英语语言学期末复习

Chapter5Semantics

1. Definition

1.命名论The naming theory

Proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.(缺点：仅限于名词) 2.意念论The conceptualist view Ogden and Richards

It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, intheinterpretationof meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. 3.语境论Conceptualism

It’sbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.Herearetwokindsofcontext:thesituationalandthelinguisticcontext. 4.行为主义论Behaviorism

It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. This theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response. 2.Lexicalmeaning:

Sense:itisconcernedwithinherentmeaningoflinguisticform;itisthecollectio

nofallfeaturesoflinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized. Reference:itmeansthelinguisticformreferstothereal,physicalworld.Itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience. 3. Main sense relations 1.同义词Synonymy

Itreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningorwecansaythatwordsarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.

(1) Dialectal synonyms—synonyms used in different regional dialects（方言）

British America autumnfall flatapartment

(2) Stylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style（文体） Old man daddy father male parent

(3)Synonyms that different intheiremotive or evaluative meaning（情感）Collaborator VS Accomplice (4)Collocational synonyms（搭配）

Accuse VS Charge（accuse…of; charge…with） Rotten tomatoes VS Addled eggs (5)Semantically different synonyms（语义）

AmazeVSAstound

2.多义词Polysemy

Itreferstodifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilar meaning;thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.

Ball:1. anroundobjectusedingame.

2.alargeformalsocialeventatwhichpeopledance. 3.同音(形)异义Homonymy

It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 1). Homophones同音异义

It refers to two words are identical in sound. E.g. rain/reign. 2).Homographs同形异义

It refers to two words are identical in form.E.g. tear v. /tear n. 3). Complete homonyms同形同音

Itreferstowordsthatarebothidenticalinsoundandspelling.E.g.tearv. /tearn.

4.上下义关系Hyponymy

Itreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledsuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.Superordinate:animal

Subordinate:cat,dog,tiger,lion,wolf,elephant,fox,bear,

5.反义词Antonymy

It is the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.

a) gradable:等级反义词old-young

b) complementary：互补反义词male-female c) relational:关系反义词father-son buy-sell 4.Sentencesenserelations:

1）.X is synonymous with Y（同义） E.g. He is a bachelor all his life.

He never married all his life.

2）. X is inconsistent with Y（不一致/反义） E.g. John is married

John is a bachelor.

3）.X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X)（包含于） E.g. He has been to France. He has been to Europe.

4）. X presuppose Y（Y是X的先决条件） E.g.John’s bike needs repairing.

John has a bike.

5）. X is a contradiction（X是一个矛盾句） E.g. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor. 6). X is semantically anomalous.（语义异常）

E.g. The table has bad intensions. 5.Analysisofmeaning

1. Componential Analysis成分分析法----分析词汇抽象意义

It’sawayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmeaning.Thisapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatmeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.

E.g.Man=Adult+Male+Animate+Human

2. Predication Analysis述谓结构分析(由British Linguist G.Leech提出)

It’s a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands etc.(通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种.)

3.先设前提Presupposition

It’s a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B.

4.蕴涵Entailment

EntailmentcanbeillustratedbythefollowingtwosentencesinwhichsentenceAentailssentenceB. A:Markmarriedablondeheiress. B:Markmarriedablonde.

第6章pragmatics

本章要点：

implicature may become the meaning of a lexical item or linguistic expression. For example:

\to the bathroom\originally meant Going to WC as an euphemism, but now has become conventionalized. We don’t have to derive the implicature by the CP but by convention.

5． Cross-cultural pragmatics failure

第7章language changes 语言变化

本章要点：

1． Phonological change 音系变化

2． Morphological and syntactic change 形态和句法变化 3． Lexical and semantic change词汇和语义变化

本章考点：新词的增加：创新词，缩略词，紧缩词，词首字母缩略词，逆构词法；词义的变化：词义扩大，缩小，意义的转换。 1.Definition of historical linguistics 历史语言学的定义

A branch of linguistics. It concerned with the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over the time. 2. Phonological change

Phonological change tends to be systematic. It is possible to see a regular pattern of pronunciation changes throughout the history of English language.

3. Morphological and syntactic change Addition of affixes 词汇的增加 In English many affixes are borrowed. Eg the suffix –ment in French.

Lost of affixes

Some affixes fade out of use Changes for word order

Case marking lost, subject-object-verb fixed. Change in negation rule Eg. I love thee not. >I do not love thee.

4 lexical and semantic change (1) Addition of new words 新词的增加 A: coinage/invention

A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose. Eg: walkman, Kodak, Ford B: clipped words

Clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrase. Eg gym-gymnasium Expo- exposition Memo-memorandum Disco-discotheque C: blending

A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words. Eg smog = smoke+fog Motel Brunch = breakfast+lunch D: Acronyms

Acronyms are word derived from the initials of several words. Eg BBC VOA

E: Back-formation Deleting the affixes.

E.g. to automate 自动化←automation to legislate 立法←legislation F: Functional shift

Word-class shift from one to another. Eg noun-verb love G：Borrowing 借词法

(2)Loss of words 词汇的废弃Eg beseem – to be suitable Wot – to know Gyve– a fetter

(3) change in the meaning of words Semantic broadening 词义扩大 Holiday 原形是holy day 神圣的宗教节日，现在指不用上班的时间。 Semantic narrowing 词义的缩小

Hound 曾经用来指Dog 的总称，现在缩小为指某一种特殊的狗。 Semantic shift 词义转换

Inn 原本指小旅馆小酒吧，现在指非常有名的好旅馆。 5 Some recent trends

A: moving to greater informality. Ain’t can’t didn’t’t 出现在文章中。 B: the influence of American English

随着政治经济文化的发张，美国的影视，报纸，杂志，广播和电视对世界文化造成很大的影响。

C: the influence of technology and science 新的技术科技的发展创造出新的词汇和表达 D: Space travel

Space suit, heat-shield splash-down

E: computer and internet language Program input output F: Ecology 生态学环境保护和资源保护。

6 causes of language change 语言变化的原因经济政治文化发展。

第8章sociolinguistics

1 the scope of sociolinguistics

The definition of sociolinguistics定义: It is a branch of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and social structures in which the users of language live. The relatedness between the language and society 相关性

The main function of language is communication, but it also use to establish and maintain social relationship.

Users of the same language may speak differently because their different social background.

Speech community and speech variety 言语团体与言语变体 Speech community: the social special study.

Speech variety: any distinguishable form of language used by a speaker or a group of speakers. Speech features can be found at the lexical, the phonological, morphological, or the syntactical level of the language. Two approaches to sociolinguistics studies

Macro-sociolinguistics or the sociology of language :宏观社会语言学或者语言社会学 View the society as a whole and consider how language

function s in it andhow it reflect the social differentiations.

Micro-sociolinguistics or sociolinguistics proper: 微观社会语言学或严格意义的社会语言学：point of view of an individual member within it. 2 varieties of language: Dialectal varieties Regional dialect

Definition: refers to the language used by people living in the same geographical region. Features:

(1) Regional dialect boundaries are often coinciding with geographical boundaries.

(2) In most cases, the regional dialect in two neighboring area are mutually

intelligible to a great extent, and the change from one dialect to another is gradual.

(3) Reasons: The geographic barriers; loyalty to the one’s native speech; physical andpsychological resistance to the change. Sociolect

(1) Definition: social-class dialect refers to the characteristics of a particular social class.

(2) Features: two people from the same geographic may speak differently because of their socialfactors, such as background influence which influence linguistic form.

(3): Ascent is an important maker of sociolect. Language and gender(标准，语调，词汇，礼貌)

a) The language of woman is more standard than that of man. b) Woman has wider range of intonation.

c) Woman tend to use adjectives of evaluation d) Woman tends to be more polite than man. Language and age (词汇差异)

A) the language used by the old generation and the younger generation is different, especially in the lexical level.Idiolect (个人语言)

Refers to personal dialect that was decided by his social background, gender, age and so on. Ethnic dialect

It is usually used by the underprivileged population that has experienced some form of racial discrimination and segregation. Features of black English (非

1. mainly used by the non-middle-class Blacks

2. the simplification of the consonant clusters.(语音上) 3. deletion of ―be‖（句法上）

4. the use of double negation structure：he don’t know nothing. Register 语域

选择与情景类型相适应的语言类型就是语域

The type of language selected that is appropriate to the situation is a register.

a) field语场：refers to what is going on. The operation of the language activity

b) Tenor 语旨：refers to the relationship in the situation in question. c) Mode 语式：refers to the means of communication. Eg: a lecture on biology in a college could be identified as: Field: scientific (biology)

Tenor: teacher and students (formal and polite) Mode: oral (academic lecture) Degree of formality

Language used on different occasions differs in different degree of formality, which is determined by the social variables. Intimate casual consultative formal frozen. 3 standard dialect

Definition: the standard variety is particularly prestigious and superimposed dialect of a language. 通常为政府，媒体，教育行业所使用。

Nature: 标准方言是语言变体的一种特殊变体，因为它不与任何特定语言使用者群体都无关。而是一个语言社团的任何成员都可能使用的变体，无论其社会和地理背景。性别年龄如何。

Features: selected variety of a language, which used by the nation’s political.

4 pidgin and Creole Pidgin：

Definition: is a language variety that mixes different language for the special use, like trading.

Origin: 起源于几种不同语言的使用。

特点：词汇有限，语法结构非常简单，没有曲折变化，词性和格的消失。

Creole：克里奥耳语

Definition：当洋泾滨语成为某一特殊团体使用时，就成为了洋泾滨语。 Features: 洋泾滨语的结构得以拓展；词汇量被极大的丰富。 5 choosing a code

Dislossia双语变体：A situation where two varieties of a language exits side by side throughout the community.used by Ferguson in 1959. Features: 两种语言变体功能的具体化。

Bilingualism and multilingualism 双语现象和多语现象

Bilingualism: a situation where two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play. 例如：加拿大魁北（英语和法语） Code-switching 语码转换

A change made by speaker or writer from one language or language variety to another one.

a) the situational Code-switching: speak one language in situation and another in a different one. 6. linguistic taboos and euphemisms

第九章 language and culture

本章要点：The relationship between language and culture 语言和文化得关系 Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 萨丕尔-沃尔夫的假说 Linguistic evidence of cultural differences 文化差异的语言证据

1. the definition of culture 名词解释

广义上：total way of life of a people, including belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques and language characterize the life of human community.

狭义上：refers to the specific practice , customs, or beliefs, which can be found in folk culture, or food culture. 2.语言和文化之间的关系分析异同点

A：对个人而言：Language permeates his thinking and viewing, it also expresses and embodies its cultural reality.

B: 对社会而言：language helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language reflects the changes in culture.

3. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: language helps to shape our ways of thinking, and consequently language reveals our unique ways of understanding the world.

The strong version: (linguistic determination): 语言决定论 Language determines our thinking patterns.

The weak version: (linguistic relativity):语言相对主义Similarity between languages is relative. For two languages, the greater the structural differentiations are, the more diverse the conceptualization will be. Different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is known as linguistic relativity

4. 文化差异的语言证据：

Any linguistic sign consists of three layers of meaning:

A: denotative meaning: the meaning given in a dictionary B: connotative meaning：the associative meaning C: iconic meaning: the images or icon invoked to people.

(1)greetings and terms of address

there are a dozen different greetings in English for people tochoose. (2): gratitude and compliments

例如相对于中国人，西方人tend to verbalize their gratitude and compliment and tend to accept thanks and compliments more frankly and directly. (3): colour words:

不同的语言含有不同的与色彩相关的联想。 (4) privacy and taboos

西方人及其看中隐私，像年龄，家庭背景，薪水等。 (5) rounding off numbers: 数字处理西方人不喜欢数字13 (6) Words and cultural-specific connotations Semantic deffernce: A: 一门语言中的语言术语在另一门语言中可能找不到想对应的counterpart。

(7) 与文化相关的idioms, proverbs and metaphors. Lucky dog: a lucky person

(8) Culture contact, culture overlap and culture diffusion. 文化接触，重

A: interlingual errors：results from the cross-linguistic interference at different levels, such as phonological, lexical, grammatical.

B: intralingual errors: results from the faulty or partial learning of the target language, which is independent of the native language.

（1）overgeneralization: the use of previously available strategies in new situation.

（2）cross-association: some wordssimilar in meaning, spelling, and pronunciation, which leads to confusion, this aspect calls internal interference.

4. interlanguage 中介语

learners’ independent system of the language which is of neither native languagenor second language. It calls continuum or approximation. Features:

(1)systematicity (2)permeability (3)fossilization

5. 本族语在第二语言习得中的作用 1 语言迁徙的定义：language transfer

将本族语的表层形式搬到第二语言的语境中，例如―接触社会‖翻译为：to touch the socity.

2. 决定第二语言习得的语言迁徙

a) a learner’s psychology, how a leaner organize his or her native language.

b) perception of the native-target language c) learners’ actual knowledge of the target language. 3. 本族语的影响：

a) influence reflexes at phonological, lexical, semantic, syntactical level.

b) reflect underlying principles of languages at cognitive level. c) avoidance of certain target language structure, different learning rate.

6. 第二语言习得模式和输入假说

1.模式：to what extent second language acquisition is a function of innateness.在很大程度上，第二语言习得是一个内在功能。

2. 克拉申输入假说：Krashen’s input hypotheses

There are two independent means of second language. Learning and acquisition.

Acquisition: it is a subconscious process of without learning of grammatical rules. Learning: conscious learning of the second language knowledge by learning the rules.

According to ―i+1‖hypothesis(input hypothesis), the currentlevel of learner’s language competence is ?i‖, the language input provided by the teacher should be ?i+1‖. Thus student’s

current level is the basis on which teacher decides what language data and material to provide.tion：

a) instrumental motivation: 工具性动机：为了passing the exams, financial rewards.

b) integrative motivation: 综合性动机： c) resultative motivation: 外部目的 external

d) intrisinc motivation: 内部动机：为了enjoyment and pleasur 动机的特点：所有动机都能促进学习，动机时消时涨。学习的进步反过来促进语言学习动机。

4.学习策略：Conscious, goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning effiency.

5.习得年龄：Age of acquisition

The younger learnersoutperformthe adults. 6. personality: 健谈，自信，自尊

7. second language acquisition and its pedagogical 第二语言习得及其教学启示

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