CPA 之 审计 TAXATION 学习笔记

CPA 之 审计 TAXATION 学习笔记

作者 : 池骋

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Part A: The Tax Equation

Income tax = (taxable income * rate) – tax offsets

这里的tax offsets指的是rebates & credits，而不是deduction。因为tax offsets是直接对税金进行抵减，因此跟deduction相比，offsets更具有价值。

Part B: Assessable Income

Assessable income包括了ordinary income和statutory income。Figure 2.1列出了assessable income, ordinary income, statutory income, non-assessable non-exempt income和exempt income之间的关系。 Ordinary income

Section 6-5对ordinary income进行了解释。Section 6-5(4) provides that ordinary income is taken to have been derived by a taxpayer as soon as it is applied or dealt with in any way on the person’s behalf. 这就意味着，即使纳税人将自己的一部分收入无偿转让给其他人，这部分收入还是要上税的。 Statutory income

Subsection (2)对statutory income的解释很二百五，即：非ordinary income，但是属于assessable income的收入，属于statutory income。S. 6-25(2) states that the provisions regarding statutory income generally prevail over the rules about ordinary income. Exempt income

Division 11列出了作为exempt income的例子。Section 11-1指出，属于ordinary income或者statutory income 范畴的exempt income可以被分成三种类型：

Ordinary or statutory income of entities that are exempt no matter what type of ordinary or statutory income they have;

Ordinary or statutory income that is exempt, no matter whose it is;

Ordinary or statutory income that is exempt only if it is derived by certain entities. 作为statutory income，如果需要被豁免，则必须有法律上的规定。

在判定某一项收入是否获得豁免是非常重要的，因为之后会产生一系列的后果： 1) It is not assessable and is therefore tax free;

2) It may reduce the deduction allowable fore a tax loss;

3) A loss or outgoing incurred in deriving the exempt income is not allowable deduction;

4) The disposal of an asset used to produce exempt income does not give rise to a capital gain or loss. Non-assessable non-exempt income

例子：1) where income derived during one tax year has to be repaid in a later tax year; 2) where trading stock is sold outside the ordinary course of business; 3) GST. Ordinary income – some common law concepts

Ordinary income 包括三种类型：income from personal services, income from carrying on a business, and income from property。

材料列举了一系列的，在案例法下所确认的ordinary income的类型。这里面需要注意的是a person cannot derive income by dealing with her/himself。具体的事例就是一些俱乐部。俱乐部从会员那里所收取的费用不确认为俱乐部的营业收入，因为会员作为俱乐部的所有人之一，这些费用具有资本的性质。而那些由非会员所缴纳的费用，则可以作为收入确认。 Residence Individuals

对于个人，residency的确认主要有三种方式，其中最重要的两种分别为：domicile test和183-day test。Domicile test一般用于判定离开澳洲的纳税人，而183-day test则用来来到澳洲的纳税人。 Companies

判断一家公司的residency，通常有两种方式： 1. It is incorporated in Australia; or

2. Although not incorporated in Australia it carries on business in Australia and has either: Its central management and control in Australia; or

Its voting power controlled by shareholders who are residents of Australia.

比较常用的测试方式来自于案例 De Beers Consolidated Mines Ltd v. Howe [1906]：“I regard that as the true rule ? the real business is carried on where the central management and control actually abides。” 需要注意的一点是，一家非澳洲注册的公司，即使它在澳洲有单纯的营业业务（mere trading），我们不能仅凭此判定这家公司是Australian resident。

在判断一家公司的核心管理在何处，法院不但会调查董事们在何处开会，还要考虑公司的日常营运的管理地点。 Derivation of Income

由于所需要缴纳的税金，取决于纳税人在纳税年度所获得的收入。因此，判断收入的时点是非常重要的。即：The issue of when income is derived is therefore crucial for determining when income will be taxed。案例FC of T v. Thorogood (1927)的判决指出：’derived’ is not necessarily ‘actually received’, but ordinarily that is the mode of derivation。

Cash or accruals basis

在决定税金的计算基础时，最高法院认为，公司应该采取最能够正确反映收入的方法。In Taxation Ruling TR 98/1, the Commissioner provides guidelines on which method will provide the correct basis on which to determine income。 Cash basis:

1) if income derived by an employee;

2) if income derived in a non-business activity in providing knowledge or skill. Accrual basis:

1) sale of trading stock;

2) the use of circulating capital; 3) the use of staff & equipment.

Installment sales

以分期付款方式而发生的销售收入，税法上按照商品销售出去并且已经运送的时点确认收入。由此而产生的利息收入，则分期确认为assessable income。案例J. Rowe &. FC of T 71 ATC 4001，法院认为：that the sale price was earned when the goods were sold and delivered regardless of when payment was due。

Income from property

源自于不动产的收入，一般采用Cash basis来确认收入的时点：Income from property, whether it be rent, royalties, interest or some other item, will no have the characteristics of income until it is paid and received。

Wage and salary earners

钱到手的时候上税，即使你的部分工资是支付你在前一个税务年度所提供的服务。

Amounts received in advance

The income was not taken to be derived until the service or goods had been supplied.

Long-term construction contracts

Taxation Ruling IT 2450上规定，有两种方式可以用来作为计算收入：the ‘basic approach’ 和 the ‘estimated profits method’。

Redirection of income

Section 6-5(4): In working out whether you have derived an amount of ordinary income, and (if so) when you derived it, you are taken to have received the amount as soon as it is applied or dealt with in any way on your behalf or as you direct.

Section 6-10(3): If an amount would be statutory income apart from the fact that you have not received it, it becomes statutory income as soon as it is applied or dealt with in any way on your behalf or as you direct. 材料列出了适用s 6-5(4)的两种情形：第一种情况，是salary sacrifice arrangement，当员工要求公司将其部分工资作为额外的superannuation；第二种情况，是员工要求公司将其本年度的部分工资延迟到下一年度发放。

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Part C: Income From Business

一般情况下，ordinary income包括来自于经营收入（income from business）。因此，判定一个business的存在是必要的。判断一项业务组成的标准，以及获得收入的活动，都来自于common law。

Existence of a business

The actual existence of a business is a question of fact and degree. 材料中列举了一部分用来判断的因素，包括：the degree of system and organization used, scale of activities, repetitive transactions, profit factor, type of activity, and time。

Section 6-5 and income from business

税法上，对来自于经营收入的判定，基本上来自于s. 6-5以及common law的先例。在Scottish Australian Mining v. FC of T (1950)里，企业在单纯的收回投资项目时所产生的利润，不属于企业的营运收入。但是，这个先例所产生的影响，则被随后的案例所削弱。案例FC of T v. Whitfords

Beach Pty Ltd 82 ATC 4031的判决，增加了将s. 6-5用于个别交易（isolated transactions）的可能性。 Isolated transactions

这部分里面，案例FC of T v. Myer Emporium Ltd的判决至关重要。It was observed that an amount received from an isolated business operation or commercial transaction whish is not entered into in the ordinary course of carrying on the taxpayer’s business will constitute assessable income where the

taxpayer entered into the transaction with the intention or purpose of making a relevant profit or gain from the transaction。

Taxation Ruling TR 92/3采取了Myer Case的判决作为基础，规定，如果企业的某项个别交易同时满足一下两个特征的时候，该项交易所产生的利润属于企业的经营收入：

1） the intention or purpose of the taxpayer in entering into the transaction was to make a profit or gain; and

2） the transaction was entered into and the profit was made in the course of carrying on a business or carrying out a business operation or transaction.

该项规定还指出，获得利润并不一定要作为该项交易的主要目的。只要这个目的的重要性足够，那么所得利润就应作为经营收入。 Realization of investments

正常情况下，企业销售投资资产所获得的利润一般不被认为是经营收入。但是，如果企业的该项活动属于正常的经营活动范围，则该项利润属于企业的经营收入；反之，则属于资本收益。 Non-cash business benefits

案例FC of T v. Cooke and Sherden的判决导致了新法规s. 21A的产生，其将非现金收益划入了assessable income的范围内。 Section 21A规定：

A non-cash benefit accruing as a result of business (not in respect of employment) is assessable even though it is not in a monetary form;

The recipient of the benefit should include as assessable income the arm’s-length value of the benefit; Any limits or restrictions on the convertibility into cash are disregarded.

该规定也同时提出了几个特殊情况，在这些情况下，非现金所得则不需要划分为assessable income： Where the recipient of the benefit would have been able to claim a deduction for the benefit, if the cost had been incurred by the recipient, then the amount is not assessable;

Where the cost of the benefit is not deductible to the person who provides the benefit, the amount is not assessable (entertainment expense);

Where the value of the non-cash business benefits received by the taxpayer is less than $300 in the tax year. 材料后面提供的四个例子比较重要，从例子中就可以看书，s 21A的三个exceptions是很重要的。

Part D: Compensation

一般情况下，公司所获得赔偿金的性质，跟其所赔偿事项的性质保持一致（a compensation receipt takes the same character of the item which it replaces），代表案件为C of T v. Meeks (1915)。但是，在案例Glenboig Union Fireclay Co. Ltd v. IRC 1922的判决中表明，我们不能仅仅因为赔偿金是为了补偿收入损失而将赔偿金划归为经营收入的范畴。 Loss of profits and trading stock

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Statutory provisions主要涵盖了这一部分的内容。Section 15-30 includes as income any compensation or amount received as indemnity for the loss of trading stock, and also includes as income amounts received by way of indemnity for the loss of profit or income.

案例Liftronic Pty Ltd v. FC of T的判决指出，虽然导致赔偿的事件对公司的声誉造成影响，但却没有从根本上损害公司的声誉或者其继续经营的能力，因此公司所获得赔偿应作为经营收入考虑。 Loss of contract

这里最重要的一点，是要衡量该合同的损失是否对公司整个经营能力产生根本的影响，或者仅仅是其在经营过程中可能遇到的合理风险。Where a taxpayer receives compensation for recision of a contract, it is necessary to determine whether the contract was an ordinary business contract or whether it was of a capital nature representing an important part of the business structure of the firm.

案例Van Den Bergh’s Ltd v. Clark (1935)：the Court held that where the loss of the contract severely disrupts or affects the firm’s underlying business structure, then the compensation may be of a capital nature。

案例Heavey Minerals Pty Ltd v. FC of T (1966)：the cancellation of the contracts did not affect the capital structure as it was still free to sell rutile if it could find a buyer。 Loss of agency

如果公司所获得赔偿金是由于代理权的损失，那么衡量该代理权对公司整个经营结构影响的大小是必须的。

案例Californian Oil Products (in liquidation) v. FC of T (1934)中：the loss of the agency effectively terminated the company’s business. As a result, the compensation received was of a capital nature. 案例Kelsall Parsons & Co. Ltd v. IRC (1938)和IRC v. Flemming & Co. (Machinery) Ltd (1951)： compensation for loss of an agency was held to be on revenue account since the loss did not relate to or affect the firm’s underlying business structure。 Restrictive covenants

案例Higgs v. Olivier (1952)打开了一个先例，如果公司因为签订了一份限制性合约而获得的赔偿金，则该赔偿金应作为capital的性质。The rationale being that deprivation of the right to work or to conduct business is of a capital account。

Summary of principles: Business compensation

Where the business operation is terminated due to the cancellation of the agreement, the compensation is likely to be on capital account;

If the taxpayer has entered into special arrangements to undertake the contract, the compensation will take the form of capital;

A severe restriction of the business operations may also be of a capital nature;

Where the contract is for a long period of time, it is more likely to be capital and the compensation for its loss of a capital nature.

Apportionment of compensation

在某些情况下，部分赔偿金的性质是属于经营收入，另外一部分则是属于资本性质。如果这两部分的金额可以被区分开来，那么：it is possible to effect an apportionment between the two so that the compensation received can be separated into an income and a capital component。但是，如果这两部分无法区分，那么整个赔偿金，则被视为资本性质。

Part E: Assessable Income – Statutory extension Royalties

Section 6-5：where a royalty comes within the scope of ordinary income;

Section 15-20：has a residual operation and it will only include royalties outside of s. 6-5; essentially, this will include royalties which are of a capital nature.

在判断一项特许权收入是否assessable，我们也需要考虑该项特许权的来源。对来源的判断，通常情况下是基于权利产生的地点。

案例Murray v. ICI Ltd (1967)的判决所产生的影响需要了解，具体是：It seems that in determining whether an amount is a royalty under s. 6-5, it is necessary to determine what is being given up. If the amount received is related to the disposition of a capital asset, it will not be of an income nature, but the CGT provisions may apply.

Foreign exchange gains and losses （重点！）

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Lecturer 强调了这一部分的重要性，主要是因为其有计算的内容。根据s.906-50的规定，企业账面的外币金额需要转化成澳币值，不管该金额是收入、费用、债务、应收帐目还是资产价值。S.960-50包含诺干有关于外币转换的专门规定，实际上就是对转换时点的规定（这部分需要了解，在考到相关问题的时候知道去哪里找）。

但是需要注意的是，如果企业的帐户全部或者绝大部分都是用外币进行计量，那么以上的专门规定是不适用的。Where this occurs, Subdivision 960D applies so that the net income of the entity can be translated into the Australian currency。相关的企业主要包括了：an Australian resident company which is required to prepare financial reports under s. 292, a permanent establishment, a controlled foreign company, an offshore banking unit and a transferor trust。

在外币转换过程中所产生的收益或者损失，不管其是一般收入或者是资本性质，这些损益都是assessable或者deductible。但是针对这个问题，在s. 775-15，s. 775-30以及s. 775-75(1)中都有特例情况，需要了解。

Part F: Trading Stock （非常重要！）

企业为了经营目的而购买的商品，其采购成本可以作为税收的抵减项。Section 70-1列举了三种可能的情况，分别为：

You acquire an item of trading stock;

You carry on a business and hold trading stock at the start or the end of the tax year;

You dispose of an item of trading stock outside the ordinary course of business, or it ceases to be trading stock in certain other circumstances. Definition of trading stock

S. 70-10对trading stock进行了定义，包括：

Anything produced, manufactured or acquired that is held for purposes of manufacture, sale or exchange in the ordinary course of a business; and Live stock.

材料中列举了几项已经被案例法排除在trading stock范围外的商品，需要了解一下。

企业在购买商品时可能会有两种情况，一种情况下，商品直接是作为交易用的；另一种情况下，企业购买该资产的目的是为了生产交易商品。我们要能够对这两种情况进行区别。案例Coltness Iron Co. v. Black (1881)指出，公司购买的煤矿是一种资本性质的资产，而从这个煤矿中开采出来的煤，则是交易商品。

在某些情况下，虽然纳税人不拥有商品的法律所有权，这些商品也可能被认为是该纳税人的

trading stock。案例Suttons Motors中，法院更注重其商业实质而非其legal form。It indicates that an item of merchandise may be trading stock even though the taxpayer does not own it, has no legal

obligation to buy it, has incurred no financial commitment in respect of it, and merely holds it on behalf of another。

Trading stock on hand

Section 70-15 provides that a deduction is available under s. 8-1 on the purchase of trading stock:

if the item becomes part of your trading stock on hand before or during the tax year in which you incur the outgoing, then it is deductible in that year; otherwise

the amount is deductible in the first tax year during which the item becomes part of your trading stock on hand or for which an amount is included in your assessable income in connection with the disposal of the item.

这里，对于‘on hand’的理解是很重要。它并不是仅仅指纳税人拿到了商品，同时，纳税人还必须拥有了处置带商品的权利。 Assets that become trading stock

Section 70-30 (1) provides that at the time the asset becomes trading stock, the taxpayer is treated as if: just before the item became trading stock the taxpayer sold it to someone else at arm’s length. The taxpayer can elect the deemed sale value to be cost, or market value just before it became trading stock; and then

the taxpayer immediately bought it back for the same amount. Obsolete stock

The taxpayer may elect to write down the stock to a lower value as long as the value is reasonable. Disposal of trading stock

1) Not in the ordinary course of trading

如果商品的处置并非发生在正常的交易过程中，比如捐献、送礼等，那么：the taxpayer is assessable on the market value of the stock on the date of disposal。 2) Notional disposal of trading stock

这部分说的是更换了所有权。Section 70-100(4)赋予了一项election，但是需要满足四项条件。 3) Cease to hold item as trading stock (but still own it)

如果该种情况发生，那么税法假设，在该项商品变成非交易品之前，纳税人将其按照成本价格卖出后，又按照同样的金额买入。 Small business entities

Where the difference between the value of opening and closing stock is $5,000 or less, the taxpayer can choose not to value each item of trading stock at the year end, and not to account for changes in the value of trading stock.

1) Not in the ordinary course of trading

如果商品的处置并非发生在正常的交易过程中，比如捐献、送礼等，那么：the taxpayer is assessable on the market value of the stock on the date of disposal。 2) Notional disposal of trading stock

这部分说的是更换了所有权。Section 70-100(4)赋予了一项election，但是需要满足四项条件。 3) Cease to hold item as trading stock (but still own it)

如果该种情况发生，那么税法假设，在该项商品变成非交易品之前，纳税人将其按照成本价格卖出后，又按照同样的金额买入。 Small business entities

Where the difference between the value of opening and closing stock is $5,000 or less, the taxpayer can choose not to value each item of trading stock at the year end, and not to account for changes in the value of trading stock.

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