研究生学术英语写作教程Unit 3 Reviewing Literature

Unit 3 Reviewing Literature

Objectives:

- Learn how to formulate a research problem - learn how to cite other people?s previous work - Try to be critical and related in your reviewing - Avoid plagiarism

Contents

- Reading and discussion: sample introduction and elements in literature review. - Language focus: tense in citation and citing verbs

- Writing practice: information prominent citation, author prominent citation, and weak author prominent citation

- Literature reviews related to your research - No plagiarism

- Classroom extension: literature review of the social effects of tourism on developing countries

1. Reading Activity

1.1 Pre-reading Task

A literature review is not just a summary of what you have read. It focuses on a specific topic of interest to you and includes a critical analysis of relationship among different opinions and then relates this review to the work of your own. It may be written as a stand-alone paper or to provide a theoretical framework and rationale for a research study to become a part of the introduction section, especially in term papers or journal articles. However, in a thesis or dissertation it will be an entire chapter.

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Read the sample introduction below and think about the following questions: What is the purpose of writing a literature view? What elements does an introduction include?

How do we relate other people?s previous work to our present research? How do we cite other people?s previous work?

1.2 Reading Passage

Introduction

The poor have traditionally taken the brunt of the blame for causing society?s many problems including, more recently, environmental degradation. There is a general consensus that poverty is a major cause of environmental degradation. For example, in one of the conclusions of the Bruntland Commission Report, which incidentally has been accepted as the blue print for environmental conservation, it was explicitly stated that poverty is a major cause of environmental problems and amelioration of poverty is a necessary and central condition of any effective programs addressing the environment. Following similar lines, Jalal (2010), the Asian Development Bank's chief of the environment department says, \is generally accepted that environmental degradation, rapid population growth and stagnant production are closely linked with the fast spread of acute poverty in many countries of Asia\Report, the Bank explicitly stated that, “poor families who have to meet short term needs mine the natural capital by excessive cutting of trees for firewood and failure to replace soil nutrients ” (World Bank 2011).

However, there has been a rising trend in the economic literature which disputes the conventional theory and argues that simple generalizations of this multi-dimensional problem are erroneous and that a more complex set of variables are in play (Leach and Mearns, 2012). These studies point to demographic, cultural, and institutional factors as important variables in the poverty-environmental degradation nexus. An intricate web of factors plus the existence of feedback loops from environmental degradation to poverty makes the process of identifying causality links,

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if any, between environmental degradation and poverty a difficult exercise. However, these studies have been few and isolated and it is interesting to note that until recently, there has been very little in-depth coordinated empirical research in the economics of environmental degradation-poverty causality relationships.

This brings to the purpose of this study. Both poverty and environmental degradation have been increasing in many developing countries; hence there is a pressing need first to evaluate and analyze the poverty-environmental degradation nexus, and second, to prescribe policy options to mitigate or eradicate these two problems.

The primary objective of the paper is to analyze critically the existing literature on the poverty-environmental degradation nexus and try to make \the chaos\limited to the following four main natural resources which are under serious threat of degradation in many developing countries: i) forests; ii) land; iii) water; and iv) air. Biodiversity is excluded at this point because the preliminary literature search found only scattered and inconclusive information. However, it should not be inferred that biodiversity is less important than the four resources chosen; indeed it is an area which needs particular attention in the future.

Once the natural resource sectors have been identified, a cause, impact and feedback analysis is carried out. In this manner, we hope first to identify the main agents and the degree of their contribution towards the destruction of the environment and second, the incentives or motivating factors encouraging their unsustainable activities. The impact and feedback analysis should highlight the main impacts arising from the degradation activities and the socio-economic effect these impacts have across the various income groups in the economy.

1.3 Reading Comprehension

1.3.1 List different opinions on poverty and environmental degradation

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Bruntland Commission Report, etc. on Leach and Mearns on the other side the one side 1.3.2 Decide how many elements this sample includes and how they function. Elements Functions 2. Language Focus

2.1 Tense in citation

Present tense - Authors mostly use the present tense verbs to show their opinion on another person's research, relate what other authors say or discuss the literature, theoretical concepts, methods, etc. However, the simple past and present perfect are also possible verb forms in this case. Look at these examples in the present tense: Nelson (1995) remarks ? Jones (2005) stresses

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Morison (2000) advocates ? Zhang (2007) claims ? Zhambhi (2008) argues

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Past tense - When you use the past tense, the reporting verb often occurs as an integral citation. In other words, citations with past tense verbs and named researchers as subject seem to have the discourse role of providing particulars for recounting events, results found or a preceding generalization or the basis for a claim, etc. In the example below, the citation reports the results of a single study.

Carlson and Benton (2007) found that as they increased the participants? stress levels, the results of their performance deteriorated.

Common verbs in the past tense are: investigated, studied, compared, analyzed, found, and examined.

Present perfect - The present perfect tense can be used to state that the research results are recent, expressing what has been found over an extended period in the past and up to the present to highlight the direct relevance of previous studies to the writer's own research. Look at the following example:

Although the results of pervious studies showed that further research was

warranted in this area, recent studies have demonstrated that educational methodology is now moving in a new direction (Jones, 2007; Karstal, 2008).

2.1.1 Check the sample introduction and complete the following table. Questions How many? For what purposes? Are some sentences written in present tense? Are some sentences written in past tense? Are some sentences written in present perfect tense? Which tense is used more? Why do you think this is the case?

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How many sentences contain references? 2.2 Citing verbs

It is important that you learn how to cite information in a correct way. There are certain conventions to follow when citing someone?s work. Words like “say”,“tell”, and “ask” are normally used in oral conversations but are not appropriate in formal academic writing. The following table illustrates some appropriate words to use for reporting the work of others.

Verbs for saying claims believes thinks assumes indicates Jalal (1993) notes that …

remarks states shows points out

More Verbs for saying suggests considers hypothesizes concludes comments emphasizes that… Jalal?s (1993) study illustrates

proposes establishes maintains

Verbs responding to others’ opinions accepts admits agrees that … The analysis of the Jalal?s report doubts

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denies argues comments

Verbs for saying a second time asserts explains Jalal (1993) further/additionally confirms

maintains advocates

that …

Poor patterns show that the writer has a mere grasp of the literature:

Jalal (1993) says that …The Asian Development Bank (1992) states that … Leach and Mearns (1995) argue that …

Better sample shows some critical thinking and sentence variety:

Jalal (1993) reports that his study of … shows … The findings are supported by the Asian Development Bank (1992) replication of … Although both these studies focus on …. They have ignored … According to Leach and Mearns (1995), …

2.2.2 Read three extracts on the issue of poverty and crime. Use the verbs above to cite opinions on poverty and crime.

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A study by McClatchy Newspapers, released in March finds that the ranks of the severely impoverished are rapidly escalating. The study found that the percentage of poor Americans who are living in extreme poverty has reached a 32-year high. Today nearly 16 million Americans live in “deep or severe poverty.” This is defined as individuals living at half of the federal poverty line. This drastic rise in the level of poverty extends beyond the traditional ghetto and, reaches to suburban and rural communities. At the same time, the poverty rise creates severe social problems. By Joseph Williams, 2011 Starting from the 70s, studies in the US pointed more and more at the link between unemployment, poverty and crime. After that, other connections with income level, schooling, neighborhood quality, education, etc, were revealed as well. Fresh research from the UK even indicates that economic cycles may affect variations in property and violent crimes. But most important of all, the unmistakable characteristic of poverty and crime is that they?re both geographically concentrated in the same areas. In other words, where you find poverty is also where you find crime. And this reveals the strong connection between the two issues. By Carl Holmes, 2011 Sociologist and criminal justice scholars have found a direct correlation between poverty and crime. One economic theory of crime assumes that people weigh the consequences of committing crime. They resort to crime only if the cost or consequences are outweighed by the potential benefits to be gained. The logical conclusion to this theory is that people living in poverty are far more likely to commit property crimes such as burglary, larceny, or theft. By David Garland, 2012 3. Writing Practice

3.1 Using references

Use citation to develop your own argument.

Below are examples of parts of paragraphs using three different citation methods (The references cited have been invented for demonstration purposes only). These

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methods can be called information prominent, where the focus of the sentence is only on the information being presented; author prominent, where the name of the author of the information is given prominence in the sentence; and weak author prominent, where the ideas of author(s) are given prominence, but authors? names do not appear in the main part of the sentence. Observe how the different methods contribute to the way in which the writer?s argument is developed.

Information prominent citation

Shrinking markets are also evident in other areas. The wool industry is

experiencing difficulties related to falling demand worldwide since the development of high-quality synthetic fibers (Smith, 2000).

This is the default style in many areas of science. However, there are two other options, which should also be part of a writer?s repertoire, for use when appropriate.

Author prominent citation

Shrinking markets are also evident in other areas. Smith (2000) argued that the wool industry was experiencing difficulties related to falling demand worldwide since the development of high-quality synthetic fibers. However, Jones et al. (2004) found that industry difficulties were more related to quality of supply than to demand issues. It is clear that considerable disagreement exists about the underlying sources of these problems.

Weak author prominent citation

Shrinking markets are also evident in other areas. As Smith (2000) pointed out, the wool industry is experiencing difficulties related to falling demand worldwide since the development of high-quality synthetic fibers.

3.1.1 The following is a chart describing people living on less than 1.25 dollars.

Look at the following chart and practice citing these figures by using three different types of citation.

Figure: Poverty headcount ratio at $1.25 a day (% of population)

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Created By Swati Revankar from World Bank, 2012

Information prominent citation

Author prominent citation

Weak author prominent citation

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3.2 Relating literature to your research

It is easy to write a bad literature review and difficult to write a good one. The main mistake that a lot of people make is to write a literature review that looks like this:

LITERATURE REVIEW

Until recently many researchers have shown interest in the field of coastal erosion and the resulting beach profiles. They have carried out numerous laboratory experiments and field observations to illuminate the darkness of this field. Their findings and suggestions are reviewed here.

JACHOWSKI (2008) developed a model investigation conducted on the interlocking precast concrete block seawall. After a result of a survey of damages caused by the severe storm at the coast of USA, a new and specially shaped concrete block was developed for use in shore protection. This block was designed to be used in a revetment type seawall that would be both durable and economical as well as reduce wave run-up and overtopping, and scour at its base or toe. It was proved that effective shore protection could be designed utilizing these units.

HOM-MA and HORIKAWA (2008) studied waves forces acting on the seawall which was located inside the surf zone. On the basis of the experimental results conducted to measure waves forces against a vertical wall, the authors proposed an empirical formula of wave pressure distribution on a seawall. The computed results obtained by using the above formula were compared well with the field data of wave pressure on a vertical wall.

SELEZOV and ZHELEZNYAK (2009) conducted experiments on scour of sea bottom in front of harbor seawalls, on the basis of the theoretical investigation of solitary wave interaction with a vertical wall using Boussinesque type equation. It showed that the numerical results were in reasonable agreement with laboratory experimental data.

3.2.1 Consider again the purposes of writing a literature review. See if you can answer the following questions about the literature review above:

1. What questions does this literature review answer?

2. What questions doesn't it answer?

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3. Which method has the writer used to organize the literature review?

4. Is it a good literature review? Why?

3.3 Avoiding plagiarism

3.2.1 Below are two versions of the same information, adapted from the Introduction by McNeill et al. (2007). Decide which version has the problem of plagiarism and identify where the writer has plagiarized

Version 1:

Russell and Fillery (2006), using a stem-feeding technique, have shown that in situ 15N-labelling of lupin plants growing in soil cores enabled total belowground N to be estimated under relatively undisturbed conditions, but they indicated that the technique was not adaptable to all plants, particularly pasture species.

Version 2:

Russell and Fillery (2006), using a stem-feeding technique, have shown that in situ 15N-labelling of lupin plants growing in soil cores enabled total belowground N to be estimated under relatively undisturbed conditions. However, this technique is not adaptable to all plants, particularly pasture species.

4. Writing Project

Write a literature review for your research by the following steps:

1. Problem formulation—which topic or field is being examined and what are its component issues?

2. Literature search—finding materials relevant to the subject being explored

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3. Data evaluation—determining which literature makes a significant contribution to the understanding of the topic

4. Analysis and interpretation—discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent literature

5. Relate the review to your research topic

You are preparing to write an essay entitled “The social effects of tourism on developing countries”. Read the following abstract and then try to write a literature review relating to the topic according to the above mentioned steps:

Abstract

Tourism is the fastest growing industry internationally. Popular areas of study are the economic, environmental and sociocultural impacts of tourism in developing countries. Very few studies have been conducted on the impact of tourism on the hosts? health status. Nowadays, the emergence of new infectious diseases or the

re-emergence of diseases are causing concern and travel is a major contributor to their spread. The objectives of this study were: to review literature related to the topic as a background for future research; to explore if findings from a field trip to Easter Island/Chile and Peru support the hypotheses derived from the analysis of

publications; to recommend a range of research topics based on the outcome of this study; and to propose elements of a framework for the assessment of health impacts of tourism. The findings suggest that there are considerable gaps in the current

knowledge on tourism?s health impacts. Potential indirect and direct health impacts have been identified. Workplace health and safety concerns in relation to local tourism employees have been raised. A wide range of research topics has been suggested based on these findings. Finally, elements of a possible framework for understanding tourism?s health impacts and their interrelationships have been identified.

Sources from: Irmgard Bauer, THE JOURNAL OF TOURISM STUDIES Vol. 10, No. 1, MAY ?99 11

5. Final Checklist

Here is a final checklist for writing Introduction (including literature review). Use it to check what you have written in the previous task.

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1. Do I have clear relevant opening sentences to attract readers? attention? 2. Do I include the following parts to start with: a. Stating the importance of the subject; b. Mentioning previous work done on the subject; c. Pointing out the absence of such work as a justification for dealing with the subject? 3. Does the literature review demonstrate that I am critical of and familiar with the literature relevant to the study? 4. Is there a logic to the way I organized the material? 5. Is my citation appropriate in tenses? 6. Have I indicated the relevance of each reference to my research? 7. Do I have a clear thesis statement to show the research objective? 8. Does the introduction justify the significance of my research? 9. Do I have a plan of development that is clearly linked to the thesis sentence? 10. Do I make clear a statement of the limitations of the work? 14

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