Automatic reconstruction of colored 3d models
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Abstract. A basic issue of mobile robotics is the automatic generation of environment maps. This paper presents novel results for the reconstruction of textured 3D maps with an autonomous mobile robot, a 3D laser range finder and two pan-tilt color cameras
AutomaticReconstructionofColored3DModels
KaiPerv¨olz,AndreasN¨uchter,HartmutSurmann,andJoachimHertzberg
FraunhoferInstituteforAutonomousIntelligentSystems(AIS)
SchlossBirlinghoven
D-53754SanktAugustin,Germany
{pervoelz,nuechter,surmann,hertzberg}@ais.fraunhofer.de
Abstract.Abasicissueofmobileroboticsistheautomaticgenerationofenvironmentmaps.Thispaperpresentsnovelresultsforthereconstructionoftextured3Dmapswithanautonomousmobilerobot,a3Dlaserrange nderandtwopan-tiltcolorcameras.Building3Dmapsinvolvesanumberoffundamentalscienti cissues.Thispaperadressestheissueofhowtofusethegeometrydataofthe3Dlaserrange nderwithcameraimages.Theproposedalgorithmallowstotexturizegeometrical3Dscenes-models.
1Introduction
Onefundamentalprobleminthedesignofautonomousmobilecognitivesystemsistheper-ceptionoftheenvironment.Abasicissueofmobileroboticsisautomaticmapbuildingofenvironments.Digital3Dmodelsoftheenvironmentareneededinrescueandinspectionrobotics,facilitymanagementandarchitecture.Autonomousmobilerobotsequippedwith3Dlaserscannersarewellsuitedforthegagingtask[14].Tocreaterealisticvirtualrealitiesfromgeometricmodels,textures,i.e.,photosoftheenvironments,havetobeacquiredandmustbepreciselymappedontothescene.Thismappinghastobecomputedautomaticallyfromthe3Dpointcloudofthescannedsceneandtheacquiredphotographs.
Tocomputethecorrecttextureforascannedscene,fourstepsarenecessary:First,thecamerasarecalibrated;second,ameshingmethodgeneratesatrianglemeshofthe3Ddata,andthird,thetextureforeverytriangleischosenandmapped.DrawingtothescreenisdonebyOpenGL.Finallyandfourth,globalcolorcorrectionsaremadetoremovethesystematiccolorandilluminationdi erencesbetweentheindividualtexturemaps.Afterdiscussingthestateoftheartin3DreconstructionandpresentingtherobotKurt3Dthesefourstepsaredescribedindetail.
2StateoftheArt
Somegroupshaveattemptedtobuild3Dvolumetricrepresentationsofenvironmentswith2Dlaserrange nders.Thrunetal.[15],Fr¨uhetal.[6]andZhaoetal.[17]usetwo2Dlaserrange nderforacquiring3Ddata.Onelaserscannerismountedhorizontallyandoneismountedvertically.Thelatteronegrabsaverticalscanlinewhichistransformedinto3Dpointsusingthecurrentrobotpose.Sincetheverticalscannerisnotabletoscansidesofobjects,Zhaoetal.[17]usetwoadditionalverticalmounted2Dscannershiftedby45 toreduceocclusion.Thehorizontalscannerisusedtocomputetherobotpose.Theprecisionof3Ddatapointsdependsonthatposeandontheprecisionofthescanner.Alltheseapproacheshavedi culties
Abstract. A basic issue of mobile robotics is the automatic generation of environment maps. This paper presents novel results for the reconstruction of textured 3D maps with an autonomous mobile robot, a 3D laser range finder and two pan-tilt color cameras
tonavigatearound3Dobstacleswithjuttingoutedges.Theyareonlydetectedwhilepassingthem.
Afewothergroupsuse3Dlaserscanners[12,2].A3Dlaserscannergeneratesconsistent3Ddatapointswithinasingle3Dscan.TheRESOLVprojectaimedatmodelinginteriorsforvirtualrealityandtelepresence[12].TheyusedaRIEGLlaserrange nderontworobots,calledESTandAEST(AutonomousEnvironmentalSensorforTelepresence).TheyusetheIterativeClosestPoints(ICP)algorithm[3]forscanmatchingandaperceptionplanningmoduleforminimizingocclusions.TheAVENUEprojectdevelopsarobotformodelingurbanenvironments[2]usingaCYRAXlaserscanner.Theymatch3Dscanswithcameraimagessemiautomaticallytoyieldatexturedmodel.
Othertechniquesforacquiringrangedataarestereovisionandphotogrammetry.Stereovisionhasdi cultieswithproducingdensedepthmapsanddependsontheilluminationtosomedegree.Photogrammetricmethodsproducehighqualitymodelsthataretextured.Nevertheless,thesemethodsareusuallymanualandcomputationallyexpensive,thuscannotbecomputedinrealtimeoronamobilesystem,i.e.,onarobot.Tab.1compareslaserscanningwithphotogrammetry.Stateoftheartphotogrammetricmethods[4]arecombinedwithlaserscanningtoyieldameasuringmethodologythatismore esthiscombinationtoextracttextureandtore nethemodelbasedon3Dlaserscanningbyimages[4].Itispossibletocompletethemodelsinareaswheredataismissingortoincreasetheresolutioninareasofhighinterestand3Dcontents.
Resolution
large
sensors
Photo-
grammetryhighreso-lutionphotosext.lightindependentextract3Dfromphotosbycorrespondences3DmeasurmenthightextureisrequiredReliabilityTable1:Comparisonoflaserscanningwithphotogrammetricmodelacquisitionmethods.Advantagesareprintedinreditalic.
3
3.1TheAutonomousMobileRobotKurt3DTheRobotPlatform
Kurt3D(Fig.1,topleft)isamobilerobotplatformwithasizeof45cm(length)×33cm(width)×26cm(height)andaweightof15.6kg.Equippedwiththe3Dlaserrange ndertheheightincreasesto47cmandtheweightincreasesto22.6kg.1Kurt3D’smaximumvelocityis5.2m/s(autonomouslycontrolled4.0m/s).Two90Wmotorsareusedtopowerthe6wheels,whereasthefrontandrearwheelshavenotreadpatterntoenhancerotating.Kurt3Doperatesforabout4hourswithonebattery(28NiMHcells,capacity:4500mAh)charge.ThecoreoftherobotisaPentium-III-600MHzwith384MBRAM.Anembedded16-BitCMOSmicrocontrollerisusedtocontrolthemotor.
3.2TheAIS3DLaserRangeFinder
TheAIS3Dlaserrange nder(Fig.1,middle)[14,13]isbuiltonthebasisofa2Drange nderbyextensionwithamountandasmallservodrive.The2Dlaserrange nderisattachedinthecenterofrotationtothemountforachievingacontrolledpitchmotionandreducing
Abstract. A basic issue of mobile robotics is the automatic generation of environment maps. This paper presents novel results for the reconstruction of textured 3D maps with an autonomous mobile robot, a 3D laser range finder and two pan-tilt color cameras
Figure1:Left:TheautonomousmobilerobotKurt3DequippedwiththeAIS3Dlaserrange nder.Middle:TheAIS3Dlaserrange nder.ItstechnicalbasisisaSICK2Dlaserrange nder(LMS-200).Right:Scannedsceneaspointcloud(viewingpose1meterbehindscannerpose).
torsionalmoments.Ontheleftside,thehighgradeservoisconnected.Onebatterycharge(Scanner:17W,20NiMHcellswithacapacityof4500mAh,Servo:0.85W,4.5Vwithbatteriesof4500mAh)issu cientfor5hoperatingtime.
Theareaof180 (h)×120 (v)isscannedwithdi erenthorizontal(181,361,721)andvertical(210,420)resolutions.Aplanewith181datapointsisscannedin13msbythe2Dlaserrange nder(rotatingmirrordevice).Planeswithmoredatapoints,e.g.,361,721,duplicateorquadruplicatethistime.Thusascanwith181×210datapointsneeds2.8seconds.Fig.1(topright)showsanexampleofapointcloudwithaviewingposeonemeterbehindthescannerpose.
3.3TheCameraSystem
Thecamerasystem(Fig.2,left)consistsoftwoTerraCAMUSBProwebcams.Theyareequippedwithamanualfocuslensandtheresolutionislimitedto640×480pixelswith7fpsasthemaximumframerate.Tocoverthewholearea,scannedbythelaserrange nder,eachcameraneedstotake6di erentimages(Fig.2,right).Tohandlethis,thewebcamsaremountedonpan-tiltunitseachofwhichisbasedon2servodrives(VolzMicro-Maxx),oneforthehorizontalaxisandtheotherfortheverticalaxis.Eachaxiscanberotatedby±45 .Duetothehigh-gradeservodrives,anexcellentrepeataccuracyinpositioningis
guaranteed.Figure2:Left:Thepan-tiltcamerasystem.Right:Scannedsceneaspointcloud(viewingpose2meterbehindscannerpose).Thesceneiscoveredby12cameraimageswithsomeoverlappingareas.
Abstract. A basic issue of mobile robotics is the automatic generation of environment maps. This paper presents novel results for the reconstruction of textured 3D maps with an autonomous mobile robot, a 3D laser range finder and two pan-tilt color cameras
ThewebcamsarepoweredovertheUSBinterfaceandtheservodrivesarefedbythesamebatteriesasthe3Dlaserrange nderservo(cf.section3.2).
4CameraCalibration
Thecameraismodeledbytheusualpinholeapproach.Acameraprojectsa3Dpointp∈3tothe2Dimage,resultinginp ∈2.Therelationshipbetweena3Dpointpanditsimageprojectionp isgivenby
αγupRtps=AwithA= 0βv .100011001
Aisthecameramatrix,i.e.,internalcameraparameters,withtheprincipalpointwiththecoordinates(u,v).Randtspecifytheexternalcameraparameters,i.e.,theorthonormal3×3rotationmatrixandtranslationvectorofthecameraintheworldcoordinatesystem.Inadditiontotheseequations,weconsiderthedistortion,resultingin4additionalparameterstoestimate[16].
Cameracalibrationusesanewtechniquebasedon
Zhang’s
method.Wegiveabriefsketchhere,detailscanbefoundin
[16].ThekeyideabehindZhang’sapproachistoestimate
theintrinsic,extrinsicanddistortioncameraparametersby
asetofcorrespondingpoint.These3D-to-2Dpointcorre-
spondencesare rstusedtoderiveananalyticalsolution,i.e.,
thegeneral4×4homographymatrixHisestimated:
pp=Hs.11
Theestimationisdonebysolvinganoverspeci edsystem
oflinearequations.Sincethepointsof3D-to-2Dpointcor-
respondenceshaveusuallysmallerrorsandonlyafewpoints
areusedtosolvetheequationsforH,this rstestimation
needstobeoptimized.Anonlinearoptimizationtechnique,
i.e,theLevenberg-Marquardtalgorithmbasedonthemaxi-
mumlikelihoodcriterionisusedtooptimizetheerrorterm:
mn pi,j p i,j(Hj) .
i=1j=1
Herebyp i,jarei,jarethepointspi,jprojectedbyHj,andp
thegivencorrespondingpoints;iisthepointindexandj
istheimageindex.AfterthecalculationofH,thecamera
matrixA,therotationmatrixRandthetranslationtare
calculatedfromH.Again,anoverspeci edsystemoflinear
equationissolved,followedbyanonlinearoptimizationof
n m p p . (A,R,t)jji,ji,j
i=1j=1Figure3:Top:Chessboardplaneforcalibration.Bottom:Chessboarddetectionina3Dlaserrangescan.
Abstract. A basic issue of mobile robotics is the automatic generation of environment maps. This paper presents novel results for the reconstruction of textured 3D maps with an autonomous mobile robot, a 3D laser range finder and two pan-tilt color cameras
Finallythetermforoptimizationissetto
n m pi,j p i,j(A,Rj,tj,k1,k2,l1,l2) ,
i=1j=1
wherek1,k2areparametersfortheradialdistortion,andl1,l2theonesfortangentialdistor-tion.TheminimumisfoundbytheLevenberg-MarquardtalgorithmthatcombinesgradientdescentandGauss-Newtonapproachesforfunctionminimization[5,11].Animportantcon-ceptoftheLevenberg-Marquardtalgorithmisthevectorofresiduals,i.e.,e(a)={Ei(a)}i=1N,sothatE(a)=||e(a)||isoneoftheerrortermsabove.Thegoalateachiterationistochooseanupdatextothecurrentestimateac,suchthatsettingac+1=ac+xreducestheerrorE(a).ATaylorapproximationofE(a+x)resultsin
E(a+x)=E(a)+( E(a)·x)+1
.Thetaskateachiterationistodeterminea
stepxthatwillminimizeE(a+x).UsingtheapproximationofEdi erentiatingwithrespecttoxequatingwithzero,yields aj
xE(x+a)=JTe+JTJx=0.
SolvingthisequationforxyieldsthenewGauss-Newtonupdatex=(JTJ) 1JTe.Incontrast,theupdatewithanacceleratedgradientdescentisgivenbyx=λ 1JTewithλdenotingtheincrementbetweentwogradientdescentsteps.Ineveryiterationthisnewupdateiscalculatedbyacombination,i.e.,by
x=(JTJ+λ) 1JTe.
Fortheabovecameracalibrationalgorithmthe3D-to-2Dpointcorrespondencesareessential.Calibrationisdonewithachessboard.Fromtheimagetheboardpatterncornersareex-tractedautomatically(Fig.3top).Thecorresponding3Dpointsareautomaticallyextractedbasedonthecornersofaquadin3D(Fig.3bottom).Thecalibrationalgorithmextractsthe3Dquadfromthescannedpointcloudwithamodi edICP(IterativeClosestPoints)algo-rithm[3,9].Givenasetof3DscanpointsM,aquadismatched.ThealgorithmcomputestherotationRandthetranslationt,suchthatthedistancesthescanpointsmi∈3andtheirprojectiontothequaddi∈3isminimized,i.e.,
Nm i=1||mi (Rdi+t)||2.
TheICPalgorithmaccomplishestheminimizationiteratively.Itcomputes rsttheprojectionsandthenminimizestheaboveerrorterminaclosedformfashion[3,9].TheclosedformsolutionisbasedontherepresentationofarotationasaquaternionasproposedbyHorn[7].
Abstract. A basic issue of mobile robotics is the automatic generation of environment maps. This paper presents novel results for the reconstruction of textured 3D maps with an autonomous mobile robot, a 3D laser range finder and two pan-tilt color cameras
Figure4:Left:Schematicillustrationofthetexturemappingprocess.Middleandright:Final3Dtexturemappingfromtwodi erentviewposesofthescenegiveninFig.2,right.
5MeshGeneration
The3Dscannergagestheenvironmentbyatiltrotation,thusthescanslicesareordered.Furthermore,ineveryscanslicethedataisorderedcounterclockwise.So,asimplealgorithmcreatesatrianglemeshbyconnectingneighboringdatapoints.Athresholdforthesidelengthofatriangleisusedtohandlejumpegdes,i.e.,rgermeshesarecreatedbyconnectingthe(i,j)thneighbor,respectively.
6TextureMapping
Inordertoassigntexturetothepreviouslygeneratedtrianglemesh,thealgorithmprojectstheverticesofeachtriangletotheimagesbyutilizingtheextrinsic,intrinsicanddistortionparameters,computedduringthecameracalibrationprocess(cf.section4).DuetothelensqualityofanordinaryUSBwebcam,modelingthelensdistortionisessential.
To gureoutwhichofthe12imagesholdsthecorrecttextureinformation,theverticesareprojectedtoallimages.Ifoneimagedoesnotcovertheaccordingpartofthe3Dscenethecomputedvertexcoordinateswillbeoutoftheimagerange.Ifthealgorithmgivesvalidcoordinatesformorethanoneoftheimages(e.g.,fortrianglesinoverlappingareas,compareFig.2),itusestheimageinwhichtheprojectedvertexcoordinatesareclosesttotheimagecenter.
Basedontheseprojectedcoordinates,anOpenGL-basedviewerapplicationcutsthetextureoutoftheimagesand”glues”itontothe3Dtrianglemesh.Duetothisrelationof3Ddataandtextureinformation,thescenecanberenderedfromdi erentperspectives(Fig.4,middleandright)asatextured3Dscene.2
7GlobalColorCorrection
Di erentilluminationconditionsandthecameratechnologypreventcolorcontinuityatthebordersofeachimage,leadingtoobservablediscontinuitiesinthecolorandalsobrightness.BasedontheideasofAgathosandFisherweuseglobalcorrectionsinordertodi usethetexturefromeachtwodi erentviews[1]andtoreducetheobservablediscontinuities.TheymotivatetheassumptionthatthereexistsalineartransformationmatrixTj→ktocorrectthejthviewtothekthview,i.e.,
(j)(k)Tj→kNi(λ)=Ni(λ),
video[10].
Abstract. A basic issue of mobile robotics is the automatic generation of environment maps. This paper presents novel results for the reconstruction of textured 3D maps with an autonomous mobile robot, a 3D laser range finder and two pan-tilt color cameras
Global Texture Correction
without correction
corrected image
Figure5:Left:Magni cationofthetextured3DsceneinFig.4,right.Right:UncorrectedandcorrectedphotoNo.B3.ThecorrectionisbasedonthepixelssharedwithphotoNo.A3.Thephotonumbersarede nedinFig.2.
fori∈{R,G,B}.TwovectorsofpixelsVk,Vjareformedfromtheviewskandjrespectively.TheycontainR,G,Bpixelsfromtheoverlapoftheviews.TheglobalcorrectionmatrixTj→kisestimatedasfollows[1]:
Vk=Tj→kVk TTj→k=(VkVj)(VjVj) 1
Fig.5showsanimagepartofthesceneofFig.4withanuncorrectedandcorrectedimage.TheresultispresentedinFig.4andshowsstillsomecolorincontinuitiesthatcannotberesolvedwiththecorrection.Themethodrequiresenoughimageoverlap,precise3D-to-2Dcalibrationandsu cientinputimagequality.
8Conclusions
Thispaperhaspresentedaframeworkforthereconstructionoftextured3Dmapswithanautonomousmobilerobot,a3Dlaserrange nderandtwopan-tiltcolorcameras.Thedevelopedsystemsallowstogageenvironmentsin3Dandfusethedatawithcameraimages.Awiderangeofapplicationsusing3Dmodelsbene tfromtheproposedautomaticacquisitionmethod,e.g.,virtualrealityapplications,architecture,factoryandfacilitymanagementandrescueandinspectionrobotics.
Needlesstosay,muchworkremainstobedone.Futureworkwillconcentrateonfouraspects:
Build3Dmapswithtextureinformationinvolving6Drobotposes,includinglooptours,i.e.,6DSLAM[9].
Uselocalcolor/texturecorrectioninadditiontoourglobalcorrectionmethod.
Calibratethecameraparametersdynamicallywithoutthechessboardquad,i.e.,calcu-lateitfromthe3Dsceneandthecorrespondingimages.
Generatehighleveldescriptionsandsemanticmapsofenvironmentsincludingthe3Dinformation,e.g.,inXMLformat.Thesemanticmapscontainspatial3Ddatawithdescriptionsandlabels[8].
Acknowledgment:
ourwork.SpecialthankstoKaiLingemannandMatthiasHennigforsupporting
Abstract. A basic issue of mobile robotics is the automatic generation of environment maps. This paper presents novel results for the reconstruction of textured 3D maps with an autonomous mobile robot, a 3D laser range finder and two pan-tilt color cameras
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