A Comparative Study of English Euphemism and Chine

A Comparative Study of English Euphemism and

Chinese Euphemism

Abstract:As a linguistic phenomenon, euphemism has its unique origination and formation, and abides by a certain development principle. Euphemism is also a cultural phenomenon at the same time, reflecting different convention, custom and social psychology in China and the western countries. This thesis falls into five chapters. Chapter one introduces the history of euphemisms in English and Chinese. Chapter two illustrates the relationship among language, culture and taboo. Chapter three states the definition of euphemism and the classification of euphemisms. Chapter four explains the similarities and differences between English euphemism and Chinese euphemism and researches the reasons of discrepancy between English euphemism and Chinese euphemism from the angle of the language structure, usage and the culture. Chapter five is a conclusion of all the findings and discoveries made in this thesis. Through the comparison of English euphemism and Chinese euphemism，we can see that euphemism is a linguistic and particularly, a social cultural phenomenon. Its generation and development are the outcome of various socio-psychological and pragmatic factors.

Key Words: euphemism; comparative study; linguistic phenomenon; cultural phenomenon

英汉委婉语对比研究

摘要：委婉语，作为一种语言现象，它有其独特的来源及构成方法，并遵循一定的发展规律。同时，它也是一种文化现象，折射出中西国家的不同风俗习惯和社会心理。本论文共分五部分，第一部分首先介绍了英汉委婉语的历史以及国内外的研究现状。第二部分谈到了语言、文化及禁忌语之间的关系。第三部分从语言学的角度对其定义、分类作了阐述。第四部分对英汉委婉语进行了比较分析，说明该语言现象的一致性和差异性，并从委婉语的语言结构, 应用和文化方面探讨英汉委婉语相异的原因。第五部分对本论文进行总结。通过比较英汉委婉语的异同，得出委婉语既是一种语言现象，更是一种社会文化现象。它的形成和发展是各种社会心理因素和语用因素综合作用的结果。

关键词：委婉语；对比研究；语言现象；文化现象

CONTENTS

Introduction (2)

1.History and Studies of Euphemisms in English and Chinese (3)

1.1 A Brief History of Euphemisms in English and Chinese (3)

1.1.1 The History of English Euphemisms (3)

1.1.2 The History of Chinese Euphemisms (4)

1.2 An Overview of Study of Euphemisms at Home and Abroad (4)

1.2.1 Studies of Euphemisms in the Western Countries (4)

1.2.2 Studies of Euphemisms in China (5)

2. Language, Culture, Taboo and Euphemism (5)

2.1Language and Euphemism (5)

2.2Culture and Euphemism (6)

2.3Taboo and Euphemism (6)

3. Definition and Classification of Euphemism (6)

3.1 Definition of Euphemism (6)

3.2 Classification of Euphemism (7)

3.2.1 Positive Euphemism and Negative Euphemism (7)

3.2.2 Conscious Euphemism and Unconscious Euphemism (8)

3.2.3 Instantaneous Euphemism and Continuous Euphemism (8)

3.2.4 Other Classifications of Euphemism (9)

4. Comparison Between Chinese and English Euphemisms (9)

4.1Similarities (9)

4.1.1 Using Vague Words or Expressions (9)

4.1.2 Using Substitutions (10)

4.1.3 Using Loan Words (10)

4.1.4 Using Abbreviations and Omissions (10)

4.2Differences (12)

4.2.1 Differences in Form (12)

4.2.2 Differences in Culture (14)

4.2.3 Differences in Usage (16)

5. Conclusion (16)

Introduction

In our daily life there are certain things that are not supposed to be speakable or mentioned directly. A fair number of words are labeled as frivolous, vulgar, or at least inconsiderate. But in communication, for better maintaining social relationship and exchanging ideas, people have to resort to a kind of language, which can make distasteful ideas seem acceptable or even desirable. This type of language is defined as “euphemism” in linguistics and it comes in a variety of forms and is used for a variety of reasons. Euphemism is a mirror of morality, customs, politics, life style, social psychology, etc.

Much research has been done on euphemism because of its prominence in language. A lot of great works came into being during the study of euphemism, which lay a foundation for further resear ch. Thus, on the basis of others’ researches, this thesis attempts to do a comprehensive analysis of English euphemisms and Chinese euphemisms by comparatively analyzing their linguistic and cultural characteristics.

1.History and Studies of Euphemisms in English and Chinese

1.1 A Brief History of Euphemisms in English and Chinese

Euphemisms have probably come into being from the very beginning of language. It originated from language taboo. Taboo and euphemisms are closely related to each other. Almost all cultures seem to have some concepts or things that cannot be mentioned directly because they are to be tabooed, so people use euphemisms to substitute taboo words.

1.1.1 The History of English Euphemisms

English euphemisms have been surviving and thriving ever since ancient times. The subject of the earliest euphemisms was undoubtedly religious (Neaman and Silver, 1983:1). The emergence of euphemisms is closely related to the time background. The Anglo-Saxon era is the golden age of linguistic freedom and the source of non-euphemistic four-letter words, but great care was taken not to offend political or religious leaders or gods. After Norman Conquest in 1066, euphemisms began to thrive. Considering Anglo-Saxon words vulgar and obscene，Normans and the native upper circles borrowed “elegant” Latin words in place of Anglo-Saxon ones, gradually these Latin words became part of English. By the 19th century, middle and lower class influence had expanded. They enriched the vocabulary and formation of euphemisms. Euphemisms reached their peak in Victorian period, a great many of standard English euphemisms for sex, death, reproduction, and other physical functions were popularized. As the British Empire expanded, the linguistic pattern of the mother country traveled with it and the British euphemisms was developing abroad as well as at home.

1.1.2 The History of Chinese Euphemisms

.With regard to the history of Chinese euphemisms, some textural research suggests that Chinese euphemisms also have a long history. According to the record in Zuo Zhuan, people in the Zhou Dynasty began to impose taboos on personal names, so the history of Chinese euphemisms can be traced back at least to the Zhou Dynasty. The earliest literal application of“euphemism” is found in Gu Feng of Shi Jing——“习习谷风，以阴以雨”，for example，the author indicates that the unfortunate event is going to take place by describing cloudy weather and rain. A large number of taboos emerged in Qin Dynasty, which were recorded in Shi Ji. The record in Han Shu indicated that Chinese euphemisms continued to develop in the Han Dynasty. Euphemisms thrived and flourished in the Tang and Song Dynasties. And in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Chinese euphemisms reach its peak (Li Guonan,2001:214). During The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) some specific euphemisms were also created. For example, when people wanted to buy the portrait of Chairman Mao, they were not allowed to use the word “sell”(“买”) but “invite”(“请”). Since 1980s, Chinese euphemisms have been flourishing as a result of opening and reforming policy. More new euphemisms emerged and thrived in people’s daily lives. For example, “清洁工”(street cleaner) are called“环境美容师”(environmental beautician)

1.2 An Overview of Study of Euphemisms at Home and Abroad

1.2.1 Studies of Euphemisms in the Western Countries

Much research has been done on euphemism because of its prominence in language. A lot of great works came into being during the study of euphemism, which lays a foundation for further research. In 1936, in his book The American Language, American linguist, Mencken, fully discussed why hundreds of euphemisms had been born and become popular on the basis of American history and social cultural background.

In 1981, British linguist Hugh Rawson compiled A D ictionary of Euphemisms and Other Double Talks, which embodies the achievements of research on euphemisms over the decades by many British and American linguists. Hugh Rawson pides euphemisms into two general types—positive and negative. He also pointed out the close relation between language and euphemism, “Euphemisms are embedded so deeply in our language that few of us, even those who pride themselves on being plain-spoken, ever get through a day without using them.” More important, in its ten–page–long preface, Hugh Rawson not only traced the history of euphemism, but also widely accounted for characteristics of euphemism as well as its definition, classification, and scope of use.

The year 1983 saw the publication of Kind Words—A Thesaurus of Euphemisms, compiled by Neaman and Silver. In 1985, Enright D.J. published a collection of essays on euphemism, The Uses of Euphemism. In 1991, Allan and Burridge published the

book Euphemism and Dysphemism: Language Used as Shield and Weapon. In 1993, John Ayto published the book Euphemisms, which looked at the various ingenious formulae that the speakers of English had come up with to tiptoe around conversational danger areas. These works have made the remarkable achievements on euphemism study.

1.2.2 Studies of Euphemisms in China

Compared with those flourishing studies of euphemism in the western countries, Chinese scholars’theories on euphemism seem rare, although euphemism in China has quite a long history and we can find the earliest record in The Book of Songs. Ancient Chinese scholars studied euphemisms mainly from two angles: avoidance of taboos and folklore. Qian Daxin was the one who conducted a relatively systematic study of avoidance of taboos. Scientific and systematic research had not been done in this field until several decades ago. Many modern scholars in China have been studying euphemisms from the perspective of rhetoric for a long period of time. A breakthrough is made by Chinese scholar Chen Wangdao(陈望道，1976). In 1976, he published the book Introduction to Rhetoric. From the 70s to the 80s of the 20th century, western theories of linguistics were introduced into China in succession. Inspired by the newly introduced theories, some Chinese scholars expanded the scope of euphemism study into the perspective of social functions.The most famous one among those scholars is Chen Yuan (陈原,1983)，who published the book Sociolinguistics in 1983 devoting a special chapter to euphemisms. In the following years, a number of Chinese scholars published many articles to air their views on euphemism from different angles, such as Yu Yalun (于亚伦，1984), Shu Dingfang (束定芳，1989). In 1996, Zhang Gonggui compiled A Dictionary of Chinese Euphemisms.

Though great achievements have been made in the study of euphemisms, so far most of these studies dealt with inpidual languages. There is a shortage of contrastive researches of euphemisms between languages. Figures and Vocabulay by Li Guonan in 2001 does give a rather comprehensive contrast.

2. Language, Culture, Taboo and Euphemism

2.1 Language and Euphemism

The relation between language and euphemism is so intrinsically close that it is impossible to study one without an analysis of the other. First of all, language is the vehicle of euphemism. Ronald Wardhaugh (1986:229) said, “Language is used to avoid saying certain things as well as to express them.” To some extent, we can say that where there is language, there is euphemism. Secondly, euphemism is one form of language; we can derive euphemism from family talks, official meetings, literary words, telephone talks, television programs, letters, cards, and so on. A casual look at

language will show that there are a host of linguistic devices, which are habitually adopted in presenting euphemism. Thirdly, as far as the change of euphemism is concerned, euphemism has experienced the process of growth, development and decline. Therefore, euphemism not only expands and enriches English vocabulary but also contributes to the appropriate and effective use of the English language. And what is more, euphemistic effect enables language communication to go smoothly and successfully.

2.2 Culture and Euphemism

Euphemism itself cannot exist without social culture with the evidence that expressions used in sensitive areas tend to pick up negative connotations and be replaced by euphemisms. The relationship between euphemism and culture is obvious: euphemism, as a cultural–linguistic product, displays its multiple mapping relations with culture; it changes along with the development of society, and the use of euphemism varies with the variation of the context. It is a reflection of culture and carries vestigial patterns once dominant in a society. Within a single culture, whether acceptable or forbidden, the subjects and portions of euphemisms have varied from one historical period to another. Understanding of the culture underlying euphemisms enables us to catch the meaning conveyed.

2.3 Taboo and Euphemism

Euphemism originates from verbal taboo, and verbal taboo originates from religious superstition, which reflects the importance of social psychology in the origin of euphemism. Taboo and euphemism are two closely related cultural and linguistic phenomena of human society. We can’t talk about one without referring to the other. Almost any of the cultures in the world has its own taboo. In both the English and the Chinese language speech community, the most obvious taboos have to do with bodily functions, body parts, death etc.. Taboo changes over time. Meanwhile, euphemism develops with taboo, so euphemistic words and expressions not only allow us to talk about unpleasant things and disguise or neutralize the unpleasantness, e.g., the subjects of sickness, death and dying, unemployment, and criminality, but also allow us to give labels to unpleasant tasks and jobs in an attempt to make them sound almost attractive.

3. Definition and Classification of Euphemism

3.1 Definition of Euphemism

Western linguists think the word “euphemism” comes from Greece. And it has been defined differently in different books, dictionaries by different scholars. Some of the definitions are listed below:

(1) that figure of speech which consists in the substitution of a word or expression of comparatively favourable implication or less unpleasant associations, instead of the

harsher or more offensive one that would more precisely designate what is intended.( Oxford English Dictionary,1989)

(2) Euphemizing is generally defined as substituting an inoffensive or pleasant term for a more explicit, offensive one, thereby veneering the truth by using kind words.(Enright D.J., 1985)

(3) Word, etc. used in place of one avoided as e.g. offensive, indecent, or alarming. (Oxford Concise Dictionary of Linguistics, Shanghai Foreign Languages Publishing House, 2000)

(4) Used as an alternative to a dispreferred expression, in order to avoid possible loss of face: either one’s own face or through giving offences, that of the audience, or of some third party. (Allen, K. and Burridge, K., 1991:18)

As traditional western linguistics restricts euphemism study to the lexicon, euphemisms are, therefore, words or phrases in place of things considered to be rude or unpleasant. Given from the perspective of rhetoric, all the above definitions are determined in a narrow sense. Many linguists think that the definition of euphemism needs to be framed in a broad sense. American linguist, Bolinger Dwight once pointed out: “Euphemism is not restricted to the lexicon; there are grammatical ways of toning something down without actually changing the content of the message.”(1981:148) Afterwards, the grammatical ways of forming euphemism such as negation, tense, voice, and mood and so on were carefully attended to.

In China, as we have mentioned above, Chen Wangdao first defined euphemisms in his book Introduction to Rhetoric. He defined euphemisms as a figure of speech in which roundabout and implicit words and expressions are used to substitute direct expressions to hint the meaning. The Chinese equivalent for “euphemism” is“委婉”，“婉转”，or the most popular one“婉曲”containing“婉言”and “曲语”;“婉言”means “substituting an implicit expression for an explicit one” while “曲语”implies the original meaning through describing things relevant to it. Another figure of speech in Chinese is called“避讳”or“讳饰”, which implies the practice of avoiding the use in one's personal name of any character already used in the name of one's elder. The combination of the figure of speech“委婉”and“避讳”is equal to the figure of speech “euphemisms” in English.(Li Guonan，2001：190)

3.2 Classification of Euphemism

Euphemism can be classified into many categories according to different criteria, rules or principles. There is no uniform standard, but the motives of the different classifications are to discover and understand the characteristics of euphemism from different angles. The following is a brief introduction to some representative classifications of euphemism.

3.2.1 Positive Euphemism and Negative Euphemism

Hugh Rawson ( 1981:1) pides euphemisms into two general types—positive

and negative from the angle of semnatics. The positive euphemisms inflate and magnify, making the euphemized items seem altogether grander and more important than they really are. Positive euphemisms, which have no connection with tabooed words, is so called “stylistic euphemisms”. They are actu ally fair words. Positive euphemisms include many occupational titles used to elevate the job status of workers. In every culture there is a tendency to elevate a low，humble status to a high, decent position,to make offal smell like a rose. Thus，garbagemen are promoted to sanitation engineers, bootblacks to footwear maintenance engineers，secretaries to administrative assistants and so on. In China，清洁工(street cleaner)are titled 环境美容师(environmental beautician);“护士”(hospital nurse) becomes“白衣天使”(angel in white)，etc.. In contrast with the positive euphemisms,the negative euphemisms deflate and diminish. They are defensive in nature, eradicating from language everything that people are not willing to deal with directly. Negative euphemisms, which have close relat ion with tabooed words, are also called “traditional euphemisms”. In Northeast China, the bear is called “老爷子”(grandfather)by people and the tiger is alluded to as “猫”(cat) or “山神爷”( god of the mountain). Death and funeral, disease and disabilities, sex and reproduction, parts of body, secretions and excrement, etc. are all tabooed topics that should be euphemized.

3.2.2 Conscious Euphemism and Unconscious Euphemism

According to Hugh Rawson，e uphemisms can also be classified as “unconscious euphemisms” and “conscious euphemisms”. Unconscious euphemisms refer to those words that were developed as euphemisms so long ago that hardly anyone remembers the original motivation. For example, now standard term as “cemetery” has been a replacement for the more death ly “graveyard” since the fourteenth century. “Indisposition” has been a substitute for “disease” for a long period; people seldom realize that its original meaning is incapacity for dealing with something. Conscious euphemisms are widely employed, which involves more complex categories. When people communicate with each other, speakers are conscious to say tactfully, and the listeners understand their implied meanings. For example, when a lady stands up and says that she wants to “powder her nose” or “make a phone call” at a dinner party, the people present realize the euphemism means “something else”, that is, “going to the ladies’ room”.

3.2.3 Instantaneous Euphemism and Continuous Euphemism

Hugh Rawson also pides euphemisms into “instantaneous euphemisms”and “continuous euphemisms” in accordance with how long they have been used. Euphemisms are in a constant state of flux. New ones are created almost daily. Instantaneous or nonce euphemisms such as the euphemisms about Vietnam War and the Watergate Incident are only one-day wonders. They are created according to special background, situations and events. They are used only for a short period of

time and usually are not repeated later. Continuous or sustained euphemisms may last for generations or even centuries. Some traditional euphemisms,which are closely related to tabooed subjects, have become part of English idioms.

3.2.4 Other Classifications of Euphemism

Specifically, euphemisms can be classified as euphemisms of death, euphemisms of sex, euphemisms of occupation, euphemisms of politics, euphemisms of education and so on in terms of their content. There are many euphemisms for “ocucpation” in English. A salesman is beautified as a “salesengineer”; A mechanic becomes an “automoblie engineer”; A school principal is called “edu cational engnieer”. Some expressions like“白衣天使”(angel in white)for“护士”(hospital nurse),“绿衣使者”(messenger in green)for“邮递员”(postman) have been used in Chinese. According to the vocation of users, we can pide euphemisms into policeman euphemisms, criminal euphemisms, teacher euphemisms, student euphemisms, doctor euphemisms, etc.

Of course, there are other ways of classifying euphemisms. We classified euphemisms from different angles in order to have an all-round and a clearer picture of the features of euphemism so as to use them appropriately in communication.

Since we have known different classifications of euphemisms, let's talk about the comparison between Chinese and English euphemisms.

4. Comparison Between Chinese and English Euphemisms

4.1 Similarities

Whatever cultural and historical fields euphemisms may be based on, the linguistic patterns underlying their formation are the same. This is true of both English euphemism and Chinese euphemism, although the two may be different in certain specific aspects or particular means of formation.

As far as linguistic patterns are concerned, English euphemism and Chinese euphemism are similar in quite a few ways.

4.1.1 Using Vague Words or Expressions

Chen Wangdao(1979:139) once pointed out, “The oral taboos are almost always substituted by vague words or expressions”. Many harsh words are euphemized to words of abstract, general and vague meanings both in English and Chinese.

If we hear someone say “He has had/met with an accident”, we only know that something bad has happened to him, but we are not sure what on earth it is. Similarly in Chinese, we use “她/他出了问题(意外) ”to refer to the case. The term“问题”(problem)in Chinese can be rather dim in meaning, and is often used to refer to any unpleasant thing. For example, if someone says“我觉得先生您的大作中有两个问题值得商榷”，(I think there are two problems which need to be corrected/ deliberated in

your book.)he probably means“错误”（mistake）by the term“问题”(problem). 4.1.2 Using Substitutions

Substitution is the use of certain literally mild and pleasant words or expressions in place of those unspeakable or unpleasant ones. In English, "go to/be in/be sent to prison" is often euphemized as“be to the big house" or“be sent up the River". Of this expression,“the big house" refers to "prison"; the river refers to the Hudson River, which flows through the city of New York. The Chinese people are shy to mention the word“钱”(money), therefore they often use other expressions like “孔方兄”“大团结，伟人头”etc. to substitute“钱”(money).

4.1.3 Using Loan Words

The practice of borrowing words from other languages to function as euphemisms is common. In fact, euphemizing by means of loan words is attained through the discrepancy between the foreign language and the native language. People are relatively familiar with their native language and unfamiliar with a certain foreign language, so the use of foreign words in place of native ones usually brings about a sense of implicitness and mildness in people. In English, euphemisms of foreign source are mainly from French and Latin. “ It is permissible for speakers and writers of English to express almost any thought they wish, aslong as the more risque parts of the discussion are rendered in another language, usually French or Latin.” (Rawson, 1981:322) French and Latin provide many euphemisms. For examples, euphemism of women's underwear like "brassiere" is from French; "perspire", "defecate" are from Latin. In China, more and more loan words are applied today, such as “欠发达”(underdeveloped)，“秀斗”(short)，etc.

4.1.4 Using Abbreviations and Omissions

In all cultures, certain linguistic units may be omitted to avoid unspeakability, to show politeness, or to disguise something. In English, “The woman is pregnant”is euphemized as "She is expecting", in which "a baby" is left out. Similarly, "out" is for "out of work", "undertaker" for "funeral undertaker", "daily" for "daily girl", "domestic" for domestic "servant", etc.

Spelling omission is another kind of abbreviation. For instance we use "WC" for "water closet", "lav" for "lavatory", "G-man" for "garbage-man", etc. In addition, some euphemisms are re-euphemized. For example, "gentleman", the euphemism for men's public lavatory, is re- euphemized as "gents".

Just like English, Chinese can express euphemism by means of abbreviations. For example, the term“胸脯”(chest) was originally a euphemism for“乳房”(breast); later it was shortened as“胸”, expressing“乳房”(breast)，for example,“胸罩”，“文胸”(brassiere)，etc.

4.1.5 Using Metaphors

In both English and Chinese, a large number of euphemisms themselves are vivid

and popular metaphors. For example, "die" in English is metaphorized as “go to one's long home”, which is just like speaking of “死”as“回老家去了”in Chinese. Here, “go to one's long home” and“回老家去了”are metaphors as well as euphemisms for “die”. Similarly, the English expression “go to sleep forever”and its Chinese equivalent“长眠”are both euphemisms and metaphors for “die”.

4.1.6 Using Understatement

For the sake of politeness or pleasantness, people often avoid stating something fully or adequately. For example, people do not say “She is ugly” but say “She is plain”. For children of low intelligence people use “a bit slow for his age”, “less able”, etc. to describe them. If someone is mad, he i s thought to be “soft in the head”; if someone steals he is described as “taking things without permission”; “mental disorder” is “nervous breakdown”, “illegitimate child”is “love child”, etc. The case is similar to Chinese. For instance,“他疯了”( He is mad.) is spoken of as“他精神不正常”(He is not in normal spirit.);“他偷窃”( He is a thief.) as“他手脚不干净”(His hands and feet are not clean.)and so on.

4.1.7 Using Periphrases

Periphrasis is used to express something in a roundabout way. People think of “trousers” as unspeakable and call them “nether garments”. Similarly, people call “fart”, “break wind from behind”, “back fire”, “pass air”, “sneeze”, etc.. When we want someone to “go away” from our place, we “call his carriage for him”; when we have decided to “dismiss”or “discharge” someone we will “give him the sack”. Usually we do not say “he is in prison”, instead we say “he lives at the governments expense”. In Chinese, people use“去见马克思”(go to see Carl Marx) to euphemize “死”(die). All these roundabout expressions belong to periphrases.

4.1.8 Using Legendary Words

Many English euphemisms came from religious and literary works. Quite a number of euphemisms for "die", for example, originated in the Bible: go west, go to heaven, go to one's Maker, be with God, go the way of all fresh, return to dust, cross the Jordan, hand in one’s accounts, etc. Chinese euphemisms for“死”(die)such as “仙逝”(take flight to the land of the immortal), “归天”(go to heaven), “骑鹤西去”(ride west on a crane), “圆寂”(parinirvana), “涅磐”(nirvana), “归真”(return to original purity), “归西”(go west), “千秋后”(centuries after death), “百年后”(a hundred years after death), etc, originated in religion or literature.

The similarities between English and Chinese euphemisms can be explained with the theory of Universality of Face: "People all over the world seem to share a desire to be left in peace when they wish to, and to be supported when they need to" (J.L.Mey, 2001:268). This may be concluded as the well-known golden rule in the Bible: "As ye would that men should do to you, do ye also to them likewise" .

4.2 Differences

English euphemism and Chinese euphemism share similarities in linguistic patterns as discussed above. However, owing to the different language forms, cultural motivation, and national psychology, differences cannot be ignored.

4.2.1 Differences in Form

Besides the similarities between English and Chinese euphemism, the two language have their own specific ways to form euphemism in terms of structure.

4.2.1.1 The Form of Chinese Euphemism

4.2.1.1.1 Character Separation

Chinese character is a kind of hieroglyph, which has its own unique synthetic method. The Chinese people like to make use of character itself to derive rhetoric effect. Character separation is a very common way to make the sentence sound euphemized. For example:

张俊民道，“胡子老官，这是你作法便了。做成了，少不得言身寸”，王胡子道: “我那个要你谢……。”(《儒林外史》第32回)

Here the character“谢”(Thank somebody by giving money or valuable gifts.)is separated into“言”“身”“寸”.

4.2.1.1.2 Xiehouyu(歇后语)

Xiehouyu is a Chinese curtailed saying, a two-part allegorical saying, of which the first part, always stated, is descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carries the message. The employment of Xiehouyu can always make sentences active and interesting, thus the euphemizing purpose can be easily achieved. For example: “不是不来，我一开头，就随队长，还能半道妥协吗?我是想:咱们是孔夫子搬家，净是书(输)，心里真有点点干啥的。”(周立波，《暴风骤雨》第一部13，p.115) In this sentence“输”(lose) is the homophone of“书”(book). The speaker use an indirect way to express his thought by using the word“书”(book) instead of “输”(lose), to avoid the listener feel embarrassed or disappointed. “书”(book) and “输”(lose) are a pair of puns.

4.2.1.1.3 Sign Substitution

In order to avoid the harsh, dirty character being appeared in the paper, the sign "X" has been applied to substitute it for the effect of euphemism. For example: "X你妈!你怎么不说话，哑巴了?”(《人民文学》1987, 10 )

4.2.1.1.4 Deletion

In China, any description related to the sexual intercourse is tabooed, so some unspeakable words, sentences or even passages are left out in literature works. For example, in Jia Pingwa's novel The Desolate Capital，the sign 口口口口is used many times to mean how many words have been deleted there. For example: 口口口口口口(作者删去五百字)妇人听说她那里竟有一棵痣的，对着镜寻着看了，心想庄之碟太是爱她。(p. 122).

4.2.1.2 The Form of English Euphemism

4.2.1.2.1 Tense

Tense is a very pervasive way for the creation of English euphemism (Bolinger, 1981:151). But it cannot be realized in Chinese. For instance, the sentence “I hope to borrow some money” is in the present tense, indicating the speaker's intention. The meaning of this sentence is clear and precise and the attitude reflected from this sentence is definitely positive, but the tone of the whole sentence is strong and stiff. So usually people tend to say “I'm hoping to borrow some money”,using the present continuous tense to express the desire and the attitude of inquiry.

4.2.1.2.2 Subjunctive Mood

The subjunctive mood is also a special device to form English euphemisms (Bolinger, 1981:152). It cannot be realized in Chinese. It is used when the speaker expresses an intention or anxiety that has not been realized. It is usually used in oral English, making the sentence more euphemized and acceptable. The predicate in these sentences are formed by the auxiliary verb “should”, “would”, “could”, “might” followed by the infinitive verb. For example, “I would be happy if you could tell me the truth.”

In fact, the subjunctive mood is the most frequently used device in English language, but we always ignore it.

4.2.1.2.3 Negation

Negation is a way of substituting a denial of the opposite idea for a positive word as well as a sentence. Negative expressions are used for suggestion, invitation, or personal opinions. Thus, to replace “I think it would be better for us to s tart off a little earlier tomorrow morning”, we may say “Wouldn’t it be better for us to start off a little earlier tomorrow morning?” Another example is “He and truth are not on very intimate term”; after careful consideration, you may find that the real meaning behind it is “He is a liar.” or “He often tells lies.” Still another example is the euphemism for “die”: “He is no more in the world.” Everyone knows it conveys the same meaning as “He is dead.”.

4.2.1.2.4 Blending

Blending is a form of phonetic distortion in which two or more words are squeezed together phonetically, and it can avoid the original conception in a certain degree and achieve the purpose of euphemism. For example, nameitnot means genitalia; what do you call it(what chamacall it) equals to sex.

4.2.1.2.5 Personification

There are many humorous ways to express catamenia in terms of personification: 1) My friend has come. 2) I have a visitor. 3) My cousins/country cousins have come. “Lavatory” also has many euphemistical expressions, it is called “jakes”, “john” and so on.

4.2.1.2.6 Aposiopesis

In English, there is a kind of rhetoric called aposiopesis that can also act as the way of euphemizing. Aposiopesis is a way often used in communication and it implies that the speaker stop his words suddenly to avoid saying some embarrassing word. For example, when we think we should not say something under certain conditions, we suddenly stop as when we say “someone is out (of work) ”; “she is expecting (a baby) ”; “to depart (from this world) ”.

4.2.1.2.7 First personal pronouns

The use of first personal pronouns like we, ours, us, etc, can also make our speeches sound more euphemistic. You would feel more welcomed if you used we or our quite often. If a doctor said to you : “how do we feel today?”, you would feel very warm and comfortable, because it makes you think that this doctor takes your illness as mutual concern.

4.2.1.2.8 Rhyming slang

Rhyming slang is another example of words with different meanings used for hiding the reference on purpose. It refers to the changing of words by replacing the original slang with the less embarrassing slang of the same rhyme. For example, fragrant is a rhyming slang for pregnant; tea leaf is a rhyming slang for "thief".

4.2.2 Differences in Culture

Language is a part of culture and is influenced by culture. The birth of euphemism has a strong cultural motivation, and cultural meanings are embedded in English and Chinese euphemisms. Euphemism is a universal phenomenon in all cultures, although there exist some similarities. However, owing to different beliefs, customs, life-styles, and behaviors in different cultures, there exist differences between English and Chinese cultures in the field of euphemism.

4.2.2.1 Different Religions

Christianity is the dominant world view in the English–speaking countries. The study of it offers an insight not only into the spiritual and psychological needs of the people, but also into the social aspects of a culture. Christianity reinforces group norms, provides moral standards for inpidual conducts, and furnishes the basis of common purposes and values upon which the community depends. The monism in religion exerts great influence on English euphemism. Christianity’s influence over English euphemism goes beyond “death”, “to irritate somebody” is “to get somebody’s goat”(The Bible says God asked Satan to set a fire to Jacob’s goats to see if Jacob would be angry in order to test his loyalty and endurance.); “virus words” is “the serpent’s tongue”, which derives from the story of A dam and Eve. China is a multi–deity–worship country. Taoism, Buddhism and Islamism coexist in China, and each has its own followers. These religions generate some Chinese euphemisms for “death”, which is considered as the miserable of the miserable, but ea ch has different

explanations for this natural phenomenon. Chinese euphemisms for “death” with a religious hue are far fewer than English ones, which largely results from the pluralism of Chinese religions. According to A Dictionary of Chinese Euphemisms, Chinese euphemisms for “death” amount to 481 items, but most of them are without religious origin. What is more, Chinese religion—hued euphemisms for “death” are not so popular with the people as English ones. They are more often used within respective religious circles. When a Buddhist monk practices Buddhism to a successful end, he will pass away while sitting cross–legged, which is called “坐化”(pass away in a sitting posture). The highest recognition for “death”in Buddhism is “登莲台”(to step on a Buddha’s seat in the form of a lotus flower).

4.2.2.2Different Viewpoints

According to Hu Wenzhong and C.L.Grove(1991), China is the country with a civilization stretching back continuously some five thousand years. The agrarian economy of ancient China and the ethics of ancient Chinese philosophy account for the cultural traits and values that came to characterize its society and that still characterize it today (1991:1). And such cultural traits and values are unique to China and contribute to the creation of Chinese euphemism. As mentioned above, China has been greatly influenced by such religious and philosophical systems as Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism. Among them, Confucianism has had the greatest impact upon Chinese people’s beliefs and value judgments. And Confucianism had set a rule that ordinary people can not mention the personal names of emperors or one’s superiors. So in the Han Dynasty, people replaced the name of “雉鸡”(pheasant) by “野鸡”(wild chicken)due to a taboo arising from “lǚzhi”(吕雉), the Empress’s name at that time. In nowadays, terms such as “uncle, aunt, grandpa, and granny” are used as honorific titles for acquaintances, as in Granny Li(李奶奶) and Uncle Zhang(张叔叔).

Americans value equality which is emphasized in everything from government (“All men are created equal”) to social relationships (“just call me by my first name.”). The value of equality is prevalent in both primary and secondary social relationships. For instance, most of the primary social relationships within a family tend to advance equality rather than hierarchy, and friendships, co–worker relationships; and other kinds of secondary relationships are characterized by equality.

According to Hu and Grove: “Although life in the United States certainly involves people in hierarchies, Americans typically make efforts to deemphasize the social distance implied in any superior–subordinate relationship and thus to promote, at least superficially, an ethic of egalitarianism” (1991: 117). So, in the western countries, no matter what position and how old and what gender people are, most people like to be addressed by their first name. Furthermore, it is inoffensive for the young generation to have the same names as the old generation. For example, the former Prime Minister of Britain Chur chill’s son’s name was the same as his

grandfather’s, so was the name of the son of American president Roosevelt.

4.2.3 Differences in Usage

Although English and Chinese euphemisms have many common points in usage, they have some differences too. I will focus on the following two aspects of differences.

4.2.3.1 Differences in the Aspect of Age

In the aspect of age, an important human concern, different peoples have different attitudes. Westerners are much afraid of becoming old. They do not dare to stand face to face with old age. Americans even regard the word old as taboo. So to relieve themselves of the mental pain resulting from old age, Americans have racked their brains to coin some new terms to lessen or conceal or gild the fact of being old, which has brought quite a few mild and roundabout expressions into being, such as the advanced in age, the mature, the living, seasoned man, senior citizens, the golden age, etc. In contrast, the Chinese old people are not afraid of old age. Many of them are proud of being old. As a matter of fact，the term“老”(old)is quite often used to indicate seniority and experience, so we Chinese have such expressions as “老板”(boss)，“老师”(teacher)，etc. These terms have no specific connotations of age. They just show the speakers’ respect for the hearer.

4.2.3.2 Differences in the Form of Address

Form of address is an important part of social interaction in all cultures. The English-speaking people and the Chinese differ greatly in this aspect. The Chinese pay much attention to and care a lot about what they are called. That is, they mind the “form” of address. For example, if someone is “经理”(manager)，you must call him this way: “王经理”(manager Wang)，but not “王二”(his mane). This is because the Chinese has a strong sense of social position. The direct form of address like“王二”.is not polite in many situations, and sometimes a taboo, while using the official title to call someone is considered to be respectful. The official title of someone is just like a euphemism that can give him or her face and dignity. In contrast, the English-speaking people do not have a strong sense of social stratum like the Chinese. In most informal situations, people, men and women, old and young, may address each other by the name or with an intimate form of address, such as “honey”,“dear” and so on. It is normal for a small child to directly call the name of his or her grandfather. But it is taboo for a Chinese child to do so. In Chinese culture, form of address is an important aspect where euphemism is used.

5. Conclusion

Euphemism, as a variation of language, is applied everywhere in all human societies and used in all human interactions. Taboo, being a common social–cultural

phenomenon, is actually the extension of people’s self–protection psychology. The main function of euphemism is to replace taboo. In speech interaction, out of politeness or tact, one uses a pleasant, less direct word instead of something unpleasant. Euphemism is one of the ways people use to realize this purpose. So resorting to euphemism is speakers’ active pragmatic strategy at a certain time and in a certain situation. More important, euphemism embodies the civilization and morality of human beings. As people live in different times and societies, and the language they use belong to different categories, accordingly this kind of language variation created by them are varied, and reflect various social cultures and values.

Language is dynamic and in constant change. The most obvious change shows itself in vocabulary. New words and expressions appear as a result of social and economic development, old words acquire new meanings on account of certain new social needs. Euphemism, as a language form, also follows suit. So we can say English or Chinese euphemisms share something in common in this respect i.e. the metabolic feature of euphemism. With the constant cultural exchange between east and west, there seems a trend showing that some euphemistic expressions are on the track of unification.

To sum up, through a comparative study in this field we can not only reveal English euphemisms and Chinese euphemisms share some of the identical aspects in use, means of formation, and communicative functions, but can also disclose the cultural differences or the national characteristics reflected by euphemisms. The comparative study also enhances our awareness of the essence of euphemism and assists us in using the English language decently and skillfully in our cross–cultural communication.

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my gratitude to all those who helped me during the writing of this thesis. I gratefully acknowledge the help of my supervisor Professor Zhu Min. No words can fully express my greatest and deepest gratitude to her for her valuable hard work in the whole process of my writing this thesis. Without her painstaking work, this thesis could not have come up in the present form.

I am also grateful to all the rest of teaching staff in the English Department of the Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, who have spared no efforts to enrich and broaden my knowledge in the past years.

Finally, I wish to extend my thanks to all those who granted their excellent ideas and generous support to me during the completion of this thesis.

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