthathighlightstheimpor-tanceofpositiveemotionsinpeople’slong-termflourishing.
ClassesofEvidence
Figure1displaysourgeneralconceptualmodel,whichproposesthatsuccessfuloutcomesarecausedbyhappinessanddonotmerelycorrelatewithitorfollowfromit.Specifically,belowthe
conceptualmodel,wedisplayfourclassesofevidencethatcanbeusedtotestit.Thefirsttypeofevidence(TypeA)representspositivecorrelationsderivedfromcross-sectionalstudies.Al-thoughitisatruismthatcorrelationdoesnotimplycausation,correlationsmustgenerallybepositivetobeconsistentwithprop-ositionsaboutcausality.Exceptintherarecaseinwhichstrongthird-variablesuppressoreffectsexistacrossstudies,anabsenceofcorrelationbetweentwovariablesindicatesanabsenceofcausalityineitherdirection.Thus,correlationalevidenceisgermanetoourargumentbecausetheabsenceofpositivecorrelationssuggeststhathappinessdoesnotcausesuccess.
Thesecondclassofevidence(TypeB)isbasedonlongitudinalresearch,andissomewhatmoreinformativeaboutcausaldirectionthancross-sectionalcorrelations.Ifonevariableprecedesanotherintimeandotherpotentialcausalvariablesarestatisticallycon-trolled,theresultingcausalmodelcanbeusedtorejectacausalhypothesis.IncasesinwhichchangesinvariableXareshowntoprecedechangesinvariableY,thisformofevidenceisevenmorestronglysupportiveofacausalconnection,althoughtheinfluenceofthirdvariablesmightstillcontaminatetheconclusionsandleavethedirectionofcauseindoubt.EvidenceofTypeC,theclassiclaboratoryexperiment,iscommonlybelievedtorepresentthestrongestevidenceforcausality,althougheveninthiscaseitcanbedifficulttodetermineexactlywhataspectoftheexperimentalmanipulationledtochangesinthedependentvariable.Finally,long-termexperimentalinterventionstudies(TypeDevidence)wouldofferthestrongesttestofourcausalmodel,althoughagaintheactiveingredientsinthecausalchainareusuallynotknownwithcertainty.
EmpiricalTestsofModelandOrganizationalStrategy
Becausenosinglestudyortypeofevidenceisdefinitive,anargumentforcausalitycanbestbemadewhenvariousclassesofevidenceallconvergeonthesameconclusion.Therefore,wedocumentseveraltypesofevidenceinourarticleinordertomostrigorouslytesttheideathathappinessleadstosuccess.Ourreviewcoversthefirstthreeclassesofevidence(TypesA,B,andC)andisorganizedaroundfivefocalquestionsarisingfromthesethreecategories:
1.
Cross-sectionalstudies(TypeA)
Question1:Arehappypeoplesuccessfulpeople?Question2:Arelong-termhappinessandshort-termPAassociatedwithbehaviorsparallelingsuccess—thatis,withadaptivecharacteristicsandskills?2.
Longitudinalstudies(TypeB)
Question3:Doeshappinessprecedesuccess?
Question4:Dohappinessandpositiveaffectprecedebehaviorsparallelingsuccess?3.
Experimentalstudies(TypeC)
Question5:Doespositiveaffectleadtobehaviorsparallelingsuccess?
First,wedocumenttheextensivecross-sectionalcorrelationalevidence(TypeA),asshowninFigure1.Thefirstquestionaddressedbythisevidenceistheonethatformsthebasisofourcausalhypothesis—thatis,arehappypeoplemorelikelytosuc-
积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家:积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧
BENEFITSOFFREQUENTPOSITIVEAFFECT
805
Figure1.Empiricallytestingtheconceptualmodel.PA positiveaffect;Grp. group.
ceedatculturallyvaluedgoals(e.g.,concerningwork,love,andhealth)thantheirlesshappypeers?However,thelargenumberofavailablecorrelationalstudiesinthiscategoryalsoincludesrele-vantresearchexaminingbehaviorandcognitionthatparallelsuc-cessfullifeoutcomes—thatis,thecharacteristics,resources,andskillsthathelppeoplesucceed(e.g.,attributessuchasself-efficacy,creativity,sociability,altruism,immunity,andcoping).Accordingly,thesecondquestionaddressedbythisevidenceex-plorestherelationsofbehaviorparallelingsuccesstolong-termhappinessandshort-termPA.Becausewedefinehappinessas
the
积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家:积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧
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LYUBOMIRSKY,KING,ANDDIENER
frequentexperienceofpositiveemotionsovertime(seebelow),ourmodelassumesthatthecorrelationsinvolvinglong-termhap-pinessareparalleltothoseofshort-termpositivemoods.Incon-clusion,onlyifthecorrelationsgeneratedbyQuestions1and2aregenerallypositivewillweconsiderourcausalhypothesisfurther.Second,weconsiderlongitudinalstudies,whichaddresstwofurtherquestions.IshappinessatTime1associatedwithsuccess-fuloutcomesatTime2(Question3)?IshappinessandPAatTime1correlatedwithbehaviorsparallelingsuccessatTime2(Ques-tion4)?Insummary,priorlevelsofhappinessandpositiveaffectmustcorrelatewithlaterlevelsofsuccessfuloutcomesandbehav-iorforourcausalhypothesisnottoberejected.
Inlaboratoryexperimentation,thethirdtypeofevidence,cau-salityisputtoastrongertest.Inthiscase,however,becauseofthelimitsofthelaboratory,onlyshort-termchangesinbehaviorandcognitionsthatparallelsuccessfullifeoutcomesareassessed.Thus,thefifthandfinalquestionweaddressiswhetherPAcausesthecognitiveandbehavioralcharacteristicsparallelingsuccess.Again,becausepositiveaffectisdefinedhereasthebasicconstit-uentofhappiness,ourmodelrequiresthattheoutcomesofshort-termpositivemoodsareparalleltothesuccessfuloutcomesinourconceptualmodel.Furthermore,thisquestioniscritical,asitspeakstowhetherPAmaybeamediatorunderlyingtherelation-shipbetweenhappinessandflourishing—thatis,whetherPAcausestheadaptivecharacteristicsthathelphappypeoplesucceed.AlthoughthefourthtypeofevidenceshowninFigure1(TypeD)wouldprovidethestrongesttypeofdataforourmodel,unfor-tunately,toourknowledgenostudiesofthistypeexist.Neverthe-less,supportforourconceptualmodelfromallthreeofthepreviouslydescribedtypesofevidence,whilenotdefinitive,willsuggestalikelihoodthatourcausalmodeliscorrect.Furthermore,combiningthethreetypesofevidencerepresentsanadvancebeyondlaboratoryexperimentationalone,becausetherelativelygreaterrigorandcontrolprovidedbyexperimentationaresupple-mentedbytherelativelygreaterecologicalvalidityprovidedbytheothertypesofstudies.Thus,thefirsttwoclassesofevidence(TypesAandB)speaktotheplausibilityofgeneralizingthecausallaboratoryfindingstothecontextofsuccessandthrivinginev-erydaylife.Meanwhile,byrevealingtheprocessesuncoveredinthelaboratory,theexperimentalevidence(TypeC)illuminatesthepossiblecausalsequencesuspectedinthecorrelationaldata.Takentogether,consistentfindingsfromallthreetypesofdataofferastrongertestthananysingletypeofdatatakenalone.
Afterdescribingourmethodologyanddefiningourterms,weaddresseachofthefivefocalquestionsinorder,documentingthethreeclasses(A,B,andC)ofrelevantempiricalevidence.Then,weturntoadiscussionofseveralintriguingissuesandquestionsarisingoutofthisreview,caveatsandlimitations,andimportantfurtherresearchquestions.
MethodologicalApproach
Toidentifythewidestrangeofpublishedpapersanddisserta-tions,weusedseveralsearchstrategies(Cooper,1998).First,wesearchedthePsycINFOonlinedatabase,usingavarietyofkeywords(e.g.,happiness,satisfaction,affect,emotion,andmood).Next,usingtheancestrymethod,thereferencelistofeveryem-pirical,theoretical,andreviewpaperandchapterwasfurthercombedforadditionalrelevantarticles.Toobtainanypapersthat
mighthavebeenoverlookedbyoursearchcriteria,aswellastolocateworkthatisunpublishedorinpress,wecontactedtwolargeelectroniclistserves,manyofwhosemembersconductresearchintheareaofwell-beingandemotion—theSocietyofPersonalityandSocialPsychologylistservandtheQualityofLifeStudieslistserv.Twenty-fouradditionalrelevantarticleswereidentifiedwiththismethod.
Thefinalbodyofliteraturewascomposedof225papers,ofwhich11areunpublishedordissertations.Fromthese225papers,weexamined293samples,comprisingover275,000participants,andcomputed313independenteffectsizes.Astudywasincludedinourtablesifitsatisfiedthefollowingcriteria.First,measuresofhappiness,PA,oracloselyrelatedconstructhadtobeincluded,inadditiontoassessmentofatleastoneoutcome,characteristic,resource,skill,orbehavior.Second,thedatahadtoincludeeitherazero-ordercorrelationcoefficientorinformationthatcouldbeconvertedtoanreffectsize(e.g.,ttests,Ftests,meansandstandarddeviations,andchi-squares).Ifastudydidnotreportanreffectsize,wecomputedonefromdescriptivestatistics,tstatis-tics,Fratios,andtablesofcounts(seeRosenthal,1991).Ifnorelevantconvertiblestatisticswerepresented,otherthanapvalue,wecalculatedthetstatisticfromthepvalueandanr-sub(equivalent)(Rosenthal&Rubin,2003).Whenapaperre-portedp .05,p .01,orns,wecomputedrsub(equivalent)withpvaluesof.0245,.005,and.50(one-tailed),respectively,whichlikelyyieldedahighlyconservativeestimateoftheeffectsize.Finally,thesamplesizehadtobeavailable.Whenpossible,wealsocontactedauthorsforfurtherinformation.
Descriptionsofthecriticalelementsofeachstudy(i.e.,authors,year,samplesize,happiness/PAmeasureorinduction,relatedconstruct,andeffectsize[r])areincludedinTables1,2,and3,whichpresentcross-sectional,longitudinal,andexperimentalwork,respectively.Table2additionallypresentsthelengthoftimebetweenassessments,andTable3includesthecomparisongroupsusedinthestudies.Studieswithsubscriptsaftertheirnamearethosethatappearinmorethanasinglesectionortable,usuallybecausemultipleoutcomevariablesareincluded.
Furthermore,mirroringourdocumentationoftheliteraturepre-sentedinthispaper,Tables1–3aresubdividedintosubstantivecategories(orpanels).Forexample,Table1issubdividedintoninecategories—worklife,socialrelationships,health,percep-tionsofselfandothers,sociabilityandactivity,likabilityandcooperation,prosocialbehavior,physicalwell-beingandcoping,and,finally,problemsolvingandcreativity.Themeanandmedianeffectsize(r),weightedandunweightedbysamplesize,aswellasatestofheterogeneity,isprovidedforeachcategoryforthethreeclassesofdata(cross-sectional,longitudinal,andexperimental)inTable4.
Tables1,2,and3reportalleffectsizesofinteresttoreaders—includinginstancesoftwoormoreeffectsizesgeneratedfromthesamesampleordataset.Forexample,therelationofhappinesswithincomeandmaritalstatusderivedfromasinglestudymayappearintwodifferentpanelsofatable(i.e.,worklifeandsocialrelationships).Alternatively,thecorrelationbetweenhappinessandcopingderivedfromasinglelongitudinalstudymayappearintwodifferenttables(e.g.,thecross-sectionaltableandthelongi-tudinaltable).However,inordertometa-analyticallycombinethe464effectsizeslistedinTables1–3,wehadtoensureadegreeof
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积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家:积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧
BENEFITSOFFREQUENTPOSITIVEAFFECT
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Table1
StudyInformationandEffectSizesforNineCategoriesofCross-SectionalResearch
Study
n
Happiness/PAmeasure
Worklife
Crede´etal.,2005Crede´etal.,2005Crede´etal.,2005
Cropanzano&Wright,1999a
(firstassessment)
Cropanzano&Wright,1999a
(secondassessment)DeLuga&Mason,2000Donovan,2000Donovan,2000Donovan,2000Donovan,2000Donovan,2000Fosteretal.,2004Fosteretal.,2004Frischetal.,2004George,1989George,1995George,1995
Grahametal.,inpressa(1995assessment)Grahametal.,inpressa(2000assessment)Howelletal.,inpressJundt&Hinsz,2001Kruegeretal.,2001aLucasetal.,2004
Magen&Aharoni,1991aMagen&Aharoni,1991aMilesetal.,2002
Seligman&Schulman,1986a(Study1)Staw&Barsade,1993aStawetal.,1994aStawetal.,1994aStawetal.,1994aThoits&Hewitt,2001aTotterdell,2000*
VanKatwyketal.,2000a(Study3)VanKatwyketal.,2000a(Study3)Weissetal.,1999a
Wright&Cropanzano,1998Wright&Cropanzano,2000(Study1)
Wright&Cropanzano,2000(Study2)Wright&Staw,1999a(Study1,secondassessment)
Wright&Staw,1999a(Study2,firstassessment)
Wright&Staw,1999a(Study2,secondassessment)
95995995960609218818818818818841413,63825453534,5245,13430716439724,000260260203
94832722722723,6171711111124524737456264
PANASPANASPANAS
IndexofPsychologicalWell-BeingIndexofPsychologicalWell-BeingAffectometer2
CurrentMoodReportCurrentMoodReportCurrentMoodReportCurrentMoodReportCurrentMoodReportJobAffectScaleJobAffectScale
QualityofLifeInventoryJobAffectScalePANAS(leader)
PANAS(aggregatedgroup)One-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessSWLS
Seven-pointsemanticdifferentialsMPQpositiveemotionalityOne-itemhappiness
Four-itempositiveaffectFour-itempositiveaffect
Job-RelatedAffectiveWell-BeingScale
AttributionalStyleQuestionnaireThree-measurecompositeofpositiveaffectivity
ExperienceandexpressionofpositiveemotiononthejobExperienceandexpressionofpositiveemotiononthejobExperienceandexpressionofpositiveemotiononthejobOne-itemhappiness
One-itemhappiness(12timesover4days)PANASPANAS
FordyceHMScalePANAS
IndexofPsychologicalWell-BeingIndexofPsychologicalWell-BeingIndexofPsychologicalWell-BeingIndexofPsychologicalWell-BeingIndexofPsychologicalWell-Being
Socialrelationships
Baldassareetal.,1984Baldassareetal.,1984Baldassareetal.,1984Berry&Willingham,1997
Cooperetal.,1992a(Study1&Study2)Cooperetal.,1992a(Study2)
202202202127118118
Four-itemhappinessFour-itemhappinessFour-itemhappinessPANASSWLSSWLS
InstrumentalsupportEmotionalsupportCompanionship
CommitmenttocurrentrelationshipSatisfactionwithfriends
Satisfactionwithsocialactivities
.17.15.30.27.31.37
(tablecontinues)
OrganizationalcitizenshipbehaviorCounterproductiveworkbehaviorJobwithdrawal
SupervisoryevaluationsSupervisoryevaluations
Jobperformance
OrganizationalcitizenshipbehaviorTurnoverintentionsWorkwithdrawal
OrganizationalretaliatorybehaviorSatisfactionwithwork
OrganizationalclimateforperformanceEmployeehealthandwell-beingAcademicretentionabsenteeismJudgedcustomerserviceJudgedcustomerserviceIncomeIncome
MaterialwealthTaskperformanceSelf-reportedaltruismIncome
Transpersonalcommitment
InvolvementincommunityserviceOrganizationalcitizenshipbehaviorQuarterlyinsurancecommissionsJudgedmanagerialperformanceJobautonomy,meaning,andvarietyGrossannualsalary
Supervisoryevaluations(creativity)TimespentvolunteeringCricketbattingaverageInterpersonalconflictIntentiontoquitJobsatisfaction
EmotionalexhaustionJobperformanceSupervisoryevaluationsSupervisoryevaluationsSupervisoryevaluationsSupervisoryevaluations
.37 .25 .25.29.34.22.20 .38 .20 .22.50.32.29.18 .28.41.35.20b.16b.23.19.44.20.21.36.23.18.20.22.12.30.09.36 .12 .33.29 .39.32.34.33.25.43
Correlatedconstruct
Effectsize
(r)
积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家:积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧
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Table1(continued)
Study
n
LYUBOMIRSKY,KING,ANDDIENER
Happiness/PAmeasureSocialrelationships(continued)
Correlatedconstruct
Effectsize
(r)
Diener&Seligman,2002a
Dieneretal.,2000Gladow&Ray,1986aGladow&Ray,1986a
Glenn&Weaver,1981a(Blackfemalesample)
Glenn&Weaver,1981a(Blackmalesample)
Glenn&Weaver,1981a(Whitefemalesample)
Glenn&Weaver,1981a(Whitemalesample)
Grahametal.,inpressa(1995assessment)Grahametal.,inpressa(2000assessment)Headeyetal.,1991a(1981assessment)Headeyetal.,1991a(1983assessment)Headeyetal.,1991a(1985assessment)Headeyetal.,1991a(1987assessment)Kozma&Stones,1983
Lee&Ishii-Kuntz,1987(malesample)Lee&Ishii-Kuntz,1987(malesample)Lee&Ishii-Kuntz,1987(femalesample)Lee&Ishii-Kuntz,1987(femalesample)Lyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressaMastekaasa,1994Mishra,1992a
Mroczek&Spiro,2005aPfeiffer&Wong,1989a
Phillips,1967*(healthysample)Requena,1995(Spanishsample)Requena,1995(U.S.sample)Ruvolo,1998a(husbandssample)Ruvolo,1998a(husbandssample)Ruvolo,1998a(wivessample)Ruvolo,1998a(wivessample)
Stack&Eshleman,1998(malesample)Stack&Eshleman,1998(femalesample)Stawetal.,1994aStrayer,1980aWilli,1997
10659,169
6363891678201,8724,5245,1346496496496496001,3211,3211,5511,55162162125,8107201,927594301,0841,5343173173173179,23710,127272
14383
SWLS,affectbalance,memoryrecall
One-itemlifesatisfactionOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappiness
One-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessLife-as-a-WholeIndexLife-as-a-WholeIndexLife-as-a-WholeIndexLife-as-a-WholeIndexMUNSH
Seven-itemmoraleSeven-itemmoraleSeven-itemmoraleSeven-itemmoraleSHSSHS
Bradburn’sScales,one-itemlifesatisfaction,one-itemhappinessIndexofLifeSatisfaction
LifeSatisfactionInventoryMUNSH
One-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappiness
Experienceandexpressionofpositiveemotiononthejob
ObservationalcountofhappyaffectRelationship-relevanthappiness
Health
RelationshipswithclosefriendsMaritalstatus
SupportfromfriendsSupportfromneighborsMaritalhappinessMaritalhappinessMaritalhappinessMaritalhappinessMaritalstatusMaritalstatus
SatisfactionwithmarriageSatisfactionwithmarriageSatisfactionwithmarriageSatisfactionwithmarriageMaritalstatus
No.ofclosefriendsLoneliness
No.ofclosefriendsLoneliness
SatisfactionwithfriendsSatisfactionwithrecreationMaritalstatus
SocialinteractionswithnonfamilymembersMaritalstatus
JealousyinspecificrelationshipSocialparticipationNo.offriendsNo.offriendsMaritalwell-being
Spouse’smaritalwell-beingMaritalwell-being
Spouse’smaritalwell-beingMaritalstatusMaritalstatus
Emotionalandtangiblesupportfromsupervisors
Observationalcountofempathicresponsestoothers
Extentinlovewithpartner
.48.07b.35.31.18.22.53.37.03b.02b.47.55.49.47.20.23 .50.19 .51.50.51.29.41.23 .03.17.13.08.12.16.41.34.15b.16b.33.59.19
Achatetal.,2000aBogneretal.,2001Chang&Farrehi,2001Chang&Farrehi,2001Collinsetal.,1992
Diener&Seligman,2002aDiener&Seligman,2002aDiener&Seligman,2002aGilGilGilGilGilGil
etetetetetetal.,al.,al.,al.,al.,al.,
2004a2004a2004a2004a2004a2004a
65916840240273106106106414141414141LOTSWLS
LOT-RevisedSWLS
MAACL-Revised
SWLS,affectbalance,memoryrecall
SWLS,affectbalance,memoryrecall
SWLS,affectbalance,memoryrecall
DailyMoodScaleDailyMoodScaleDailyMoodScaleDailyMoodScaleDailyMoodScaleDailyMoodScale
Vitality
HistoryofsubstanceabuseDepressivesymptomsDepressivesymptomsQualityoflifeDepressionHypochondriasisSchizophreniaPainERvisits
HospitalvisitsDoctorcallsMedicationuseWorkabsences
.14b .27 .36 .57.32 .61 .24 .53 .42 .06b .06b .08b .08b .09b
积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家:积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧
BENEFITSOFFREQUENTPOSITIVEAFFECT
809
Table1(continued)
Study
n
Happiness/PAmeasureHealth(continued)
Grahametal.,inpressa(1995assessment)Grahametal.,inpressa(2000assessment)Kashdan&Roberts,2004aKehn,1995a
Laidlawetal.,1996Lobeletal.,2000Lu&Shih,1997
Lyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressa
Mroczek&Spiro,2005a(1978-1980sample)
Mroczek&Spiro,2005a(1981-1983sample)
Mroczek&Spiro,2005a(1984-1986sample)
Mroczek&Spiro,2005a(1987-1989sample)
Mroczek&Spiro,2005a(1990-1992sample)
Mroczek&Spiro,2005a(1993-1995sample)
Mroczek&Spiro,2005a(1996-1998sample)
Mroczek&Spiro,2005a(1999-2000sample)Phillips,1967a
Røysambetal.,2003aRøysambetal.,2003aWindle,2000a
4,5245,13410498381291916216216211,2541,2671,2831,6419659749193895936,5766,5761,016
One-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessPANAS
LifeSatisfactionIndexOne-itempeacefulnessLOT
ChineseHappinessInventorySHSSHSSHS
LifeSatisfactionInventoryLifeSatisfactionInventoryLifeSatisfactionInventoryLifeSatisfactionInventoryLifeSatisfactionInventoryLifeSatisfactionInventoryLifeSatisfactionInventoryLifeSatisfactionInventory
One-itemhappinessSWBIndexSWBIndex
RevisedDimensionofTemperamentSurvey
Positiveperceptionsofselfandothers
Berry&Hansen,1996a(Study1)
Cooperetal.,1992a(Study1&Study2)Cooperetal.,1992a(Study1&Study2)Cooperetal.,1992a(Study1&Study2)Cooperetal.,1992a(Study1&Study2)Cowanetal,1998Gladow&Ray,1986aGladow&Ray,1986a
Glenn&Weaver,1981a(Whitemalesample)
Glenn&Weaver,1981a(Blackmalesample)
Glenn&Weaver,1981a(Whitefemalesample)
Glenn&Weaver,1981a(Blackfemalesample)
Glenn&Weaver,1981a(Whitemalesample)
Glenn&Weaver,1981a(Blackmalesample)
Glenn&Weaver,1981a(Whitefemalesample)
Glenn&Weaver,1981a(Blackfemalesample)
Judge&Higgins,1998(Study1)Judge&Higgins,1998(Study2)Lucasetal.,1996(Study1)Lucasetal.,1996(Study1)
1121181181181189063631,872167820891,8721678208911095212212
PANASSWLSPANASSWLSPANAS
InventoryofPersonalHappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessNeutralObjectsSatisfactionQuestionnaire
NeutralObjectsSatisfactionQuestionnaireSWLSSWLS
QualityofconversationSatisfactionwithrelativesSatisfactionwithrelativesSatisfactionwithfriendsSatisfactionwithfriends
HostilitytowardotherwomenSupportreceivedfromfriendsSupportreceivedfromrelativesSatisfactionwithfriendshipsSatisfactionwithfriendshipsSatisfactionwithfriendshipsSatisfactionwithfriendshipsSatisfactionwithfamilylifeSatisfactionwithfamilylifeSatisfactionwithfamilylifeSatisfactionwithfamilylifeJudgedfavorabilityofreferenceletter(hypothetical)
Judgedfavorabilityofreferenceletter(actual)Self-esteemOptimism
.27.22.12.31.23 .21.35.14.22.23.29.13.25.15.39.17.29.17
.59.60
(tablecontinues)
HealthproblemsHealthproblems
Socialphobia/anxietyGlobalhealth
Sizeofallergicreaction
Deliveryoflow-birth-weightinfantsPoormentalhealthSatisfactionwithhealthPhysicalsymptomsDepressedaffectGlobalhealthGlobalhealthGlobalhealthGlobalhealthGlobalhealthGlobalhealthGlobalhealthGlobalhealthOverallmentalhealthGlobalhealth
MusculoskeletalpainDelinquentactivity
.03b .05b .34.43 .33 .20 .36.43 .29 .49.23.31.31.24.26.29.29.34.22.50 .25 .22
Correlatedconstruct
Effectsize
(r)
积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家:积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧
810
Table1(continued)
Study
n
LYUBOMIRSKY,KING,ANDDIENER
Happiness/PAmeasureCorrelatedconstruct
Effectsize
(r)
Positiveperceptionsofselfandothers(continued)
Lucasetal.,1996(Study2)Lucasetal.,1996(Study2)Lucasetal.,1996(Study3)Lucasetal.,1996(Study3)Lyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressa
Lyubomirsky&Tucker,1998a(Study1)Lyubomirsky&Tucker,1998a(Study3)Lyubomirsky&Tucker,1998a(Study3)Mayeretal.,1988(preliminarystudy)Mayeretal.,1988(Study2)Mongrain&Zuroff,1995Pfeiffer&Wong,1989aPfeiffer&Wong,1989aPfeiffer&Wong,1989aRyff,1989
Schimmacketal.,2004a(Study1)Schimmacketal.,2004a(Study2)Schimmacketal.,2004a(Study1)Tarlow&Haaga,1996Totterdell,2000aWeissetal.,1999a
10910917217262162162162162162162162162162162110547382061931521231231233211361241361241824
SWLSSWLSSWLSSWLSSHSSHSSHSSHSSHSSHSSHSSHSSHSSHSSHSSHSSHSSHS
Mood-StateIntrospectionScaleMood-StateIntrospectionScaleFourpositiveadjectivesMUNSHMUNSHMUNSH
LifeSatisfactionIndexSWLSSWLSSWLSPANAS
One-itemhappiness(12timesover4days)
FordyceHMScale
Sociabilityandactivity
Bahr&Harvey,1980Berry&Hansen,1996aBerry&Hansen,1996aBerry&Hansen,1996aBerry&Hansen,1996aBerry&Hansen,1996aBrebneretal.,1995Brebneretal.,1995
(Study(Study(Study(Study(Study
1)1)1)1)2)
44112112112112105959595134134753554186106106176631071,05149114649649281257
One-itemhappinessPANASPANASPANASPANASPANAS
OxfordHappinessInventoryPersonalStateQuestionnaire,Version5LOTPANASPANAS
Bradburn’sScalesBradburn’sScalesSWLS
SWLS,affectbalance,memoryrecall
SWLS,affectbalance,memoryrecall
GeneralTemperamentSurveyOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappiness
PANAS
FACSDuchennesmileFACSDuchennesmileLifeSatisfactionIndexBradburn’sScalesOne-itemhappymood
Fifteenitemsfromthe22-itemscreeningscore
AttendanceatclubmeetingsQualityofconversation
DegreeofdisclosureinconversationDegreeofengagementinconversationIntimacyofconversationNo.ofdailyinteractionsExtraversionExtraversion
ExtraversionExtraversionSocialactivitiesExtraversionExtraversion
Informant-ratedenergyExtraversion
Peerratingsoftarget’srelationshipsPerformance-approachgoalsPersonalconversationsIntrinsicallymotivatingexperiences(%)Extraversion
Self-ratedaffiliation
Observer-ratedaffiliationExtraversionExtraversionFlow
Satisfactionwithactivities
.31.27.06.10.09.34.31.43.21.54.40.16.16.39.49.65.15.35.28.32.33.69.20.18.27.38
Self-esteemOptimismSelf-esteemOptimismSelf-esteemOptimism
SenseofmasteryPerceivedcontrol
SatisfactionwithfamilyrelationsSatisfactionwithfriendsSatisfactionwithhealthSatisfactionwitheducationSatisfactionwithrecreationSatisfactionwithhousing
SatisfactionwithtransportationEvaluationsofpastlifeeventsLikingofvideotapedtargetEvaluationsofreal-lifetargetInferencesaboutpeopleInferencesaboutpeopleSelf-criticism
CognitivejealousyEmotionaljealousyBehavioraljealousyPersonalgrowth
Self-ratedassertivenessSelf-ratedassertivenessSelf-ratedwarmthSelf-esteem
Self-ratedperformanceSatisfactionwithjob
.65.59.54.57.62.60.55.47.41.50.43.27.51.43.34.41.29.36.29.29 .39 .08 .24 .17.38.21.36.27.57.50.29
Brebneretal.,1995
Burger&Caldwell,2000aBurger&Caldwell,2000aCosta&McCrae,1980aCosta&McCrae,1980aDiener&Fujita,1995a
Diener&Seligman,2002aDiener&Seligman,2002aElliot&Thrash,2002Gladow&Ray,1986aGraefetal.,1983Griffinetal.,inpressHarker&Keltner,2001aHarker&Keltner,2001aHeadey&Wearing,1989Headey&Wearing,1989Hektner,1997a
Kahanaetal.,1995
积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家:积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧
BENEFITSOFFREQUENTPOSITIVEAFFECT
811
Table1(continued)
Study
n
Happiness/PAmeasureSociabilityandactivity(continued)
Kashdan&Roberts,2004aKashdan&Roberts,2004aLu&Argyle,1991Lu&Argyle,1991Lucasetal.,2000Lucasetal.,2000Lucasetal.,2000
Lucas,2001a(dailystudy)Lucas,2001a(dailystudy)Lucas,2001a(dailystudy)Lucas,2001a(momentstudy)Lucas,2001a(momentstudy)Lyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressaMatikka&Ojanen,inpressMatikka&Ojanen,inpressMishra,1992aMishra,1992a
Mishra,1992a
Schimmacketal.,2004a(StudySchimmacketal.,2004a(StudySchimmacketal.,2004a(StudySchimmacketal.,2004a(StudySchimmacketal.,2004a(StudyStones&Kozma,1986aWatson,1988a
Watsonetal.,1992a(Study1)Watsonetal.,1992a(Study2)Watsonetal.,1992a(Study1)Watsonetal.,1992a(Study2)Watsonetal.,1992a(Study2)
1)1)1)2)2)
1041041141145,8425,8425,84214414414412412462162137637672072072013613613612412440871851277996120
PANASPANAS
OxfordHappinessInventoryOxfordHappinessInventoryPANASPANASPANASPANASPANASPANAS
Timefelthappyandpleasant(%)Timefelthappyandpleasant(%)SHSSHS
Three-itemhappinessThree-itemhappinessIndexofLifeSatisfactionIndexofLifeSatisfactionIndexofLifeSatisfactionSWLSSWLSSWLSSWLSSWLSMUNSH
PositiveEmotionalityScale
PANAS(weekly,over13weeks)PANAS(daily,over6–7weeks)PANAS,extraversion,positivetemperamentPANAS,joviality
PANAS,extraversion,positivetemperament
Likeabilityandcooperation
Barsadeetal.,2000Barsadeetal.,2000Bell,1978
Berry&Hansen,1996a(Study1)Berry&Hansen,1996a(Study1)Diener&Fujita,1995aDiener&Fujita,1995aDiener&Fujita,1995aDiener&Fujita,1995aDiener&Fujita,1995aDiener&Fujita,1995aDiener&Fujita,1995aDiener&Fujita,1995aDiener&Fujita,1995aHarkerHarkerHarkerHarker
&&&&Keltner,Keltner,Keltner,Keltner,
2001a2001a2001a2001a
6220120112112186186186186186186186186186114114114114
MPQwell-beingMPQwell-being
PersonalFeelingsScalePANASPANAS
Delighted-TerribleScale,one-itemhappinessDelighted-TerribleScale,one-itemhappinessDelighted-TerribleScale,one-itemhappinessDelighted-TerribleScale,one-itemhappinessDelighted-TerribleScale,one-itemhappinessDelighted-TerribleScale,one-itemhappinessDelighted-TerribleScale,one-itemhappinessDelighted-TerribleScale,one-itemhappinessDelighted-TerribleScale,one-itemhappinessFACSDuchennesmileFACSDuchennesmileFACSDuchennesmileFACSDuchennesmile
Taskconflict
GroupcooperativenessLikeabilityasworkpartnerIntimacyofconversation
DegreeofdisclosureinconversationJudgedphysicalattractivenessJudgedintelligence/competenceJudgedsocialskills
JudgedpublicspeakingabilityJudgedself-confidenceJudgedassertiveness
JudgednumberofclosefriendsJudgedlikelihoodofhavingastrongromanticrelationship
Judgedlikelihoodofhavingfamilysupport
Observer-ratedaffiliation
Observer-ratednegativeemotionalityJudgedpositiveemotionalityJudgedcompetence
.30.38.43.09.06.33.30.41.28.36.25.35.33.34
.69 .57.71.21
(tablecontinues)
AttractiontopartnerClosenesstopartner
AttitudetowardjointactivitiesAttitudetowardgroupactivitiesExtraversionAscendanceAffiliation
ExperienceofAffiliation/warmthTimespentwithfriendsTimespentleadingTimespentleading
TimespentwithfriendsandfamilyExtraversion
SatisfactionwithrecreationSocialparticipationSocialinclusion
Engaginginhobbiesandspecialinterests
Interactionwithmembersofvoluntaryorganizations
EngaginginoccupationalactivitiesExtraversionGregariousness
InformantratingsofhowactiveFriendlinessGregariousnessActivitylevelSocialactivity
WeeklysocialactivityWeeklysocialactivityWeeklysocialactivityWeeklysocialactivityWeeklysocialactivity
.50.30.25.22.62.30.27.48.22.20.24.19.36.51.22.21.63.50.64.33.26.24.43.21.13b.34.36.39.35.31.28
Correlatedconstruct
Effectsize
(r)
FordyceFordyceFordyceFordyceFordyceFordyceFordyceFordyceFordyce
积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家:积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧
812
Table1(continued)
Study
n
LYUBOMIRSKY,KING,ANDDIENER
Happiness/PAmeasure
Likeabilityandcooperation(continued)
Correlatedconstruct
Effectsize
(r)
Kashdan&Roberts,2004aKashdan&Roberts,2004a
King&Napa,1998(Study1)King&Napa,1998(Study1)King&Napa,1998(Study2)King&Napa,1998(Study2)
Mathes&Kahn,1975(femalesample)Mathes&Kahn,1975(malesample)Perryetal.,1986(eighthgradesample)Rimland,1982
Scheufele&Shah,2000
Schimmacketal.,2004a(Study1)Schimmacketal.,2004a(Study2)Schimmacketal.,2004a(Study1)Schimmacketal.,2004a(Study2)Staw&Barsade,1993aTayloretal.,2003
VanKatwyketal.,2000a(Study3)
104104104104264264101110321,9913,46213612413612411155111PANASPANAS
Three-itemhappinessThree-itemhappinessThree-itemhappinessThree-itemhappinessHappinessHappiness
Dichotomous“Whoishappier?‘Dichotomous“Happyornot?‘
Four-itemIndexofLifeSatisfactionSWLSSWLSSWLSSWLS
Three-measurecompositeTen-measurecompositePANAS
Prosocialbehavior
Partner-ratedattractionPartner-ratedclosenessJudgedmoralgoodness
JudgedlikelihoodofgoingtoheavenJudgedmoralgoodness
JudgedlikelihoodofgoingtoheavenJudgedphysicalattractivenessJudgedphysicalattractivenessHelpfulnessSelfishness
PersonalitystrengthInformant-ratedwarmthInformant-ratedfriendlinessInformant-ratedassertivenessInformant-ratedassertivenessJudgedmanagerialpotential
JudgedpositivepersonalqualitiesInterpersonalconflict.34.30.29.25.26.26.37.09.44 .60.21.28.33.20.25.20.28 .12
Feingold,1983(malesample)Feingold,1983(femalesample)George,1991George,1991
Kruegeretal.,2001a
Lucas,2001a(dailystudy)Lucas,2001a(momentstudy)Magen&Aharoni,1991aMagen&Aharoni,1991aRigby&Slee,1993Strayer,1980a
Williams&Shiaw,1999
878822122139714412426026086914139
One-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessJobAffectScaleJobAffectScale
MPQpositiveemotionalityPANAS
Timefelthappyandpleasant(%)Four-itemintensityofpositiveexperience
Four-itemintensityofpositiveexperience
Life-as-a-WholeIndex
ObservationalcountofhappyaffectWatson10-itempositiveaffectivityscale
Physicalwell-beingandcoping
UnselfishnessUnselfishness
ExtraroleprosocialbehaviorCustomerservice
Self-reportedaltruisticactsTimespenthelpingTimespenthelping
TranspersonalcommitmentInvolvementincommunityserviceTendencytoactinaprosocialorcooperativemanner
Observationalcountofempatheticresponses
Anticipatedorganizationalcitizenshipbehavior
.27.09.24.26.44.36.27.21.36.36.59.42
Achatetal.,2000aAchatetal.,2000aAudrainetal.,2001
Bardwelletal.,1999(healthysample)Bardwelletal.,1999(healthysample)Benyaminietal.,2000a
Carveretal.,1993a(presurgeryassessment)Carveretal.,1993a(presurgeryassessment)Carveretal.,1993a(presurgeryassessment)Carveretal.,1993a(presurgeryassessment)C.C.Chenetal.,1996Dillon&Totten,1989Goldmanetal.,1996
Irvingetal.,1998Kehn,1995a
Keltner&Bonanno,1997Loxetal.,1999
Lutgendorfetal.,1999(moverssample)Lyons&Chamberlain,1994Lyons&Chamberlain,1994Lyubomirskyetal.,inpressa
Lyubomirsky&Tucker,1998a(Study1)
65965922740408515959595912116134115983912126158158621105LOTLOTPANAS
One-itemvigorOne-itemvigor
12-itempositiveaffectLOTLOTLOTLOT
GeneralHealthQuestionnaireCopingHumorScale
RepairSubscaleoftheTraitMeta-MoodScaleHopeScale
LifeSatisfactionIndexFACSDuchennelaughterAffectiveReactionsMeasureSenseofCoherenceScaleUpliftsScaleLOTSHSSHS
GeneralhealthPain
PhysicalactivitySleepquantitySleepquality
Self-reportedhealthActivecoping
CopingbypositivereframingCopingbyhumorCopingbydenialEngagementcoping
PresenceofupperrespiratoryinfectionReportedillnesses
Hope-relatedcopingresponsesGlobalhealth
Perceivedadjustment
AmountofphysicalexerciseNKcellactivity
UpperrespiratoryinfectionsymptomsUpperrespiratoryinfectionsymptomsSatisfactionwithhealthPerceptionoflifeevents
.23b .09b.19.32.36.49.33.41.40 .39.31 .58 .21.35.43.31.19.49 .03 .23.43.41
积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家:积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧
BENEFITSOFFREQUENTPOSITIVEAFFECT
813
Table1(continued)
Study
n
Happiness/PAmeasure
Physicalwell-beingandcoping(continued)
McCrae&Costa,1986(Study1)McCrae&Costa,1986(Study1)Mishra,1992a
Pettitetal.,2001a
Pettitetal.,2001aPettitetal.,2001a
Riddick,1985(malesample)Riddick,1985(femalesample)Røysambetal.,2003aRøysambetal.,2003aStoneetal.,1987Stoneetal.,1994
Stones&Kozma,1986aSullivanetal.,2001
Valdimarsdottir&Bovbjerg,1997(withdailyNA)
Valdimarsdottir&Bovbjerg,1997(nodailyNA)
Vitalianoetal.,1998aWatson,1988a
Watson,1988aWatson,1988aWatson,2000Watson,2000
Watsonetal.,1992a(Study1)Watsonetal.,1992a(Study2)Weinglert&Rosen,1995Zinseretal.,1992
2542547201401401408067536,5766,5763096408105262242808080354354851277122
Bradburn’sScalesBradburn’sScales
IndexofLifeSatisfactionPANAS
PANASPANAS
LifeSatisfactionIndexLifeSatisfactionIndexSWBIndexSWBIndex
NowlisMoodAdjectiveChecklistPANASMUNSHPANAS
ProfileofMoodStates
ProfileofMoodStatesUplifts-Hassles
10-itemPAScale(daily,over6–8weeks)
10-itemPAScale(daily,over6–8weeks)
PositiveEmotionalityScale(daily)PositivetemperamentPositivetemperament
PANAS(weekly,over13weeks)PANAS(daily,over6–7weeks)PositivemoodchecklistMoodAdjectiveCheckListCreativityandproblemsolving
Kashdanetal.,2004(Study2)Kashdanetal.,2004(Study2)Richards&Kinney,1990Schuldberg,1990
Schwartzetal.,2002(Sample1)Schwartzetal.,2002(Sample2)Schwartzetal.,2002(Sample3)Schwartzetal.,2002(Sample4)Schwartzetal.,2002(Sample5)Schwartzetal.,2002(Sample6)Shapiro&Weisberg,1999Staw&Barsade,1993aStawetal.,1994a
2142144833482721004017522205283272
PANASactivatedPANASactivated
DiagnosisofmanicperiodsHypomanictraitsSHSSHSSHSSHSSHSSHS
GeneralBehaviorInventory(hypomanicplusbiphasic)Three-measurecompositeofpositiveaffectivity
Experienceandexpressionofpositiveemotiononthejob
ExplorationstrivingsAbsorptioninactivitiesCreativeepisodesCreativity
MaximizingtendenciesMaximizingtendenciesMaximizingtendenciesMaximizingtendenciesMaximizingtendenciesMaximizingtendenciesTraitcreativity
JudgedmanagerialperformanceJudgedcreativity
.44.33.41.25 .21 .34 .17 .10 .28 .17.33.20.30
CopingeffectivenessMaturecoping
Overallactivitylevel
PresenceandseverityofmedicalconditionsCigaretteuseAlcoholintakeLeisureactivitiesLeisureactivitiesGlobalhealth
Musculoskeletalpain
SecretoryIgAantibodyactivityAntibodyactivityGlobalhealth
Self-reportedphysicalhealthNKcellactivityNKcellactivityNKcellactivity
DailyphysicalcomplaintsDailyphysicalexercisePhysicalexercise
InjuryvisitstohealthcenterIllnessvisitstohealthcenterWeeklysocialactivityWeeklysocialactivitySomaticsymptomsUrgestosmoke
.27.26.61 .26 .24 .22.37.44.50 .25.44.05.19b.230.64.05.26 .18.12.12.12.15.36.39 .10 .38
Correlatedconstruct
Effectsize
(r)
Note.PA positive;PANAS PositiveandNegativeAffectSchedule;MPQ MultidimensionalPersonalityQuestionnaire;SWLS SatisfactionWithLifeScale;HM HappinessMeasure;MUNSH MemorialUniversityofNewfoundlandScaleofHappiness;SHS SubjectiveHappinessScale;LOT LifeOrientationTest;MAACL MultipleAdjectiveAffectChecklist;SWB SubjectiveWell-Being;FACS FacialActionCodingSystem;NEO Neuroticism/Extraversion/OpennessScale;ER emergencyroom.
Subscriptaindicatesthatthestudyappearsinmorethanonesectionortable.Subscriptbindicatesthattheeffectsizewascalculatedcontrollingforoneormoreothervariables.
积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家:积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧
814
LYUBOMIRSKY,KING,ANDDIENER
Table2
StudyInformationandEffectSizesforSevenCategoriesofLongitudinalResearch
Study
n
Happiness/PAmeasure
Worklife
Burger&Caldwell,2000a
Cropanzano&Wright,1999aCropanzano&Wright,1999aCropanzano&Wright,1999aCropanzano&Wright,1999aDieneretal.,2002Grahametal.,inpressaGrahametal.,inpressaMarks&Fleming,1999Pelled&Xin,1999Robertsetal.,2003Robertsetal.,2003Robertsetal.,2003Robertsetal.,2003Robertsetal.,2003
Robertsetal.,2003
Seligman&Schulman,1986a
(Study2)
Stawetal.,1994aStawetal.,1994aStawetal.,1994aWright&Staw,1999a
(Study1)
Wright&Staw,1999a
(Study2)
99606060607,8824,4554,4891,32299859859859859859859681291911914463
PANAS
IndexofPsychologicalWell-BeingIndexofPsychologicalWell-BeingIndexofPsychologicalWell-BeingIndexofPsychologicalWell-BeingOn-itemcheerfulness
One-itemresidualhappinessOne-itemresidualhappinessNine-itemSWBindexPANAS
MPQcommunalpositiveemotionality
MPQagencypositiveemotionalityMPQcommunalpositiveemotionality
MPQagencypositiveemotionalityMPQcommunalpositiveemotionality
MPQagencypositiveemotionalityAttributionalStyleQuestionnaireExperienceandexpressionofpositiveemotiononthejobExperienceandexpressionofpositiveemotiononthejobExperienceandexpressionofpositiveemotiononthejob
IndexofPsychologicalWell-BeingIndexofPsychologicalWell-Being
ProportionofsecondinterviewsSupervisoryevaluationsSupervisoryevaluationsSupervisoryevaluationsSupervisoryevaluationsIncomeIncome
UnemploymentIncome
Absenteeism
FinancialsecurityFinancialsecurity
OccupationalattainmentOccupationalattainmentWorkautonomy
Workautonomy
QuarterlyinsurancecommissionsJobautonomy,meaning,andvarietyGrossannualsalaryJudgedcreativitySupervisoryevaluationsSupervisoryevaluations
3months1year4years4.5years5years19years5years5years1–15years5months8years8years8years8years8years8years6monthsto1year1.5years1.5years1.5years3.5years1year
.35.36.27.17.18.03b.04b .02b.03 .36.13.06.19.16.06.13.27.23.24.16.47.46
Correlatedconstruct
Timeperiod
Effectsize
(r)
Socialrelationships
Harker&Keltner,2001aHarker&Keltner,2001aHarker&Keltner,2001aHeadeyetal.,1991aLucasetal.,2003
Marks&Fleming,1999aNeyer&Asendorpf,2001Ruvolo,1998a
(wivessample)Ruvolo,1998a
(wivessample)Ruvolo,1998a
(husbandssample)Ruvolo,1998a
(husbandssample)
Spanier&Furstenberg,1982Stawetal.,1994a
711111126491,7611,322489317317317317180251
FACSDuchennesmileFACSDuchennesmileFACSDuchennesmileLife-as-a-WholeIndexOne-itemhappinessNine-itemSWBindexGeneralSelf-EsteemOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappiness
Cantril’sLadderScale
Experienceandexpressionofpositiveemotiononthejob
Health
Danneretal.,2001
Deeg&vanZonneveld,1989Devinsetal.,1990Fitzgeraldetal.,2000Friedmanetal.,1993Giletal.,2004aGiletal.,2004aGiletal.,2004a
Grahametal.,inpressa
1802,64597421,1783,5653,5463,5464,455
No.ofpositiveemotionalwordsOne-itemlifesatisfactionLifeHappinessRatingScaleLOT
Cheerfulness-HumorDailyMoodScaleDailyMoodScaleDailyMoodScale
Two-itemresidualhappiness
Mortalityrate
ProbabilityofdyingrelativetopeersSurvival
CHDriskreductionAgeatdeathPain
Hospitalvisits
Emergencyroomvisits
Healthproblemslast30days
Lifetime26–28years4years9monthslifetime2days1day1day5years
.31 .11.15.30b .09 .06b .04b .06b .06b
MaritalsatisfactionMaritalstatusSinglestatus
SatisfactionwithmarriageMaritalstatusMaritalstatus
ClosenesswithallrelationshipsMaritalwell-beingSpouse’smaritalwell-beingMaritalwell-beingSpouse’smaritalwell-beingRemarriageafterdivorce
Emotionalandtangiblesupportformsupervisors
31years6years22years6years4 years1–15years4years1year1year1year1year2.5years1.5years
.20.19 .20.30.20.09.19b.30.15.28.40.16.25b
积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家:积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧
BENEFITSOFFREQUENTPOSITIVEAFFECT
815
Table2(continued)
Study
n
Happiness/PAmeasure
Health(continued)
Kirkcaldy&Furnham,2000Koivumaa-Honkanenetal.,2001
Koivumaa-Honkanenetal.,2002(malesample)
Koivumaa-Honkanenetal.,2002(femalesample)Koivumaa-Honkanenetal.,2004(malesample)Koivumaa-Honkanenetal.,2004(femalesample)Krauseetal.,1997Kubzanskyetal.,2001Kubzanskyetal.,2001Kubzanskyetal.,2001Levyetal.,1988
Levyetal.,2002(Study2)Maier&Smith,1999Ostiretal.,2000Ostiretal.,2001(malesample)Ostiretal.,2001(femalesample)Palmore,1969Petersonetal.,1998Petersonetal.,1998(malesample)Petersonetal.,1998(malesample)Petersonetal.,1998(malesample)Pitkalaetal.,2004
Reynolds&Nelson,1981Scheieretal.,1989aScheieretal.,1989aScheieretal.,1989aScheieretal.,1989aScheieretal.,1989aSmithetal.,1997Windle,2000aWindle,2000aWindle,2000a
Zuckermanetal.,1984(healthysample)Zuckermanetal.,1984(unhealthysample)
Fourdata-bases29,13714,34814,78911,03711,0993301,3061,3061,306366605132,2767721,7062651,0976226226224911544646454544861,0161,0161,016182168
SWB
Four-itemlifesatisfactionFour-itemlifesatisfactionFour-itemlifesatisfactionFour-itemlifesatisfactionFour-itemlifesatisfactionEight-itemlifesatisfactionRevisedOptimism-PessimismScale
RevisedOptimism-PessimismScale
RevisedOptimism-PessimismScale
AffectBalanceScale-JoyAttitudesTowardOwnAgingSubscalePANAS
CESDPositiveAffectScaleCESDPositiveAffectScaleCESDPositiveAffectScaleOne-iteminterviewer-ratedhappiness
Optimistic(global)attributionalstyle
Optimistic(global)attributionalstyle
Optimistic(global)attributionalstyle
Optimistic(global)attributionalstyleS
LifesatisfactionscaleLOTLOTLOTLOTLOT
One-itemvigor
RevisedDimensionofTemperamentSurveyRevisedDimensionofTemperamentSurveyRevisedDimensionofTemperamentSurveyOne-iteminterviewer-ratedhappiness
One-iteminterviewer-ratedhappiness
AutomobilefatalitiesSuicides
Fatalintentionalandunintentionalinjuries
Fatalintentionalandunintentionalinjuries
Workdisabilitypensionfor
psychiatricandnonpsychiatriccauses
Workdisabilitypensionfor
psychiatricandnonpsychiatriccauses
Survivalfatalandnonfatalcoronaryheartdisease
FatalcoronaryheartdiseaseNonfatalanginaandheartattacksSurvival
DayssurvivalMortalityrateSurvival
StrokeincidenceStrokeincidenceMortalityrateMortalityrate
MentalhealthproblemsPooradjustmentHighlevelsofdrinkingSurvivalSurvival
No.ofdaystobeginwalkingPhysicalrecovery
PostsurgicalqualityoflifeResumevigorousexerciseReturntonormalactivitiesHockeyinjuryDelinquentactivityDelinquentactivityDelinquentactivityMortalityrateMortalityrate
8yearsUpto20yearsUpto20yearsUpto20yearsUpto11yearsUpto11years11years12years12years12years7years22.6years3–6years2years6years6years15yearsLifetime10years10years10years10years1year1week1week6months6months6months6months6months12months18months2years2years
.56 .03 .06 .02 .11 .12.18 .14 .07 .12.36.25 .06.08 .13b .05b .26 .11 .14 .11 .07.13.13 .36.35.67.33.38 .32 .25 .15 .12 .07 .14
Correlatedconstruct
Timeperiod
Effectsize
(r)
Positiveperceptionsofselfandothers
Harker&Keltner,2000aHarker&Keltner,2001a
104100
FACSDuchennesmileFACSDuchennesmile
Self-ratedcompetenceSelf-ratedcompetence
22years31years
.20.29
(tablecontinues)
积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家:积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧
816
Table2(continued)
Study
n
LYUBOMIRSKY,KING,ANDDIENER
Happiness/PAmeasure
Sociabilityandactivity
CorrelatedconstructTimeperiod
Effectsize
(r)
Costaetal.,1981Costaetal.,1981
Costa&McCrae,1980aHarker&Keltner,2001aHarker&Keltner,2001aStones&Kozma,1986a
396114234104100408ChicagoAttitudeInventoryChicagoAttitudeInventoryBradburn’sScales
FACSDuchennesmileFACSDuchennesmileMUNSHExtraversionExtraversionExtraversion
Self-ratedaffiliationSelf-ratedaffiliationActivitylevel2–10years10–17years10years22years31years1.5years
.20.24.23.23.16.29b
Creativityandprosocialbehavior
Stawetal.,1994aThoits&Hewitt,2001a
1912,681
ExperienceandexpressionofpositiveemotiononthejobOne-itemhappiness
Judgedcreativity
Timespentengagedinvolunteerwork
1.5years3years
.31b.04b
Physicalwell-beingandcoping
Benyaminietal.,2000aBenyaminietal.,2000aBenyaminietal.,2000aCarveretal.,1993aCarveretal.,1993aCarveretal.,1993aCarveretal.,1993aCohenetal.,2003
Epping-Jordanetal.,1999Epping-Jordanetal.,1999Fredrickson&Joiner,2002Grahametal.,inpressaGrahametal.,inpressaPettitetal.,2001a
Scheieretal.,1989aScheieretal.,1989a
Stones&Kozma,1986aVitalianoetal.,1998a
7916785255959595933480801381,6831,2521,33474740823
12-itempositiveaffect12-itempositiveaffect12-itempositiveaffectLOTLOTLOTLOT
PositiveemotionalstyleLOTLOTPANAS
One-itemresidualhappinessOne-itemresidualhappinessPANASLOTLOTMUNSH
Uplifts-Hassles
GlobalhealthGlobalhealthGlobalhealthActivecoping
CopingbypositivereframingCopingbyhumorCopingbydenial
PresenceofclinicalinfectionSymptomsofanxiety/depressionSymptomsofanxiety/depressionBroad-mindedcopingAlcoholintakeSmoking
Presenceandseverityofmedicalconditions
CopingbyinformationseekingCopingbysuppressionGlobalhealthNKcellactivity
13533331365555yearyearsyearsmonthsmonthsmonthsmonthsmonthmonthsmonthsweeksyearsyearsweeks
.13b.11b.17b.16.26.38 .37 .14 .40 .55.19 .04b .06b .31.43 .30.28b.48
1week1week1.5years1.5years
Note.PA positiveaffect;PANAS PositiveandNegativeAffectSchedule;MPQ MultidimensionalPersonalityQuestionnaire;FACS FacialActionCodingSystem;CES-D CenterforEpidemiologicDepressionScale;SWLS SatisfactionWithLifeScale;LOT LifeOrientationTest;MUNSH MemorialUniversityofNewfoundlandScaleofHappiness;HM HappinessMeasure;SWB SubjectiveWell-Being;NK naturalkiller.Subcriptaindicatesthatthestudyappearsinmorethanonepanelortable.Subscriptbindicatesthattheeffectsizewascalculatedcontrollingforoneormoreothervariables
independenceamongthem.Tothisend,severalguidelineswerefollowed.
First,whenmorethanoneeffectsizewasgeneratedfromthesamesample,andtheseeffectsizesinvolvedmoderatelytohighlycorrelatedconstructs(e.g.,judgmentsoffriendliness,gregarious-ness,andassertiveness),theywerenottreatedindependently.Asaresult,theunweightedaverageofeachsetofcorrelatedeffectsizeswasusedinouranalyses.Thisprocedurewasusedforeffectsizesgeneratedfromthesamesampleandreportedwithinaparticularpanelofatable(e.g.,thoseinvolvingworklifeinTable1).
Second,asmentionedpreviously,werecognizedthatsometimesthesamesamplewasusedtogenerateeffectsizesinmorethanonepanelofatable(e.g.,sociability/activityandhealth)orevenacrosstables(e.g.,supervisoryevaluationsassessedatasinglepointintime[inTable1]aswellastwopointsintime[inTable2]).Insuchinstances,weselectedonlyonespecificeffectsizeforouranaly-ses.Iftherscamefromthesametable,theeffectsizetappingthebestfittingconstructwaschosen.IfthersspannedTables1and2,
theeffectsizereflectingalongitudinalcorrelationwasselected,aslongitudinaldataspeakrelativelymorestronglytocausation.Third,evenwhengeneratedfromthesamesampleordataset,effectsizeswereconsideredindependentiftheyinvolvedvariablesthatarenothighlycorrelatedwithoneanother(e.g.,incomeandalcoholconsumption;seeMeng,Rosenthal,&Rubin,1992).
DefiningOurTerms
WhatIstheHallmarkofHappiness?
Ourfocusinthisarticleisonhappyindividuals—thatis,thosewhoexperiencefrequentpositiveemotions,suchasjoy,interest,andpride,andinfrequent(thoughnotabsent)negativeemotions,suchassadness,anxiety,andanger.Althoughmanydefinitionsofhappinesshavebeenusedintheliterature,rangingfromlifesatisfactionandanappreciationoflifetomomentaryfeelingsofpleasure,wedefinehappinesshereasashorthandwayofreferring
积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家:积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧
BENEFITSOFFREQUENTPOSITIVEAFFECT
817
Table3
StudyInformationandEffectSizesforSixCategoriesofExperimentalResearch
Study
n
Affectinduction
Comparisongroups
Dependentvariable
Effectsize
(r)
Positiveperceptionsofselfandothers
Baron,1987Baron,1987Baron,1990aBaron,1990aBaron,1993
Baronetal.,1992(Study1)Baronetal.,1992(Study1)Baronetal.,1992(Study3)aBaronetal.,1992(Study3)aBarsade,2002aBrown,1984Brown,1984
Clark&Waddell,1983Griffitt,1970
Hom&Arbuckle,1988Samson&Rachman,1989Sarasonetal.,1986(Study2)Schuettler&Kiviniemi,inpressaWright&Mischel,1982Wright&Mischel,1982
7171808092919180809361614540318460507272
FalsefeedbackFalsefeedbackFragranceFragrance
Recallevent(s)LightingLightingGiftGift
ConfederateroleplayingVeltenVeltenFalsefeedbackTemperatureRecallevent(s)MusicandthoughtSelf-descriptiontaskVelten
Recallevent(s)Recallevent(s)
Positivevs.negativeandcontrol
Positivevs.negativeandcontrol
Positivevs.controlPositivevs.controlPositivevs.negativeHighilluminancevs.lowilluminanceHighilluminancevs.lowilluminancePositivevs.controlPositivevs.controlPositivevs.negativePositivevs.negativePositivevs.negativePositivevs.controlExtremeheatvs.normaltemperatureHappyvs.sadHappyvs.sad
Positivevs.negativeself-feelings
Positivevs.negativePositivevs.negativePositivevs.negative
LikeabilityofaccompliceJudgmentofwhetheremployeematchesjobrequirementsSelf-efficacySelf-setgoals
Overallevaluationofaccompliceforjob
OverallratingofemployeeHiringdecision
JudgmentofwhetherhypotheticalemployeedeservesmeritraiseJudgmentofwhetherhypotheticalemployeedeservespromotionPerceivedtaskperformanceCertaintyoffuturesuccess
Attributionofsuccessestostablecauses
Recallofpositiveaspectsofpastexperiences
InterpersonalattractionGoalsettingSelf-efficacy
Positiveself-referencesSelf-efficacyregardinghealthSatisfactionwithperformanceRecallofpastsuccesses
.44.43.16.22.17.53.34.23.21.21.73.26.36.33.48.28.39.43.64.75
Sociabilityandactivity
Cunningham,1988a(Study1)aCunningham,1988a(Study1)aCunningham,1988a(Study1)aCunningham,1988bCunningham,1988bHirtetal.,1996
McMillenetal.,1977(Study1)Murrayetal.,1990(Study3)Waugh&Fredrickson,2003
1021021027777194278594
VeltenVeltenVelten
Falsefeedbackandvideotape
FalsefeedbackandvideotapeVelten
Falsefeedback
Veltenandfilmclip(s)Filmclip(s)
Elatedvs.neutralanddepressed
Elatedvs.neutralanddepressed
Elatedvs.neutralanddepressed
Positivevs.negativePositivevs.negativePositivevs.negativeandcontrol
Positivevs.negativePositivevs.neutralAmusedvs.neutral
InterestinbeingwithfriendsInterestinsocialactivitiesInterestinleisureactivitiesHighself-disclosureTotalcommunication
Interestincategory-sortingtaskAttentive
Intrinsicinterest
Perceivedrelationshipcloseness
.20.31.33.44.53.56.71.74.27
Negotiationandconflictresolution
Baron,1990aBaron,1990aBaron,1990a
Baronetal.,1990(Study2)aBaronetal.,1990(Study2)aBaronetal.,1990(Study2)aBaronetal.,1992(Study2)*
80808016161672
FragranceFragranceFragranceHumorFlatteryFlatteryLighting
Positivevs.controlPositivevs.controlPositivevs.controlHumorvs.controlFlatteryvs.controlFlatteryvs.controlWarmvs.coollighting
MoremonetaryconcessionsResolvinginterpersonalconflictthroughavoidance
Resolvinginterpersonalconflictthroughcompetition
Preferencetoresolveconflictthroughavoidance
Preferencetoresolveconflictthroughavoidance
Preferencetoresolveconflictthroughcollaboration
Resolvinginterpersonalconflictthroughcollaboration
.23 .23 .23 .50 .50.50.29
(tablecontinues)
积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家:积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧
818
Table3(continued)
Study
n
LYUBOMIRSKY,KING,ANDDIENER
AffectinductionComparisongroupsDependentvariable
Effectsize
(r)
Negotiationandconflictresolution(continued)
Baronetal.,1992(Study2)aBarsade,2002aBarsade,2002a
Carnevale&Isen,1986aForgas,1998(Study1)Forgas,1998(Study1)Forgas,1998(Study2)Forgas,1998(Study2)Forgas,1998(Study3)Forgas,1998(Study3)
7226268072721321329696
Lighting
ConfederateroleplayingConfederateroleplayingCartoon(s)andgiftFalsefeedbackFalsefeedbackFalsefeedbackFalsefeedbackFalsefeedbackFalsefeedback
Warmvs.coollightingPositivePositivePositivePositive
vs.vs.vs.vs.negativenegativecontrolcontrol
Resolvinginterpersonalconflictthroughavoidance
JudgedgroupcooperativenessJudgedgroupconflictPersistatnegotiation
Planneduseofcooperationasbargainingstrategy
Planneduseofcompetitionasbargainingstrategy
Planneduseofcooperationasbargainingstrategy
Planneduseofcompetitionasbargainingstrategy
Planneduseofcooperationasbargainingstrategy
Planneduseofcompetitionasbargainingstrategy
.30.44 .42.41.32 .32.21 .21.30 .24
Positivevs.controlPositivevs.negativePositivevs.negativePositivevs.negativePositivevs.negative
Prosocialbehavior
Aderman,1972
Baron&Bronfen,1994(Study2)Baronetal.,1992(Study3)aBerkowitz,1987(Study1)Berkowitz,1987(Study2)Carnevale&Isen,1986a
Cunningham,1988a(Study1)aCunninghametal.,1980(StudyCunninghametal.,1980(StudyCunninghametal.,1990(StudyCunninghametal.,1990(StudyIsen,1970(Study1)Isen,1970(Study2)Isen,1970(Study2)Isen,1970(Study3)Isen,1970(Study3)
Isen&Levin,1972(Study1)O’Malley&Andrews,1983Rosenhanetal.,1974Rosenhanetal.,1981
1)2)1)2)
12072801086080102901608078141210202052903620
VeltenFragrance
LightingandgiftVeltenVelten
Cartoon(s)andgiftVeltenFinddimeFinddimeVeltenVelten
FalsefeedbackFalsefeedbackFalsefeedbackFalsefeedbackFalsefeedbackGift
Recallevent(s)Recallevent(s)StoriesElatedvs.depressedPositivevs.control
Positive/highilluminancevs.control/lowilluminance
Positivevs.negativePositivevs.negativePositivevs.controlElatedvs.neutralanddepressed
Positivevs.neutralPositivevs.neutralPositivevs.neutralPositivevs.neutralPositivevs.negativePositivevs.controlPositivevs.controlPositivevs.controlPositivevs.negativePositive/helpvs.control/distraction
Happyvs.neutralPositivevs.controlPositivevs.neutral
Volunteering
TimespenthelpingTimewillingtohelpHelpingHelpingHelping
InterestinprosocialactivitiesHelping
DonatingtocharityHelpingHelping
AmountofdonationHelping
AttentivenessHelping
InitiationofconversationWillingnesstohelp
Donatingblood
ContributingtoneedychildrenHelpingexperimenter
.45.28.25.34.68.62.27.28.21.33.34.58.57.58.58.61.36.26.52.59
Physicalwell-beingandcoping
Aldenetal.,2001
Coganetal.,1987(Study1)Dillonetal.,1985
Fredrickson&Levenson,1998(Study2)
Fredricksonetal.,2000(Study1,Sample1)
Fredricksonetal.,2000(Study1,Sample2)
Futtermanetal.,1994Lefcourtetal.,1990(Study1)Lefcourtetal.,1990(Study2)Lefcourtetal.,1990(Study3)McClelland&Cheriff,1997(Study1)McClelland&Cheriff,1997(Study3)Schuettler&Kiviniemi,inpressaSchuettler&Kiviniemi,inpressa
3840107295752545344157855050
MentalimageryAudiotape
HumorousvideotapeVideoclip(s)Videoclip(s)Videoclip(s)Reflectonscenario(s)Humorousaudioclip(s)Humorousvideoclip(s)HumorousAudioclip(s)Videoclip(s)Videoclip(s)VeltenVelten
Positivevs.negativePositivevs.controlHappyvs.control
Smilingvs.notsmilingContentvs.sadContentvs.neutralPositiveandnegativevs.control
Pre-vs.postaudioclipPre-vs.postvideoclipPre-vs.postaudioclipPositivevs.negativePositivevs.controlPositivevs.negativePositivevs.negative
PainratingsPainthresholdImmunefunction
Durationofcardiovascularreactivity
Durationofcardiovascularreactivity
Durationofcardiovascularreactivity
ImmunefunctionImmunefunctionImmunefunction
ImmunefunctionImmunefunctionImmunefunction
Self-efficacyregardinghealthHealthperceptions
.51.45.38 .26 .27 .28.76.47.46.50.33.05.43.53
积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家:积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧
BENEFITSOFFREQUENTPOSITIVEAFFECT
819
Table3(continued)
Study
n
Affectinduction
Comparisongroups
Dependentvariable
Effectsize
(r)
Physicalwell-beingandcoping(continued)
Schuettler&Kiviniemi,inpressaSmithetal.,2004
5082
VeltenRecallevent(s)
Positivevs.negativeRecallofclosevs.casualrelationship
Treatment-relatedbehavioralintentions
Bloodpressurereactivitytostressfultask
.31 .23
Creativityandproblemsolving
Adaman&Blaney,1995
Ambady&Gray,2002(Study1)Ambady&Gray,2002(Study2)Baron,1990a
Blessetal.,1996(Study1)Blessetal.,1996(Study2)Blessetal.,1996(Study3)Bodenhausenetal.,1994(Study4)
Bodenhausenetal.,2000(Study1)Bodenhausenetal.,2000(Study2)Dovidioetal.,1995Elsbach&Barr,1999Erez&Isen,2002(Study1)Erez&Isen,2002(Study1)Erez&Isen,2002(Study1)Estradaetal.,1994Estradaetal.,1997Estradaetal.,1997Forgas,1989Forgas,1989
Isenetal.,1985(Study1)Isen&Daubman,1984(Study1)Isen&Daubman,1984(Study2)Isen&Daubman,1984(Study3)Isen&Means,1983Isen&Means,1983
Isen&Means,1983
Kahn&Isen,1993(Study1)Kahn&Isen,1993(Study2)Kahn&Isen,1993(Study3)Kavanagh,1987Kavanagh,1987
Mackie&Worth,1989(Study1)Mackie&Worth,1989(Study2)
71Music
35Videoclip(s)47Videoclip(s)80Fragrance
82Writeaboutevent(s)61Videoclip(s)80Videoclip(s)131
Recallevent(s)
70Recallevent(s)51Recallevent(s)43Candy
120Candyvs.difficultanagramproblems97Candy97Candy97Candy44Candy29Candy29Candy
72Falsefeedback72
Falsefeedback
29Wordassociationstoaffectivelyvalencedwords162Gift162Videoclip(s)74Gift
22Falsefeedback22Falsefeedback22Falsefeedback69Gift54Gift45Gift
85Recallevent(s)85Recallevent(s)215Falsefeedback260
Videoclip(s)
Sadvs.neutral
Originality
.31Happyandcontrolvs.sadJudgmentaccuracy.83Happyandcontrolvs.sadJudgmentaccuracy
.63Positivevs.controlUseofefficientstrategyoncoding.22task
Happyvs.sadRelianceonpreexistinggeneral.26knowledgestructures
Happyvs.sadRelianceonpreexistinggeneral.31knowledgestructures
Happyvs.sad
Relianceonpreexistinggeneral.31knowledgestructures
Happy/accountable/noAvoidingstereotypicjudgments
.21
stereotypeactivatedvs.neutral/not
accountable/stereotypeactivatedNeutralvs.sadAnchoringbias .24Neutralvs.sadAnchoringbias
.27Positivevs.neutralMakingmoreinclusivegroup.39representations
Positivevs.negativeCarefulexecutionofstepsinhighlystructuredtask
.33Positivevs.neutralPerformanceonanagramtask.21Positivevs.neutralMotivation
.30Positivevs.neutralTimespentonanagramtask.33Positivevs.controlCreativity
.33Positivevs.controlTimebeforediagnosisconsidered .48Positivevs.controlAnchoringbias
.40Positive
vs.negative
Speedandefficiencyinreaching.32decision
Positive/personalDecision-makingefficiency
.43
relevancevs.
negative/impersonalrelevance
Positivevs.neutralNo.ofunusualwordassociations.48Positivevs.controlTendencytogroupitemsas.23belongingtogether
Positivevs.controlTendencytogroupitemsas.29belongingtogether
Positivevs.controlTendencytogroupitemsas.40belongingtogether
Positivevs.controlPropensitytoreturntoalready-reviewedinformation
.51Positivevs.controlPiecesofinformationconsideredduringdecisionmaking .26Positivevs.controlTimetocompletementaltask .43Positivevs.controlVarietyseeking.31Positivevs.controlVarietyseeking.31Positivevs.controlVarietyseeking
.23Positivevs.negativePerformanceonanagramtask.32Positivevs.negativeTimespentonanagramtask
.34Positive/limitedviewingDifferentiationofstrongvs.weakofArgumentvs.arguments
.18
remainingconditionsPositivevs.neutral
Differentiationofstrongvs.weakarguments
.15(tablecontinues)
积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家:积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧
820
Table3(continued)
Study
n
LYUBOMIRSKY,KING,ANDDIENER
AffectinductionComparisongroupsDependentvariable
Effectsize
(r)
Creativitityandproblemsolving(continued)
Melton,1995
Reed&Aspinwall,1998Reed&Aspinwall,1998Sinclair&Mark,1995(Study1)Sinclair&Mark,1995(Study2)Trope&Pomerantz,1998(Study3)Urada&Miller,2000(Study1)Urada&Miller,2000(Study4)Note.
5766663983684361
Cartoon(s)SurveySurveyVeltenVeltenFalsefeedbackRecallevent(s)Recallevent(s),music,candy
Humorvs.controlPositivevs.controlPositivevs.controlPositivevs.negativeandneutral
Positivevs.negativePositivevs.negativePositivevs.neutralPositivevs.neutral
Performanceonsyllogisms
No.offactsignoredaboutcaffeineandfibrocysticbreastdiseaseRecallofdisconfirming
informationaboutcaffeineandfibrocysticbreastdiseaseAccuracyofcorrelationaljudgments
Accuracyofcorrelationaljudgments
Interestinreceivingfeedbackregardingliabilitiesvs.assetsUsingbroaddefinitionofgroupmembership
Usingbroaddefinitionofgroupmembership
.43 .22.28.43.25.35.30.25
Subscriptaindicatesthatthestudyappearsinmorethanonesectionortable.
tothefrequentexperienceofpositiveemotions.Inourtheoreticalframework,itistheexperienceofpositiveemotionsthatleadstothebehavioraloutcomeswereview,and“happiness”describespeoplewhoexperiencesuchemotionsalargepercentageofthetime(Diener,Sandvik,&Pavot,1991).Althoughmoreinclusivedefinitionsofhappinesshavebeenofferedbyothers(e.g.,Veen-hoven,1984),werestrictourdefinitiontotheexperienceoffrequentpositiveaffectbecausethatdefinitionencompassesthefindingswereview.
Thenotionthatfrequentpositiveaffectisthehallmarkofhappinesshasstrongempiricalsupport.Dienerandhiscol-leagues(1991)foundthattherelativeproportionoftimethatpeoplefeltpositiverelativetonegativeemotionswasagoodpredictorofself-reportsofhappiness,whereastheintensityofemotionswasaweakerpredictor.Thatis,happypeoplefeelmildormoderatepositiveaffectthemajorityofthetime;theydonotappeartoexperiencefrequentintensepositivestates.Inseveralstudiesandusingavarietyofhappinessmeasures,Dienerandhiscolleaguesfoundthathappypeopleexperiencedpositivemoodsandemotionsmostofthetime(seealsoDiener,Larsen,Levine,&Emmons,1985).Indeed,peoplewhoreporthighlevelsofhappinessappeartohavepredominantlypositiveaffect—thatis,strongerpositivefeelingsthannegativeones—80%ormoreofthetime.Forexample,inalargeinternationalsampleofmorethan7,000collegestudentsin41diversenationscollectedbyDiener’slaboratory,individualswhore-portedthattheywerepleasedwiththeirlivesexpressedfeelingsofjoyoverhalfofthetime.
IntheWorldValueSurveyI,whichcomprisesprobabilitysamplesofalmost60,000adultsin41nations,64%oftherespon-dentsreportedmorepositivethannegativeaffect,withonly18%reportingmorenegativethanpositiveaffect(WorldValueSurveyGroup,1994).Notably,ofthosereportingabove-neutralhappinessonthissurvey,nearlyeveryonereportedmorepositivethanneg-ativeaffect,promptingDieneretal.(1991)toconcludethathappinessisbestregardedasastateinwhichpeoplefeela
preponderanceofpositiveemotionsmostofthetime.Onereasonforthetendencyofhappypeopletofeelpositiveemotionsmorefrequentlymaybethatthechronicallyhappyarerelativelymoresensitivetorewardsintheirenvironment—thatis,theyhaveamorereactivebehavioralapproachsystem(Gray,1994)—andaremorelikelytoapproach,ratherthanavoid,rewardingsituations(Watson,1988).Inaddition,Larsenandcolleaguesdemonstratedthatdispositionalpositiveaffectivityinvolvesasusceptibilitytoexperiencepositivemoods(Larsen&Ketelaar,1991;Rusting&Larsen,1997).
CharacterizingandMeasuringHighAveragePositiveAffect
Inshort,theresearchevidencesupportsthenotionthatitistheamountoftimethatpeopleexperiencepositiveaffectthatdefineshappiness,notnecessarilytheintensityofthataffect.Furthermore,happypeoplehavebeenfoundtoexperiencepositiveemotionsthemajorityofthetime.Thus,inthisarticle,weidentifyhappyindivid-ualsasthosewhoexperiencehighaveragelevelsofpositiveaffect.Thesehighaveragelevelsofpositiveaffect,whichwevariouslyrefertoaschronichappiness,traitPA,orsubjectivewell-being,mayberootedinpersonalitypredispositions(e.g.,ageneticallydetermined“setpoint”;Lyubomirsky,Sheldon,&Schkade,2005),theperson’scurrentlifecircumstances,theperson’sintentionalactivities,orallofthese.Becausetheexistingliteraturedoesnotdiscriminatewhicheffectsoflong-termPAcomefromwhichofthesedifferentsources,wereferinourarticletoindividualswhoshowhighaveragelevelofPA,withoutreferencetothesourceofthisstate.However,thefindingsfromtheexperimentalstudiessuggestthatpositiveemotionscanproducedesirableoutcomesevenintheabsenceofaveryhappydisposition,althoughahappydispositionislikelytobeacauseofpositiveemotions.
Theresearchweciteusesavarietyofmeasuresoflong-termPA,happiness,andwell-being.ThevastmajorityofassessmentofchronicPAisbyself-reportmeasures,whichhavebeenvalidated
积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家:积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧
BENEFITSOFFREQUENTPOSITIVEAFFECT
821
Table4
MeasuresofCentralTendencyandDispersionforEffectSizesbyCategory
Meanofeffectsizes
Category
n
Samplingunits
Unweighted
Weighted
MedianofeffectsizesUnweighted
Weighted
2testofheterogeneity
Cross-sectionaldata
Worklife
SocialrelationshipsHealthPositive
perceptionsofselfandothersSociabilityandactivity
LikeabilityandcooperationProsocialbehaviorPhysicalwell-beingandcopingCreativityandproblemsolving
19221916261572510
34,794120,25617,6932,82111,7736,9302,0975,0932,275
.27.27.32.39.33.32.32.29.26
.20.15.32.42.37.34.35.31.24
Longitudinaldata
Worklife
SocialrelationshipsHealthPositive
perceptionsofselfandothersSociabilityandactivityCreativityandprosocialbehavior
Physicalwell-beingandcoping
1182614210
15,0805,10637,4211001,1172,8722,999
.24.21.18.25.25.18.27
.05.19.09N/A.29.06.15
Experimentaldata
Positive
perceptionsofselfandothersSociabilityandactivity
Negotiationandconflictresolution
ProsocialbehaviorPhysicalwell-beingandcopingCreativityandproblemsolving*p .05.
**p .01.
1368171434***p .001.
9005795741,1707492,707
****p .0001.
.36.51.33.43.38.25
.34.49.29.37.34.16
.36.52.31.36.40.30
.33.56.27.34.28.25
19.6616.30**4.1526.53*18.79193.63****
.25.20.14.25.24.18.29
.03.20.09N/A.33.04.14
621.63****30.43****418.90****N/A4.6655.67****80.98****
.29.23.31.37.32.29.32.31.27
.20.07.31.39.40.21.36.35.28
188.82****3,079.60****67.98****59.36****116.20****217.64****11.45197.32****18.25*
inanumberofstudies(e.g.,Sandvik,Diener,&Seidlitz,1993;Watson,2000).Inexperimentalresearchoninducedmoods,pos-itivemoodsareoperationalizedbythemanipulationsthatinducethem;inlongitudinalresearch,themeasuresdependonmoodsatthemomentoroverarecentperiodsuchasthepastweekormonth;and,inindividualdifferenceresearchonchronicpositiveemotions,themeasuresusuallyaskabouttheperson’smoodsingeneral.Althoughthesemethodsarenotwithoutshortcomings,theyappeartobeatleastmoderatelyvalid.Amoredetailed
discussionofmeasurementissuesisavailableelsewhere(seeDie-ner,1994;Dieneretal.,1999;Sandviketal.,1993).
DiscriminatingHappinessandPositiveAffectFromRelatedConstructs
Notably,alargenumberofstudieshaveassessedlifesatisfac-tionasanindicatorofwell-being,andsuchinvestigationsareoccasionallyincludedhere.Althoughtheconstructofsatisfaction
积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家:积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧
822
LYUBOMIRSKY,KING,ANDDIENER
isnotidenticaltopositiveaffect—someresearchersarguethatithasanaffectivedimension(Veenhoven,1997),whereasothersdefineitasapurelycognitivejudgmentoflifeoritsfacets(Dieneretal.,1999)—wereviewstudiesofsatisfactionbecausetheyfrequentlyrepresenttheonlyavailableevidenceinanarea.Fur-thermore,lifesatisfactionandpositiveaffecthavebeenfoundtocorrelateataround.40to.50inundergraduates(Lucas,Diener,&Suh,1996)and.52inbusinessstudents(Staw&Barsade,1993).Inaddition,ofpeoplewhosaytheyareaboveneutralinsatisfac-tionwiththeirlives,85%havebeenfoundtoreportthattheyfeelhappyatleasthalfofthetime(Lucasetal.,1996).Thus,lifesatisfactionisadefensibleproxyforchronichappiness,incasesinwhichnostudiesexistusingmoredirectmeasuresofhappiness;LucasandhiscolleaguesdemonstratedthatitisseparablebutnotindependentfromchronicPA.Similarly,Lucasetal.foundthatoptimismisalsorelatedtopositiveaffectivity,butseparablefromit.Again,wesometimesrefertofindingsbasedonmeasuresofoptimismbecausethefindingscanbestriking,butweeagerlyawaitthedaywhenafullsetoffindingsbasedonmeasuresofpositiveaffect,aswellasrelatedconcepts,isavailable.
Thesectionsofthisarticlethataddressresearchonpositiveaffectsimilarlyincludestudiesusingavarietyofaffectmeasuresandmoodinductions.Mostresearchersfocusonglobalpleasantaffect,withoutdiscriminatingamongspecificpositiveemotionsorbetweenemotionsandmoods,andourreviewreflectsthischar-acteristicofthefield.Finally,whennoresearchonpositiveaffectisavailable,weinfrequentlycitetheliteratureonnegativeaffectordepression.Althoughpositiveaffectandnegativeaffectoftenexhibitadegreeofindependenceinthelongrun(e.g.,Diener,Smith,&Fujita,1995),thesetwotypesofaffectregularlyshowmoderateinverserelationsacrossindividuals,justifyingtheuseofsuchnegativestatesastheinverseofPAorsubjectivewell-being,toaddressourquestionswhenmoredirectmeasuresareabsent.Furthermore,depressionhasbeendefinednotonlybyhighlevelsofnegativeaffect,butalsolowlevelsofPA(Watson&Clark,1995).
CROSS-SECTIONALEVIDENCE
Question1:AreHappyPeopleSuccessfulPeople?
Beingsuccessfulmeansaccomplishingthosethingsthatarevaluedbyone’sculture,flourishingintermsofthegoalssetforthbyone’ssociety.Hence,ourfocalquestioniswhetherhappypeopleonaveragearebetterabletoachievethevaluesandgoalstheyhavebeensocializedtobelieveareworthwhile.AsSigmundFreudreportedlyoncesaid,liebenundarbeiten—toloveandtowork—arewhata“normal”personshouldbeabletoperformwell.Fewpeoplewouldoppose,inanyculture,theadditionofhealthtoloveandworkasacriticalingredienttoasuccessfullife.
Accordingly,thefollowingsectionisdividedintothreeparts:worklife,socialrelationships,andhealth.Specifically,inthissection,wereviewthecross-sectionalevidenceaddressingthequestionofwhetherhappypeoplearerelativelymoresuccessfulinvariouslifedomains,rangingfrommarriagetowork,fromaltru-isticcommunityinvolvementtomakingmoney,andfrommentalhealthtophysicalhealthandlongevity.
WorkLife
InmodernWesternsociety,workfillsalargenumberofpeo-ple’swakinghours.Furthermore,itisimportantintermsofpro-ducingincome,influencingself-esteem,creatingopportunitiesformeaningfulactivities,andproducingthegoodsandservicesneededbysociety.Thus,workishighlyvalued.Arehappypeoplemoresuccessfulthantheirlesshappypeersonjob-relatedandperformancevariables?Wewillfirstreviewthecorrelationalev-idencebearingonthisquestion(forstudyinformationandeffectsizes,seePanel1ofTable1).
EmploymentandQualityofWork
Thecross-sectionalevidencerevealsthathappyworkersenjoymultipleadvantagesovertheirlesshappypeers.Individualshighinsubjectivewell-beingaremorelikelytosecurejobinterviews,tobeevaluatedmorepositivelybysupervisorsoncetheyobtainajob,toshowsuperiorperformanceandproductivity,andtohandlemanagerialjobsbetter.Theyarealsolesslikelytoshowcounter-productiveworkplacebehaviorandjobburnout.
Evenbeforeenteringtheworkforce,peoplewithhighsubjectivewell-beingaremorelikelytograduatefromcollege(Frischetal.,2004).Furthermore,happyindividualsappeartosecure“better”jobs.Inonestudy,employeeshighindispositionalpositiveaffecthadjobs,asratedbytrainedobservers,thathadmoreautonomy,meaning,andvariety(Staw,Sutton,&Pelled,1994).Finally,evidencefromavarietyofsourcesshowsthathappypeoplearemoresatisfiedwiththeirjobs(e.g.,Connolly&Viswesvaran,2000;Tait,Padgett,&Baldwin,1989;Weiss,Nicholas,&Daus,1999).Inameta-analysisof27studiesofaffectandjobsatisfac-tion,ConnollyandViswesvaranconcludedthat10%–25%ofthevarianceinjobsatisfactionwasaccountedforbymeasuresofdispositionalaffect.Intheiranalyses,themeancorrectedcorrela-tionbetweenpositiveaffectandjobsatisfactionwas.49.
Onceahappypersonobtainsajob,heorsheismorelikelytosucceed.Employeeshighindispositionalpositiveaffectreceiverelativelymorefavorableevaluationsfromsupervisorsandothers(Stawetal.,1994).Forexample,inStawandcolleagues’study,managersofhighpositiveaffectemployeesofthreeMidwesternorganizationsgavethemhigherevaluationsforworkquality,pro-ductivity,dependability,andcreativity.Wrightandhiscolleagueshavereplicatedthiseffect,showingthathappypeoplereceivehigherratingsfromsupervisors(Cropanzano&Wright,1999;Wright&Staw,1999).Finally,workperformancemaybemorestronglypredictedbywell-beingthanbyjobsatisfaction.Intwostudies,WrightandCropanzano(2000)foundthatjobperfor-mance,asjudgedbysupervisors,wassignificantlycorrelatedwithwell-being(rsof.32and.34,respectively),butuncorrelatedwithmeasuresofjobsatisfaction(rsof .08and.08,respectively).StawandBarsade(1993)foundthat,asratedbyobjectiveobservers,thosehighindispositionalpositiveaffectperformedobjectivelybetteronamanagerassessmenttask(includinglead-ershipandmasteryofinformation).Otherevidenceforhappypeople’srelativesuccessonthejobincludesfindingsthatindivid-ualshighindispositionalpositiveaffectaremorelikelytobeinthesupervisoryin-group(Graen,1976).Dormitoryresidentadvisorswereratedbyresidentsasbeingmoreeffectiveiftheywerehighontraitpositiveaffect(DeLuga&Mason,2000),andhappier
积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家:积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧
BENEFITSOFFREQUENTPOSITIVEAFFECT
823
cricketplayershadhigherbattingaverages(Totterdell,2000).George(1995)foundthatservicedepartmentswithhappyleadersweremorelikelytoreceivehighratingsfromcustomers,andthatthepositiveaffectivetoneofthesalesforcewasanindependentpredictorofcustomersatisfaction.Corroboratingtheseresults,arecentstudyshowedthatCEOsofmanufacturingcompanieswithhighpositiveaffectwererelativelymorelikelytohaveemployeeswhoratedthemselvesashappyandhealthy,andwhoreportedapositive,warmclimateforperformance.Inturn,organizationalclimatewascorrelatedwithproductivity(r .31)andprofitability(r .36;Foster,Hebl,West,&Dawson,2004).Ofinterest,thesepatternswerenotfoundfornegativeaffect.Finally,optimisticlifeinsuranceagentsappeartosellmoreinsurance(Seligman&Schul-man,1986),andoptimisticCEOsreceivehigherperformanceratingsfromthechairpersonsoftheirboardsandheadcompanieswithgreaterreturnsoninvestment(Pritzker,2002).Cote´(1999)reviewedtheeffectsofwell-beingonjobperformance,andcon-cludedthatthecausalrelationbetweenpleasantaffectandstrongperformanceisbidirectional.
Undoubtedly,oneofthereasonsthathappy,satisfiedworkersaremorelikelytobehighperformersonthejobisthattheyarelesslikelytoshow“jobwithdrawal”—namely,absenteeism,turnover,jobburnout,andretaliatorybehaviors(Donovan,2000;Locke,1975;Porter&Steers,1973;Thoresen,Kaplan,Barsky,Warren,&deChermont,2003).Forexample,positivemoodsatworkpre-dictedlowerwithdrawalandorganizationalretaliationandhigherorganizationalcitizenshipbehavior(Donovan,2000;seealsoCrede´,Chernyshenko,Stark,&Dalal,2005;Miles,Borman,Spec-tor,&Fox,2002;Thoresenetal.,2003),aswellaslowerjobburnout(Wright&Cropanzano,1998).Positiveaffectatworkhasalsobeenfoundtobedirectlyassociatedwithreducedabsenteeism(George,1989).Finally,thosewhoexperiencelowarousalpositiveaffectonthejobarelesslikelytowanttoquitandtobeinconflictwithotherworkers(VanKatwyk,Fox,Spector,&Kelloway,2000).
Income
Animportantindicatorofsuccessinmodernsocietiesisincome.Dohappierpeopleearnhigherincomes?Severalstudiessuggesttheanswertobeyes.Forexample,astudyof24,000Germanresidentsrevealedacorrelationbetweenincomeandlifesatisfac-tionof.20(Lucas,Clark,Georgellis,&Diener,2004),andastudyofRussiansrevealedcorrelationsbetweenrealhouseholdincomeandhappinessof.48in1995and.39in2000(Graham,Eggers&Sukhtankar,inpress).AmongindigenousMalaysianfarmers,thecorrelationbetweenlifesatisfactionandmaterialwealth(theironlyavailableindicatorofincome)wasfoundtobe.23(Howell,Howell,&Schwabe,inpress).AccordingtoDienerandBiswas-Diener(2002),mostsurveysreportcorrelationsbetweenincomeandhappinessintherangeof.13–.24.Inameta-analysisof286empiricalinvestigationsofolderadults,incomewassignificantlycorrelatedwithhappinessandlifesatisfaction,and,surprisingly,moresothanwitheducation(Pinquart&So¨rensen,2000).
OrganizationalCitizenship
Arehappyworkersrelativelybetterorganizational“citizens”?Muchofthecross-sectionalevidencepertainingtothisquestion
comesfromstudiesofindividualswhoaresatisfiedwiththeirjobs.Notably,bothpositiveaffectonthejobandchronichappinesshavebeenfoundtopredictjobsatisfaction(Weissetal.,1999).Inturn,jobsatisfactionpredictsorganizationalcitizenshipbehavior—thatis,actsthatgobeyondtherequirementsofthejob,suchasspreadinggoodwillandaidingcoworkers(Donovan,2000;George&Brief,1992;Organ,1988).However,studiesofrecurringpos-itiveaffectcorroboratetheseresults.Borman,Penner,Allen,andMotowildo(2001)reviewedevidenceshowingthatpositiveaffectpredictsorganizationalcitizenship,andthatnegativeaffectin-verselycorrelateswithit,evenwhenpeerratingsratherthanself-ratingsofcitizenshipareused.Inaddition,GeorgeandBriefarguedthathabitualpositiveaffectatworkispivotalinunder-standingso-called“organizationalspontaneity,”whichincludeshelpingcoworkers,protectingtheorganization,makingconstruc-tivesuggestions,anddevelopingone’sownabilitieswithintheorganization(seealsoDonovan,2000).
CommunityInvolvement
Despiteascarcityofstudiesinthisarea,someevidenceunder-scoresthecontributionsofhappypeopletotheircommunities.Happypeopleappeartovolunteerathigherlevelsthantheirunhappypeersforcharityandcommunityservicegroups,includ-ingreligious,political,educational,andhealth-relatedorganiza-tions(Krueger,Hicks,&McGue,2001;Thoits&Hewitt,2001)andtoinvestmorehoursinvolunteerservice(Thoits&Hewitt,2001).Furthermore,inastudyofIsraelihighschoolstudents,thosewithhighpositiveaffectweremorelikelytobeinvolvedincommunityserviceandtoexpressadesiretocontributetosocietyandbeofassistancetoothers(Magen&Aharoni,1991).Insummary,aswedescribeinthesectiononprosocialbehavior,happypeopleseemtoberelativelymoreinclinedtohelpothers(Feingold,1983).
SocialRelationships
Berscheid(2003)highlightedthecentralityofsocialrelation-shipstosuccessfulhumanfunctioningwhenshewrotethat“rela-tionshipsconstitutethesinglemostimportantfactorresponsible
forthesurvivalofhomosapiens”(p.39).Dohappypeoplehavebettersocialrelationshipsthantheirlesshappypeers?Ourreviewrevealsthistobeoneofthemostrobustfindingsintheliteratureonwell-being.Next,webeginbypresentingcross-sectionalevi-denceregardingthequestionwhetherindividualshighintraitpositiveaffect,happiness,andlifesatisfactionhavemorefriendsandmoresocialsupport,aswellasexperiencehappierinterper-sonalrelationships.RelevantstudyinformationiscontainedinPanel2ofTable1.
FriendshipandSocialSupport
Dohappypeoplehavemorefriendsandstrongersocialsupportnetworksthanlesshappypeople?Cross-sectionalstudieshavedocumentedanassociationbetweenchronichappinessandtheactualnumberoffriendsorcompanionspeoplereporttheycanrelyon(Baldassare,Rosenfield,&Rook,1984;Lee&Ishii-Kuntz,1987;Mishra,1992;Phillips,1967;Requena,1995),aswellasoverallsocialsupportandperceivedcompanionship(Baldassareet
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