专业外语分句翻译 土木工程专业英语翻译（武汉理工大学出版社段

Civil engineering，the oldest of the engineering specialties，is the planning，design，construction, and management of the built environment．This environment includes all structures built according to scientific principles，from irrigation and drainage systems to rocket-launching facilities.

土木工程，最老的工程专业，是建筑环境的规划、设计、施工和管理。这个环境包括从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施的所有根据科学原理建造的结构物。

Civil engineers build roads，bridges，tunnels，dams，harbors，power plants，water and sewage systems，hospitals，schools，mass transit，and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentrations．

土木工程师修建道路、桥梁、隧道、大坝、港口、发电站、水系统和污水系统，医院、学校、公共交通系统，以及现代化社会和大量人口集中的地方所必需的其他公共设施。

They also build privately owned facilities such as airports, railroads，pipelines, skyscrapers, and other large structures designed for industrial，commercial, or residential use．

他们也修建私人拥有的设施，如机场、铁路、管线、高楼大厦，和为工业、商业、民用设计的其他大型建筑。 In addition，civil engineers plan，design，and build complete cities and towns，and more recently have been planning and designing space platforms to house self-contained communities．

此外，土木工程师规划、设计和修建整个城市和乡镇，最近已经开始规划和设计空间站以容纳独立的（科研）团体。

The word civil derives from the Latin for citizen．

“土木”这个词是从拉丁语“citizen”派生而来。

In 1782，Englishman John Smeaton used the term to differentiate his nonmilitary engineering work from that of the military engineers who predominated at the time．

1782年，英国人John Smeaton 用这个术语来区分他的非军事工程项目和当时占统治地位的军事工程师的工程项目。

Since then，the term civil engineering has often been used to refer to engineers who build public facilities，although the field is much broader．

从那以后，土木工程这个术语已经被用来指那些修建公共设施的工程师们，尽管这个领域比以前更广。

Because it is so broad，civil engineering is subdivided into a number of technical specialties． 因为土木工程的范围太广，所以它被细分为许多技术专业。

Depending on the type of project，the skills of many kinds of civil engineer specialists may be needed．

根据工程的类型，就需要土木工程师专家的各种技能。

When a project begins，the site is surveyed and mapped by civil engineers who locate utility placement--water，sewer，and power lines．

当一项工程开始时，土木工程师要勘测现场并绘图，他们还要确定水管、污水管道和电线的实用布置。

Geotechnical specialists perform soil experiments to determine if the earth can bear the weight of the project．

岩土工程专家要做土工试验以确定该土是否能承受这项工程的重量。

Environmental specialists study the project’s impact on the local area：the potential for air

and groundwater pollution，the project’s impact on local animal and plant life，and how the project can be designed to meet government requirements aimed at protecting the environment．

环境专家要研究工程对当地区域的影响：潜在的空气污染和地下水污染，工程对当地动植物的影响，以及工程怎样设计才能满足政府对保护环境的要求。

Transportation specialists determine what kind of facilities are needed to ease the burden on local roads and other transportation networks that will result from the completed project．

运输专家要确定需用什么类型的设施来减轻由完工的工程产生的荷载对当地道路和其他运输网带来的压力。

Meanwhile，structural specialists use preliminary data to make detailed designs，plans，and specifications for the project．

同时，结构专家用初始资料来做工程的详细设计，规划和说明书。

Supervising and coordinating the work of these civil engineer specialists，from beginning to end of the project，are the construction management specialists．

从工程开始到结束，施工管理专家监督和协调这些土木工程专家们工作。

Based on information supplied by the other specialists，construction management civil engineers estimate quantities and costs of materials and labor，schedule all work，order materials and equipment for the job，hire contractors and subcontractors，and perform other supervisory work to ensure the project is completed on time and as specified．

根据其他专家提供的信息，施工管理土木工程师要估计材料和劳动力的数量和成本，安排所有的工作，订购工作所需的材料和设备，雇承包商和转包人，以及做其他的监督管理工作以确保工程能按照说明按时完工。

Throughout any given project，civil engineers make extensive use of computers． 对于任何给定的工程，土木工程师都能广泛地利用计算机。

Computers are used to design the project’s various elements (computer-aided design，or CAD) and to manage it．

计算机被用来设计工程的各个部分并进行管理。

Computers are a necessity for the modern civil engineer because they permit the engineer to efficiently handle the large quantities of data needed in determining the best way to construct a project．

计算机对于现代土木工程师而言是必不可少的，因为它们可使工程师高效地处理大量数据，这些数据是在确定最优施工方案时所需要的。

In this speciality，civil engineers plan and design structures of all types，including bridges，dams，power plants，supports for equipment，special structures for offshore projects，the United States space program，transmission towers，giant astronomical and radio telescopes, and many other kinds of projects．

在这个专业里面，土木工程师规划和设计所有类型的结构，包括桥梁、大坝、电站、设备的支撑、近海工程的特殊结构、美国的太空计划、发射塔、巨型天文望远镜和无线电望远镜，以及许多其他工程。

Using computers，structural engineers determine the forces a structure must resist：its own weight, wind and hurricane forces, temperature changes that expand or contract construction materials，and earthquakes．

结构工程师用计算机确定结构必须抵抗的力：自重、风力、引起建筑材料膨胀或

收缩的温度变化以及地震力。

They also determine the combination of appropriate materials：steel，concrete，plastic，stone，asphalt，brick，aluminum，or other construction materials．

他们还确定适当的材料组合：钢材、混凝土、塑料、石料、沥青、砖、铝或其他的建筑材料。

Civil engineers in this specialty deal with all aspects of the physical control of water． 在这个专业的土木工程师处理水的自然调节的各个方面。

Their projects help prevent floods，supply water for cities and for irrigation，manage and control rivers and water runoff，and maintain beaches and other waterfront facilities．

他们的工程帮助阻挡洪水，为城市和灌溉系统供水，管理和控制河流流量，维修河滩和其他滨水区的设施。

In addition，they design and maintain harbors，canals，and locks，build huge hydroelectric dams and smaller dams and water impoundments of all kinds，help design offshore structures，and determine the location of structures affecting navigation．

此外，他们还设计和维修港口、运河和船闸，修建大型水力发电大坝和小型水坝以及各种类型的围堰，他们还帮助设计海上建筑物，以及确定影响航运结构物的位置。 Civil engineers who specialize in this field analyze the properties of soils and rocks that support structures and affect structural behavior．

专攻此领域土木工程师分析支撑结构物并影响结构性能的土壤和岩石的特性。 They evaluate and work to minimize the potential settlement of buildings and other structures that stems from the pressure of their weight on the earth.

他们计算建筑和其他结构由于自重压力可能引起的沉降，并采取措施使之减少到最小。

These engineers also evaluate and determine how to strengthen the stability of slopes and fills and how to protect structures against earthquakes and the effects of groundwater．

这些工程师还估算并确定怎样加强边坡和填方以及怎样保护结构免遭地震和地下水的影响。

In this branch of engineering，civil engineers design，build，and supervise systems to provide safe drinking water and to prevent and control pollution of water supplies，both on the surface and underground．

在工程的这个分支里，土木工程师设计、修建和监督各个系统以提供安全的饮用水，防止和控制地表水和地下水供应的污染。

They also design，build，and supervise projects to control or eliminate pollution of the land and air．

他们也设计、修建和监督各项工程以控制或消除土地和空气污染。

These engineers build water and wastewater treatment plants，and design air scrubbers and other devices to minimize or eliminate air pollution caused by industrial processes，incineration，or other smoke－producing activities．

这些工程师修建水厂和污水处理厂，设计空气净化器和其他设备以减少或消除由工业加工、焚烧或其他一些产生烟雾的行为导致的空气污染。

They also work to control toxic and hazardous wastes through the construction of special dump sites or the neutralizing of toxic and hazardous substances．

他们也采取措施，通过修建专门的垃圾场或者进行有毒和有害物质的无害化处理来控制有毒有害废弃物 。 In addition，the engineers design and manage sanitary landfills to prevent pollution of surrounding land．

此外，工程师们对垃圾填埋进行设计和处理以防止周围土地的污染。

Civil engineers working in this specialty build facilities to ensure safe and efficient movement of both people and goods.

从事这一专业领域的土木工程师建造一些设施以确保人和物的安全和高效的运输。

They specialize in designing and maintaining all types of transportation facilities, highways and streets, mass transit systems, railroads and airfields, ports and harbors.

他们专门研究设计和维修所有类型的运输设施，公路和街道，公共交通系统，铁路和机场，港口及海港。

Transportation engineers apply technological knowledge as well as consideration of the economic, political, and social factors in designing each project.

运输工程师在设计每一个工程的过程中，既要运用技术知识，也要考虑经济、政治和社会的因素。

They work closely with urban planners, since the quality of the community is directly related to the quality of the transportation system.

他们与城市规划者紧密配合，因为社区的质量直接关系到运输体系的质量。 In this branch of civil engineering, engineers build pipelines and related facilities which transport liquids, gases, or solids ranging from coal slurries (mixed coal and water) and semiliquid wastes, to water, oil, and various types of highly combustible and noncombustible gases.

在土木工程的这个分支里，工程师修建运输液体、气体或固体的管道和相关的设施，运输的物质范围从煤浆和半液体废料到水、石油和不同类型的高燃性和非燃性气体。 The engineers determine pipeline design, the economic and environmental impact of a project on regions it must traverse, the type of materials to be used——steel, concrete, plastic, or combinations of various materials—— installation techniques, methods for testing pipeline strength, and controls for maintaining proper pressure and rate of flow of materials being transported.

工程师要确定管道的设计，工程对它必须穿过的地区的经济和环境影响，要用到的材料类型——钢材、混凝土或不同材料的组合——安装技术，检测管道强度的方法，怎样控制以保持适当的压力，以及正在被运送材料的流通速度。

Civil engineers in this field oversee the construction of a project from beginning to end． 此领域的土木工程师从开始到结束一直监督工程的施工。

Sometimes called project engineers，they apply both technical and managerial skills， including knowledge of construction methods，planning，organizing，financing，and operating construction projects．

他们有时被称为项目工程师，他们不仅运用技术技能，还运用管理技能，包括施工方法、规划、组织、筹集资金和项目管理施工方面的知识。

They coordinate the activities of virtually everyone engaged in the work：the surveyors；workers who lay out and construct the temporary roads and ramps，excavate for the foundation，build the forms and pour the concrete；and workers who build the steel

framework．These engineers also make regular progress reports to the owners of the structure．

事实上，他们协调工程中每个人的活动：勘测员、为临时道路和斜坡定线和施工、挖基础、建模和浇注混凝土的工人、以及绑扎钢筋的工人。这些工程师还为建筑业主定期提供进度报告。

从 事土木工程这一方面的工程师可能规划和发展一个城市中的社区或整个城市。此规划中所包括的远远不仅仅为工程因素，土地的开发使用和自然资源环境的，社会 的和经济的因素也是主要的成分。这些土木工程师对公共建设工程的规划和私人建筑的发展进行协调。他们评估所需的设施，包括街道，公路，公共运输系统，机 场，港口，给排水和污水处理系统，公共建筑、公园和娱乐及其他设施以保证社会、经济和环境地协调发展。

Materials and structural forms are combined to make up the various parts of a building, including the load carrying frame, skin, floors, and partitions.

材料和结构形式被组合在一起形成了建筑物的不同部分。包括承重的框架、外墙、楼板层、以及隔墙。

The building also has mechanical and electrical systems, such as elevators, heating and cooling systems, and lighting systems.

建筑物还有机械和电力系统，比如，电梯、供暖制冷系统，照明系统。

The superstructure is that part of a building above ground, and the substructure and foundation, is that part of a building below ground.

上部结构是建筑物在地面上的部分 , 而下部结构以及基础是建筑物的地下部分。 The skyscraper, owes its existence to two developments of the 19th century：steel skeleton construction and the passenger elevator.

摩天大楼的出现得益于19世纪的两大发展 ：钢结构建筑和载人电梯。

Steel as a construction material dates from the introduction of the Bessemer converter in 1855.

钢材作为一种建筑材料是始于1855年贝色麦转炉炼钢法的引入。 Gustave Eiffel (1832-1923) introduce steel construction in France. Gustave Eiffel将钢结构引入法国。

His designs for the Galerie des Machines and the Tower for the Paris Exposition of 1889 expressed the lightness of the steel framework.

1889年巴黎展览会的塔和他为Galerie des 机械的设计表现了钢结构的灵活性。 The Eiffel Tower, 984 feet (300 meters) high, was the tallest structure built by man and was not surpassed until 40 years later by a series of American skyscrapers.

埃非尔铁搭高达300m，是当时人类修建的最高的结构，直到40年后，其高度才被美国的一系列的摩天大楼超过。

The first elevator was installed by Elisha Otis in a department store in New York, in 1857.

第一部电梯是由Elisha Otis在1857年安装在纽约的一座百货公司里。

In 1889, Eiffel installed the first elevators on a grand scale in the Eiffel Tower, whose hydraulic elevators could transport 2,350 passengers to the summit every hour.

1889年，埃非尔首次在埃非尔铁塔上安装大型升降机，这种液压式升降机每小时可以运送2350位乘客到最高点。

Until the late 19th century, the exterior walls of a building were used as bearing walls to support the floors.

直到19世纪晚期，建筑物外墙被用作支承楼板的承重墙。

This construction is essentially a post and lintel type, and it is still used in frame construction for houses.

这种建筑本质上就是柱和过梁的组合类型，它仍然被用在房屋的框架结构中。 Bearing-wall construction limited the height of buildings because of the enormous wall thickness required; for instance, the 16-story Monadnock Building built in the 1880's in Chicago had walls 5 feet (1.5 meters) thick at the lower floors.

承重墙体限制了建筑物的高度，因为墙体的厚度要求很厚；比如，1891年芝加哥建成的16层高的蒙诺那克大楼，其底层的外墙厚度达到1.5m。

In 1883, William Le Baron Jenney (1832-1907) supported floors on cast-iron columns to form a cage-like construction.

在 1883 年，詹尼将楼板设置在铸铁柱上形成一个像笼子一样的建筑物。

Skeleton construction, consisting of steel beams and columns, was first used in 1889.

框架建筑，由钢梁和柱组成，最早运用于1889年。

As a consequence of skeleton construction, the enclosing walls become a \wall\

随着框架建筑的出现，围护墙体成了“幕墙”，不再起承重的功能。

Masonry was the curtain wall material until the 1930's, when light metal and glass curtain walls were used.

二十世纪三十年代以前都是采用砖石作为幕墙材料，此后都是用轻型金属和玻璃作为幕墙材料。

After the introduction of the steel skeleton, the height of buildings continued to increase rapidly.

随着钢结构的引入，建筑物的高度迅速增加。

All tall buildings were built with a skeleton of steel until World War II. 直到二次世界大战，所有的高层建筑都采用钢结构。

After the war, the shortage of steel and the improved quality of concrete led to tall buildings being built of reinforced concrete.

战后，钢材的短缺和混凝土质量的改进，促使高层建筑采用钢筋混凝土。

Marina Towers (1962) in Chicago is the tallest concrete building in the United States；its height—588 feet (179 meters)—is exceeded by the 650-foot (198-meter) Post Office Tower in London and by other towers．

芝加哥的Marina塔是美国最高的混凝土建筑；它的高度（179m）被伦敦的邮政大楼（198m）和其它的塔超过了

A change in attitude about skyscraper construction has brought a return to the use of the bearing wall.

对摩天大楼看法的改变，使得承重墙体又重新获得使用。

In New York City, the Columbia Broadcasting System Building, designed by Eero Saarinen in 1962, has a perimeter wall consisting of 5-foot (1.5-meter) wide concrete columns spaced 10 feet (3 meters) from column center to center.

在纽约市，埃诺沙里宁设计的哥伦比亚广播系统大楼，有一个由5英尺（1.5米）

宽，相邻柱的中心距为10英尺（3米）的混凝土柱组成的围墙。 This perimeter wall, in effect, constitutes a bearing wall. 这片围墙实际上组成了一个承重墙体。

One reason for this trend is that stiffness against the action of wind can be economically obtained by using the walls of the building as a tube; the World Trade Center, buildings are another example of this tube approach.

产生这种趋势的一个理由是，利用建筑物的墙壁作为一个筒体，可以非常经济地获得抵抗风荷载作用的足够刚度；世界贸易大厦是这种筒体方法的另一个例证。

In contrast, rigid frames or vertical trusses are usually provided to give lateral stability.

与之对比，刚性框架或垂直桁架通常提供侧向稳定性。

The skin of a building consists of both transparent elements (windows) and opaque elements (walls).

建筑物的外墙由透明部分（窗户）和不透明部分（实墙）组成。

Windows are traditionally glass, although plastics are being used, especially in schools where breakage creates a maintenance problem.

窗户是传统的玻璃，尽管也采用塑料，特别是在学校，打碎玻璃常引起维修方面的问题。

The wall elements, which are used to cover the structure and are supported by it, are built of a variety of materials: brick, precast concrete, stone, opaque glass, plastics, steel, and aluminum.

实墙用于结构的维护以及承重，可以用各种各样的材料：砖，预制混凝土，石头,不透明物玻璃，塑料，钢和铝。

Wood is used mainly in house construction; it is not generally used for commercial, industrial, or public buildings because of the fire hazard.

木材主要用于住宅类建筑，商业、工业或其它公共建筑，考虑到火灾的危险性不常使用。

The construction of the floors in a building depends on the basic structural frame that is used.

楼板层的施工取决于所采用的基本结构框架。

In steel skeleton construction, floors are either slabs of concrete resting on steel beams or a deck consisting of corrugated steel with a concrete topping.

在钢结构中，楼板层可以是放置在钢梁上的混凝土平板也可以是表面附有混凝土的波纹钢组成的楼板。

In concrete construction, the floors are either slabs of concrete on concrete beams or a series of closely spaced concrete beams (ribs) in two directions topped with a thin concrete slab, giving the appearance of a waffle on its underside.

在混凝土结构中，楼板层可以是放置在混凝土梁上的平板，也可以是井字型肋梁楼盖，下腹看起来就象华夫饼干。

The kind of floor that is used depends on the span between supporting columns or walls and the function of the space.

这种楼板结构形式取决于支撑的柱或墙的跨度以及空间的功能。

In an apartment building, for instance, where walls and columns are spaced at 12 to 18 feet (3.7 to 5.5 meters), the most popular construction is a solid concrete slab with no

beams.

举例来说，在一个公寓建筑物中，墙壁和柱子的跨度是3.7m到5.5m，最流行的是不带梁的混凝土平板。

The underside of the slab serves as the ceiling for the space below it. 平板的下方是下部空间的天花板。

Corrugated steel decks are often used in office buildings because the corrugations when enclosed by another sheet of metal form ducts for telephone and electrical lines.

办公建筑中常采用波纹钢板，这是因为波纹钢地板的波纹由另一块金属板盖上时，就成为电话线和电线的管道。

A modern building not only contains the space for which it is intended (office, classroom, apartment) but also contains ancillary space for mechanical and electrical systems that help to provide a comfortable environment.

一个现代建筑不仅包括它所需要的空间 （办公室、教室、公寓），还包括帮助提供舒适环境的机械和电力系统的辅助空间。

These ancillary spaces in a skyscraper office building may constitute 25% of the total building area.

一幢摩天办公大厦的辅助空间可能占到总建筑面积的25%。

The importance of heating, ventilating, electrical, and plumbing systems in an office building is shown by the fact that 40% of the construction budget is allocated to them. 在办公大楼中，供暖，通风，电力和卫生管道系统的重要性体现在工程预算的40%被分配给它们

Because of the increased use of sealed buildings with windows that cannot be opened, elaborate mechanical systems are provided for ventilation and air conditioning.

由于更多地采用不能开窗的密封性建筑，精良的机械系统被用来进行通风和空气调节。

Ducts and pipes carry fresh air from central fan rooms and air conditioning machinery.

通风管道从中央换气室和空气调节机带来新鲜空气。

The ceiling, which is suspended below the upper floor construction, conceals the ductwork and contains the lighting units.

悬吊在上部楼板结构下面的天花板，隐藏着管道系统，还包含照明设备。

Electrical wiring for power and for telephone communication may also be located in this ceiling space or may be buried in the floor construction in pipes or conduits.

用于动力和电话通讯的电力配线，也可以被安置在天花板空间内，或被埋置在楼板结构中的管道内。

There have been attempts to incorporate the mechanical and electrical systems into the architecture of buildings by frankly expressing them; for example, the American Republic Insurance Company Building (1965) in Des Moines, Iowa, exposes both the ducts and the floor structure in an organized and elegant pattern and dispenses with the suspended ceiling. 已经有人尝试在建筑物里将混合的机械和电力系统暴露出来。举例来说，在爱荷华州首府得梅因的美国共和保险公司大楼（1965），管道和楼板结构以一种有组织和优雅的形式暴露在外，并且省掉了悬挂的天花板。

This type of approach makes it possible to reduce the cost of the building and permits innovations, such as in the span of the structure.

这种方法使得减少建筑物的花费成为可能，并且可以允许革新，例如在结构的跨度方面。

All buildings are supported on the ground; and therefore the nature of the soil becomes an extremely important consideration in the design of any building.

所有的建筑物都支撑在地面上，因此，土体的性质成为任何建筑设计中极为重要的考虑因素。

The design of a foundation depends on many soil factors, such as type of soil, soil stratification, thickness of soil layers and their compaction, and groundwater conditions. 基础的设计取决于许多土体因素，比如土体类型、土体分层、土层厚度以及它们的密实性和地下水条件。

Soils rarely have a single composition; they generally are mixtures in layers of varying thickness.

土体很少有一个单一的成分。它们通常是不同厚度土层的混合物。

For evaluation, soils are graded according to particle size, which increases from silt to clay to sand to gravel to rock.

为了评估，土壤根据颗粒的大小被分为淤泥、粘土、砂土、砂砾和岩石。

In general, the larger particle soils will support heavier loads than the smaller ones. 一般来说，较大颗粒的土壤比颗粒小的土壤更能承重。

The hardest rock can support loads up to 100 tons per square foot (976.5metric tons/sq meter), but the softest silt can support a load of only 0.25 ton per square foot (2.44 metric tons/sq meter).

最坚硬的岩石每平方英尺可以承受100吨重量，而最软的淤泥只能承受每平方英尺0.25吨的重量。

All soils beneath the surface are in a state of compaction; that is, they are under a pressure that is equal to the weight of the soil column above it.

地表下所有的土壤都处于受压状态，也就是，这些土承受与作用在其上的土柱重量相等的压力。

Many soils (except for most sands and gravels) exhibit elastic properties—they deform when compressed under load and rebound when the load is removed.

许多土(除了大部分的砂土和砂砾以外) 表现出弹性性质，当处于荷载作用受压状态下它们发生变形，当荷载移开时，恢复原来的状态。

The elasticity of soils is often time-dependent, that is, deformations of the soil occur over a length of time which may vary from minutes to years after a load is imposed.

土壤的弹性性能通常随时间变化，也就是，当施加荷载作用后，土壤的变形可持续几分钟到几年的时间。

Over a period of time, a building may settle if it imposes a load on the soil greater than the natural compaction weight of the soil.

经过一段时间，一幢建筑物如果对土壤施加的作用力大于土所受的自然压力，建筑物会发生沉降。

Conversely，a building may heave if it imposes loads on the soil smaller than the natural compaction weight.

相反地，如果它作用于土壤的力小于土所受的自然压力，建筑物可能会被顶起来。 The soil may also flow under the weight of a building; that is, it tends to be squeezed out.

土壤也可能在建筑物重力作用下发生滑移，也就是，有可能被挤出。 Due to both the compaction and flow effects, buildings tend to settle. 由于受压和滑移作用，建筑物可能发生沉降。

Uneven settlements, exemplified by the leaning towers in Pisa and Bologna, can have damaging effects---the building may lean, walls and partitions may crack, windows and doors may become inoperative, and, in the extreme, a building may collapse.

不均匀沉降，例如比萨斜塔和博洛尼亚斜塔，会造成破坏性作用——建筑物发生倾斜，墙体和隔墙会发生裂缝，窗户和门无法打开，最严重的是，建筑物可能发生坍塌。 Uniform settlements are not so serious, although extreme conditions; such as those in Mexico City, can have serious consequences.

均匀沉降没有这么严重，尽管极端的一些情况，比如墨西哥城的那些沉降，就造成了严重的后果。

Over the past 100 years, a change in the groundwater level there has caused some buildings to settle more than 10 feet (3 meters).

在过去100年，地表水位的变动造成了一些建筑物沉降超过3m。

Because such movements can occur during and after construction, careful analysis of the behavior of soils under a building is vital.

因为这些移动会在施工时或施工完后发生，因此仔细分析建筑物下部的土体特性是至关重要的。

The great variability of soils has led to a variety of solutions to the foundation problem.

土的多变性决定了解决基础问题的多样化。

Where firm soil exists close to the surface, the simplest solution is to rest columns on a small slab of concrete (spread footing).

坚硬的土层接近于地表时，最简单的解决方法就是将柱子放置在一个小的混凝土板上 （扩展基础）。

Where the soil is softer, it is necessary to spread the column load over a greater area; in this case, a continuous slab of concrete (raft or mat) under the whole building is used.

土层较软时，有必要将柱荷载传递到一个较大的面积上 ，在这种情况下，在整个建筑物底下会采用连续的混凝土板（筏板或垫）。

In cases where the soil near the surface is unable to support the weight of the building, piles of wood, steel, or concrete are driven down to firm soil.

当地表附近的土体不能承载建筑物重量时，可将木桩、钢桩或混凝土桩打入硬土层。 The construction of a building proceeds naturally from the foundation up to the superstructure.

建筑物的施工自然是从基础再到上部结构。 The design process, however，proceeds from the roof down to the foundation (in the direction of gravity) .

然而，设计过程则是从屋顶到基础（按重力作用方向）。

In the past，the foundation was not subject to systematic investigation. 过去，基础并不依照系统调查而设计

A scientific approach to the design of foundations has been developed in the 20th century. 在20世纪，科学的基础设计方法才发展起来。

Karl Terzaghi of the United States pioneered studies that made it possible to make accurate predictions of the behavior of foundations, using the science of soil ，mechanics coupled with exploration and testing procedures.

美国的太沙基 运用土质学、力学、勘探和测试手段作出的最早研究让精确预测基础的行为成为可能。

Foundation failures of the past, such as the classical example of the leaning tower in Pisa, have become almost nonexistent.

过去基础的失事，比如经典的比萨斜塔，已经几乎不会再出现了。 Foundations still are a hidden but costly part of many buildings. 基础仍然是许多建筑物隐蔽而昂贵的部分。

This text mainly introduced the components of a building. It includes load-carrying frame, skin, floors, mechanical and electrical systems. In addition, we also knew some knowledge about the design of a foundation.

这篇文章主要介绍了建筑物的组成部分，它包括承重框架、外墙、楼板、机械和电气系统。此外，我们也了解到了一些有关基础设计的知识。

Soil mechanics is concerned with the use of the laws of mechanics and hydraulics in engineering problems related to soils．

土力学是在与土壤有关的工程问题中涉及到力学和水力学原则运用的一门学科。 Soil is a natural aggregate of mineral grains，with or without organic constituents，formed by the chemical and mechanical weathering of rock．

土壤是矿物粒的一种自然集合体，有的有有机成份，有的没有，这是通过岩石的化学和物理风化作用形成的。

It consists of three phases：solid mineral matter，water，and air or other gas． 它由三部分组成：固体的矿物质，水和空气或其他气体。

Soils are extremely variable in composition，and it was this heterogeneity that long discouraged scientific studies of these deposits．

土壤在构成上是非常多变的，长期阻碍对这些堆积物的科学研究的就是这种多相性。

Gradually，the investigation of failures of retaining walls，foundations，embankments，pavements，and other structures resulted in a body of knowledge concerning the nature of soils and their behaviour sufficient to give rise to soil mechanics as a branch of engineering science．

渐渐地，对挡土墙、基础、堤坝、道路和其他结构物破坏的调查得到了大量的关于土壤性质和它们的性能的知识，这足够使得土力学作为一门工程科学的分支。

Little progress was made in dealing with soil problems on a scientific basis until the latter half of the 18th century，when the French physicist Charles-Augustine de Coulomb published his theory of earth pressure(1773)．

直到18世纪后半叶人们在科学的基础上处理土壤问题这方面才取得了一点进步，当时法国物理学家查理出版了他的土压力理论。(make progress in doing sth. 在哪方面取得进步)

In 1 857 the Scottish engineer William Rankine developed a theory of equilibrium of earth masses and applied it to some elementary problems of foundation engineering．

1857年，苏格兰工程师William Rankine发展了一种土块均衡理论并把它运用在了一些最初的基础工程问题中。

These two classical theories still form the basis of current methods of estimating earth pressure，even though they were based on the misconception that all soils lack cohesion，as does dry sand．

这两个典型的理论还形成了当前估算土压力的方法的基础，即使它们是建立在所有土壤都象干沙那样缺乏内聚力这种误解上

Twentieth-century advances have been in the direction of taking cohesion into account；understanding the basic physical properties of soils in general and of the plasticity of clay in particular；and systematically studying the shearing characteristics of soils--that is，their performance under conditions of sliding．

20世纪的进展已经向着这些方向发展了，那就是：考虑内聚力、大体上理解土壤的基本物理性能，尤其要理解粘土的可塑性、系统地研究土壤的剪切特征——也就是，它们在滑移条件下的性能。

Both Coulomb’s and Rankine’s theories assumed that the surface of rupture of soil subjected to a shearing force is a plane．

Coulomb和Rankine的理论都假定遭受到一个剪切力的土壤破裂表面是平面。 While this is a reasonable approximation for sand，cohesive soils tend to slip along a curved surface．

虽然这对于沙而言是一个合理的近似面，但有凝聚力的土壤往往沿着一个曲面滑动。

In the early 20th century，Swedish engineers proposed a circular arc as the surface of slip． 在20世纪早期，瑞典的工程师提出以一个圆弧作为滑动面。

During the last half century considerable progress has been made in the scientific study of soils and in the application of theory and experimental data to engineering design． 在过去的半个世纪中，人们已经在土壤的科学研究和理论运用以及工程设计的实验数据等方面取得了相当大的进步。

A significant advance was made by the German engineer Karl Terzaghi，who in 1925 published a mathematical investigation of the rate of consolidation of clays under applied pressures．

德国工程师Karl取得了重大进展，他在1925年发表了在施加压力的情况下粘土固结率数学研究成果。

His analysis，which was confirmed experimentally，explained the time lag of settlements on fully waterlogged clay deposits．

他的分析，是实验上证实了的，解释了被完全浸透水的粘土堆积的沉降延时。 Terzaghi coined the term soil mechanics in 1925 when he published the book Erdbaumechanik (“Earth-Building Mechanics”)．

Terzaghi在1925年当他出版“Earth-Building Mechanics”这本书的时候创造了土力学这个术语。

Research on subgrade materials，the natural foundation under pavements，was begun about 1920 by the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads．

对路基材料也就是道路下面的自然基础的调查是在大约1920年由美国公共道路局开始着手的。

Several simple tests were correlated with the properties of natural soils in relation

to pavement design．

几个简单的测试是和道路设计有关的天然土壤的性能有关系的。 In England，the Road Research Board was set up in 1933． 在英国，1933年建立了道路研究委员会。

In 1936 the first international conference on soils was held at Harvard University． 1936年第一次国际土壤会议在哈佛大学举行。

Today，the civil engineer relies heavily on the numerical results of tests to reinforce experience and correlate new problems with established solutions．

如今，土木工程师在很大程度上要依赖测验的数字结果来使经验更具说服力，并把一些新问题和已确定的结果联系起来。

Obtaining truly representative samples of soils for such tests，however，is extremely difficult；hence there is a trend toward testing on the site instead of in the laboratory，and many important properties are now evaluated in this way．

然而，要获得真正的有代表性的土壤样本来做这些测试是非常困难的；因此，就有一种趋势是在现场测试代替在实验室测试，现在有很多重要的性能就是用这种方法被鉴定出来的。

Permeability is the property of a soil that permits the flow of water through it．Freezing-thawing cycles in winter and wetting-drying cycles in summer alter the packing density of soil grains．Permeability can be reduced by compaction．

渗透性是土壤允许水从中流过的性质。冬季的冰冻-融化周期和夏季的潮湿－干燥周期会改变土粒的填料密度。通过压实能降低渗透性。

Capillarity causes water to rise through the soil above the normal horizontal plane of free water．In most soils numerous channels for capillary action exist；in clays，moisture may be raised as much as 30 feet by capillarity．

毛细管作用导致水通过土壤上升到自由水的正常水平面上。在大多数土壤中都存在着许多毛细管作用的渠道；在粘土中，水分可以通过毛细管作用上升30英尺那么多。 Density can be determined by weight and volume measurements or by special measuring devices．

密度能够通过重量和体积测量法或者特殊的测量仪器来确定。

Stability of soils is measured by an instrument called a stabilometer，which specifically measures the horizontal pressure transmitted by a vertical load．

土壤的稳定性是通过一种叫稳定计的仪器来测量的，那是特定测量由垂直荷载传来的水平压力的。

Consolidation is the compaction or pressing together of soil that occurs under a specific load condition；this property is also tested．

固结就是土壤被压在一起，这是在一个特殊的荷载条件下发生的，这种性能也能被测试。

Soil surveys are conducted to gather data on the nature and extent of the soil expected to be encountered on a project．

进行土壤勘测是为了收集关于在一个工程中将要遇到的土壤的性质和范围的资料。

The amount of effort spent on site investigation depends on the size and importance of the project；it may range from visual inspection to elaborate subsurface exploration by boring and laboratory testing．

用在现场勘测上努力的多少取决于工程的规模和重要性；它可以从眼睛观察到通过钻孔和实验室测试的复杂的地下勘测。

Collection of representative samples is essential for proper identification and classification of soils．

具有代表性的样本的收集对于土壤恰当的鉴定和分类是必要的。

The number of samples taken depends on previously available data，variation in soil types，and the size of the project．

被采用的样本的数量取决于先前获得的资料，土壤类型的差异以及工程的规模。 Generally，in the natural profile at a location，there is more variation in soil characteristics with depth than with horizontal distance．

通常，在一个位置的天然数据图表中，在深度上土壤特性的差异比在水平距离上更大。

It is not good practice to collect composite samples for any given horizon(layer)，since this does not truly represent any one location and could prove misleading．

为任何给定的水平层收集复合样本是不好的做法，因为这不是真正代表任何一层，并可能被证明是令人误解的。

Even slight variations in soil characteristics in a horizon should be duly noted． 实际上，土壤特性在水平层上细微的差异应该被恰当的标注出来。

Classification of the soil in terms of grain size and the liquid and plastic limits are particularly important steps．

根据颗粒尺寸和液限塑限作土壤的分类是特别重要的步骤。

An understanding of the eventual use of the data obtained during site investigation is important．

对现场调查期间获得的数据的最后利用的理解是重要的。

Advance information on site conditions is helpful in planning any survey program． 对现场状况的事先的信息在规划任何勘察程序中都有帮助。

Information on topography，geological features(outcrops，road and stream cuts，lake beds，weathered remnants，etc．)，paleontological maps，aerial photographs，well logs，and excavations can prove invaluable．

关于地形、地质特征（矿脉的露出、道路和河流的交汇、湖床、风化的遗迹等等）、古生物学的地图、航测照片、油井的记录和挖掘的信息是无价的。

Geophysical exploration methods yield useful corroboratory data． 地球物理学的探测方法得出了有用的确定的数据。

Measurement of the electrical resistivity of soils provides an insight into several soil characteristics．

土壤电阻率的测定提供了对土壤的几种特性的理解。

Seismic techniques often are used to determine the characteristics of various subsurface strata by measuring the velocity of propagation of explosively generated shock waves through the strata．

通过测量穿过地层的突然产生的震动波的传播速度，地震技术通常被用来确定不同地下层的特性。

The propagation velocity varies widely for different types of soils． 传播速度对于不同的土壤类型有很大的区别。

Shock waves also are utilized to determine the depth of bedrock by measuring the

time required for the shock wave to travel to the bedrock and return to the surface as a reflected wave．

通过测定震动波传到基岩和作为反射波回到地面所需的时间，震动波还可用来确定基岩的深度。

Dependable subsurface information can only be obtained by excavation． 可靠的地表下层的信息只能通过挖掘获得。

A probe rod pushed into the ground indicates the penetration resistance． 插入地下的探针棒可显示穿透阻力。

Water jets or augers are used to bring subsurface materials to the surface for examination．

水喷射器或螺旋钻被用来把地下材料取出以作检验。

Colour change is one of the significant elements such an examination can reveal． 颜色变化是那一个测验能显示的重要的要素之一。

Various drilling methods are employed to obtain chips from depth． 不同的钻孔方法被用来获取不同深度的碎片。

Trenches or pits provide more complete information for shallow depths． 对于较浅的深度，沟渠或坑洼能提供更完整的信息。

Pneumatic or diamond drilling may be required if hard rock is encountered． 如果遇到坚硬的岩石的话，可以用气动法或钻刀法钻孔。

At least a few of the boreholes should exceed the depth of significant stress that is established for the structure．

至少一些地上凿孔应该超过被修建了结构的重要应力的深度。

Avoidance of structural disturbance of the samples is not critical for some tests but is very important for in-place density or shearing strength measurements．

结构混乱的样本的空缺对一些测试不重要，但是对于现场密度或剪切强度的测定却非常重要。

Complete and accurate records，such as borehole logs，must be prepared and maintained，and the samples themselves must be retained for future inspection．

完整的准确的记录，比如地上凿孔记录，必须准备和维持，并且样本本身也必须为将来的检验保留。

This text introduced the concept of soil mechanics and the history of soil mechanics development. We can learn from the text that the properties of soils that determine their suitability for engineering use include internal friction，cohesion，compressibility，elasticity，permeability，and capillarity．Site investigation is very important in engineering because of the variation of soils.

这篇文章介绍了土力学的概念和土力学发展的历史。从这篇文章中我们还可以了解到决定土壤适合工程应用的性能包括内摩擦力，内聚力，压缩性，弹性，渗透性和毛细管作用。由于土壤的多样性，所以现场调查在工程中就显得非常重要。

Materials for building must have certain physical properties to be structurally useful． 建筑材料必须具有某些对结构有用的物理性能。

Primarily，they must be able to carry a load, or weight, without changing shape permanently．

首先，它们必须能在不永久变形的情况下承受荷载或重量。

When a load is applied to a structure member，it will deform；that is, a wire will stretch or a beam will bend．

当荷载被施加到结构构件上时，构件将产生变形，即，钢丝将拉伸而梁将弯曲。 However，when the load is removed, the wire and the beam come back to the original positions．

然而，当荷载移除时，钢丝和梁都将恢复原来的状态。 This material property is called elasticity. 这种特性就被称为弹性。

If a material were not elastic and a deformation were present in the structure after removal of the load, repeated loading and unloading eventually would increase the deformation to the point where the structure would become useless.

如果材料不是弹性的，结构中的变形在荷载移除后仍然存在，那么重复加载和卸载将最终使变形增加到结构不能使用的程度。

All materials used in architectural structures，such as stone and brick, wood, steel, aluminum, reinforced concrete，and plastics，behave elastically within a certain defined range of loading.

在建筑结构中使用的所有材料，如石头和砖、木材、钢材、铝材、钢筋混凝土和塑料等，在某个有限的荷载范围内均表现出弹性。 If the loading is increased above the range，two types of behavior can occur：brittle and plastic. In the former, the material will break suddenly．

如果荷载增加到超过了这个范围，那么可能表现出两种特性：脆性和塑性。在前者中，材料将突然破裂。

Masonry consists of natural materials，such as stone，or manufactured products，such as brick and concrete blocks.

圬工包括天然材料，如石头，或者制成品，如砖和混凝土块。

Masonry has been used since ancient times；mud bricks were used in the city of Babylon for secular buildings，and stone was used for the great temples of the Nile Valley． 圬工从古代就开始被使用了；泥砖被用在巴比伦城市的非宗教建筑物中，石头被用在尼罗河流域的大寺庙中。

The Great Pyramid in Egypt, standing 481 feet(147 meters)high，is the most spectacular masonry construction．

埃及的大金字塔，高147m，是最壮观的圬工建筑。

Masonry units originally were stacked without using any bonding agent，but all modern masonry construction uses a cement mortar as a bonding material．

圬工单元最初是没有使用任何粘结剂而堆积在一起的，但是所有的现代圬工建筑都使用了水泥砂浆作为粘合材料。

Modern structural materials include stone，bricks of burnt clay or slate，and concrete blocks．

现代建筑材料包括石头，烧结粘土砖或板岩，以及混凝土砌块。

Masonry is essentially a compressive material；it cannot withstand a tensile force，that is，a pull．

圬工实质上是一种抗压材料；它不能承担拉力。

The ultimate compressive strength of bonded masonry depends on the strength of

the masonry unit and the mortar．

砌合的圬工材料的极限抗压强度取决于圬工单元和砂浆的强度。

The ultimate strength will vary from 1,000 to 4,000 psi(70 to 280 kg／sq cm)，depending on the particular combination of masonry unit and mortar used．

极限强度将在1000到4000psi之间变化，这取决于圬工单元和所使用的砂浆的特定组合。

Timber is one of the earliest construction materials and one of the few natural materials with good tensile properties.

木材是最早的建筑材料之一，是为数不多的具有好的抗拉特性的天然材料之一。 Hundreds of different species of wood are found throughout the world，and each species exhibits different physical characteristics．

世界各地可以发现成百上千个不同品种的木材，每一个品种都表现出不同的物理特征。

Only a few species are used structurally as framing members in building construction.

只有少数的种类在建筑施工中作为框架构件在结构中使用。

In the United States，for instance，out of more than 600 species of wood, only 20 species are used structurally．

比如，在美国，在超过600个木材品种中，只有20种在结构中使用。 These are generally the conifers，or softwoods，both because of their abundance and because of the ease with which their wood can be shaped．

这些通常是针叶松，或软木，是因为它们产量丰富并容易成型。

The species of timber more commonly used in the United States for construction are Douglas fir，Southern pine，spruce，and redwood.

在美国更通常被用于建筑的木材品种是美国松，南方松，云杉和红木。

The ultimate tensile strength of these species varies from 5,000 to 8,000 psi(350 to 560 kg／sq cm).

这些品种的极限抗拉强度从5000变化到8000psi。

Hardwoods are used primarily for cabinetwork and for interior finishes such as floors．

硬木最初是被用作细木家具和内部的成品，比如地板。 Because of the cellular nature of wood，it is stronger along the grain than across the grain．

因为木材多孔的特征，它沿纹理方向的强度比跨纹理方向的强度要大。 Wood is particularly strong in tension and compression parallel to the grain，and it has great bending strength．

木材在平行于纹理方向的抗拉和抗压能力都特别强，它还有很大的抗弯强度。 These properties make it ideally suited for columns and beams in structures． 这些特性使它在结构中非常理想地适用于梁和柱。

Wood is not effectively used as a tensile member in a truss, however, because the tensile strength of a truss member depends upon connections between members．

然而，木材却不能被有效地用作桁架中的抗拉构件，因为桁架构件的抗拉强度取决于构件之间的连接。

It is difficult to devise connections which do not depend on the shear or tearing

strength along the grain, although numerous metal connectors have been produced to utilize the tensile strength of timbers．

虽然生产了许多利用木材抗拉强度的金属连接器，但是很难设计与沿木材顺纹方向抗剪强度或抗扯裂强度关系不大的接头。 Steel is an outstanding structural material． 钢筋是一种重要的结构材料。

It has a high strength on a pound-for-pound basis when compared to other materials, even though its volume-for-volume weight is more than ten times that of wood. 当和其他材料比较时，相同重量的基础上它有更高的强度，即使相同体积的重量是木材的十倍。

It has a high elastic modulus，which results in small deformations under load． 它有较高的弹性模量，其结果就是荷载作用下变形较小。

It can be formed by rolling into various structural shapes such as I-beams，plates，and sheets； it also can be cast into complex shapes；and it is also produced in the form of wire strands and ropes for use as cables in suspension bridges and suspended roofs，as elevator ropes，and as wires for prestressing concrete．

它能通过碾压被做成不同的结构型式，比如I－梁，板和薄板；它还可以被浇铸成复杂的型式；它还可以被制成用作悬索桥和悬吊式屋顶中缆索的钢丝绳和钢丝索的形状，用作电梯吊索，和预应力混凝土的钢丝索。

Steel elements can be joined together by various means，such as bolting，riveting，or welding．

钢筋构件能通过不同的方式连接在一起，比如螺栓连接，铆接，或焊接。

Carbon steels are subject to corrosion through oxidation and must be protected from contact with the atmosphere by painting them or embedding them in concrete.

碳素钢在氧化作用下会腐蚀，必须要通过喷漆或把它们嵌入混凝土中从而避免与空气接触来加以保护。

Above temperatures of about 700 F(371℃)，steel rapidly loses its strength, and therefore it must be covered in a jacket of a fireproof material(usually concrete)to increase its fire resistance．

当温度高于371℃时，钢筋很快就会损失掉它的强度，因此必须要用一种防火材料（通常是混凝土）将它包裹起来以增加它的抗火性。

The addition of alloying elements，such as silicon or manganese，results in higher strength steels with tensile strengths up to 250,000 psi(17,500 kg／sq cm)．

加入合金元素，如硅或锰，将得到抗拉强度高达250000psi的高强度的钢筋。 These steels are used where the size of a structural member becomes critical，as in the case of columns in a skyscraper．

这些钢筋被用在结构构件的尺寸很重要的结构中，比如摩天大楼的柱子中。

Aluminum is especially useful as a building material when lightweight，strength，and corrosion resistance are all important factors．

当轻质、强度和抗腐蚀成为所有的重要因素时，铝就是一种特别有用的建筑材料。 Because pure aluminum is extremely soft and ductile, alloying elements, such as magnesium，silicon，zinc，and copper，must be added to it to impart the strength required for structural use．

因为纯铝非常软且具韧性，所以必须要添加一些合金元素，如锰、硅、锌和铜等，

以给它提供结构使用所需要的强度。

Structural aluminum alloys behave elastically． 结构铝合金表现出弹性。

They have an elastic modulus one third as great as steel and therefore deform three times as much as steel under the same load．

它们的弹性模量是钢筋的1/3，因此在相同的荷载条件下其变形就是钢筋的3倍。 The ultimate tensile strength of aluminum alloys ranges from 20,000 to 60,000 psi(1,400 to 4,200 kg／sq cm)．

铝合金的极限抗拉强度变化范围在20000到60000psi之间。

Aluminum can be formed into a variety of shapes；it can be extruded to form I-beams，drawn to form wire and rods, and rolled to form foil and plates.

铝能被塑造成不同的型式；它能被压制成I梁，拉伸成丝和棒，碾压成薄片和板。 Aluminum members can be put together in the same way as steel by riveting, bolting，and(to a lesser extent)by welding．

铝构件能用和钢筋一样的方式，铆接、螺栓连接和焊接等连接到一起。

Apart from its use for framing members in buildings and prefabricated housing，aluminum also finds extensive use for window frames and for the skin of the building in curtain-wall construction．

除了用于建筑物和预制装配式房屋中的框架构件以外，铝还有更广泛的用途用于窗框和幕墙建筑结构的外表面。

Concrete is a mixture of water，sand and gravel，and portland cement． 混凝土是水、砂和砾石、以及波特兰水泥的混合物。

Crushed stone, manufactured lightweight stone, and seashells are often used in lieu of natural gravel．

碎石、人造轻型石料和贝壳通常被用在自然砾石的场所。

Portland cement, which is a mixture of materials containing calcium and clay，is heated in a kiln and then pulverized．

波特兰水泥，它是钙和粘土的混和材料，在窑里加热然后研成粉末。

Concrete derives its strength from the fact that pulverized portland cement，when mixed with water, hardens by a process called hydration．

混凝土的强度来自于：粉碎的波特兰水泥，当和水混和的时候，就通过一个被称为水合作用的过程硬化。

In an ideal mixture，concrete consists of about three fourths sand and gravel(aggregate)by volume and one fourth cement paste．

在理想的混合物中，混凝土由大约3/4体积的砂和砾石（骨料）及1/4的水泥浆组成。

The physical properties of concrete are highly sensitive to variations in the mixture of the components，so a particular combination of these ingredients must be custom-designed to achieve specified results in terms of strength or shrinkage．

因为混凝土的物理特性对成分组合的变化十分敏感，所以这些成分的一个特定的组合就必须根据强度或收缩来习惯性地设计得到达特定的结果。

When concrete is poured into a mold or form，it contains free water，not required for hydration, which evaporates．

当混凝土被注入进一个模型时，它含有游离水，不需要水合作用，这些水会蒸发。

As the concrete hardens，it releases this excess water over a period of time and shrinks．

当混凝土硬化时，它会在一段时间释放出多余的水并收缩。 As a result of this shrinkage，fine cracks often develop． 收缩的结果往往是产生细微的裂缝。

In order to minimize these shrinkage cracks，concrete must be hardened by keeping it moist for at least 5 days．

为了使这些收缩裂缝减到最少，必须使混凝土在保持至少5天的潮湿状态下硬化。 The strength of concrete increases in time because the hydration process continues for years；as a practical matter，the strength at 28 days is considered standard．

混凝土的强度随着时间的增加而增强，因为水合作用会持续很多年；作为一种工程材料，28天强度被考虑作为标准。

Concrete deforms under load in an elastic manner． 混凝土在荷载下的变形是弹性模式。

Although its elastic modulus is one tenth that of steel，similar deformations will result since its strength is also about one tenth that of steel．

虽然其弹性模量是钢筋的1/10，但是将产生相近的变形，因为其强度也大约是钢筋的1/10。

Concrete is basically a compressive material and has negligible tensile strength． 混凝土基本上是一种抗压材料，抗拉强度是微不足道的。

Reinforced concrete has steel bars that are placed in a concrete member to carry tensile forces．

钢筋混凝土有放置在混凝土构件中用来承担拉力的钢条。

These reinforcing bars，which range in diameter from 0.25 inch(0.64 cm)to 2.25 inches (5.7 cm)，have wrinkles on the surfaces to ensure a bond with the concrete． 这些钢筋，直径范围从0.25英寸到2.25英寸，表面有纹路以保证和混凝土的粘结。 Although reinforced concrete was developed in many countries，its discovery usually is attributed to Joseph Monnier，a French gardener，who used a wire network to reinforce concrete tubes in 1868．

虽然钢筋混凝土在许多国家被生产，但是它的发现通常被归功于Joseph，一个法国的花匠，他曾在1868年使用钢筋网加固混凝土管。

This process is workable because steel and concrete expand and contract equally when the temperature changes．

这种做法切实可行是因为钢筋和混凝土在温度变化时其膨胀和收缩相等。

If this were not the case，the bond between the steel and concrete would be broken by a change in temperature since the two materials would respond differently．

如果情况不是这样，那么钢筋和混凝土间的粘结将在温度变化时受到破坏，因为这两种材料的反应不同。

Reinforced concrete can be molded into innumerable shapes，such as beams，columns，slabs，and arches，and is therefore easily adapted to a particular form of building． 钢筋混凝土可被浇铸成各种形状，例如梁、柱、板和拱，因此它易适用于建筑的特殊结构。

Reinforced concrete with ultimate tensile strengths in excess of 10,000 psi(700 kg／sq cm)is possible，although most commercial concrete is produced with strengths under

6,000 psi(420 kg／sq cm)．

极限抗拉强度超过10000psi的钢筋混凝土都是有可能的，虽然大多数生产出来的商业混凝土的强度都低于6000psi。

Plastics are rapidly becoming important construction materials because of the great variety，strength，durability，and lightness．

塑料因为它的多样化，强度，耐久性，和轻质性，很快就成为了重要的建筑材料。 A plastic is a synthetic material or resin which can be molded into any desired shape and which uses an organic substance as a binder．

塑料是一种合成材料或树脂，它能被浇铸成任何期望的形状，它还使用有机物质作为粘结剂。

Organic plastics are divided into two general groups：thermosetting and thermoplastic．

有机塑料被分为了两个大的类别：热凝性和热塑性。

The thermosetting group becomes rigid through a chemical change that occurs when heat is applied；once set，these plastics cannot be remolded．

当加热时，热凝性一类就会发生化学变化变硬；一旦凝固，这些塑料就不能够再重铸。

The thermoplastic group remains soft at high temperatures and must be cooled before becoming rigid，this group is not used generally as a structural material．

热塑性这一类在高温下仍保持柔软，而且在变硬以前必须要降温；这一类通常不能作为结构材料使用。

The ultimate strength of most plastic materials is from 7,000 to 12,000 psi(490 to 840 kg／sq cm)，although nylon has a tensile strength up to 60,000 psi(4.200 kg／sq cm)． 大部分塑料的极限强度在7000到12000psi之间，虽然尼龙的抗拉强度高达60000psi。

This text introduced some knowledge about building materials. Primarily, building materials must have elasticity. A second important property of a building material is its stiffness．The text introduced detailedly the following building materials which are used frequently: masonry, timber, steel, aluminum, concrete, reinforced concrete and plastic.

这篇文章介绍了建筑材料的一些知识。首先，建筑材料必须具有弹性。建筑材料的第二个重要特性是它的刚度。文章详细地介绍了一下几种常用的建筑材料：砖石材料、木材、钢材、铝、混凝土、钢筋混凝土和塑料。

All structures must be designed to support loads without danger of overall collapse or failure of the components．

所有的结构都必须被设计得在不出现全面的倒塌或构件的破坏等危险的条件下就能支撑荷载。

One way to assure structure safety is to ascertain that stresses and strains produced by loads are less than those allowed by established design codes．

保证结构安全的一种方法是确定由荷载产生的应力、应变比公认的设计规范所容许的应力、应变小。

This determination of stresses and strains in structures is a primary objective of structural analysis.

在结构中确定应力和应变是结构分析的主要的目的。

Generally，analysis begins with a check of the overall stability of a structure． 通常，分析是从检查结构的总体稳定性开始的。

This involves the determination of the forces exerted by the structure against its supports. 这涉及到确定结构施加到它的支撑的力。

If the supports are adequate to withstand the forces，they in turn react with equal but opposite forces against the structure.

如果支撑足够承受这些力，那么它们依次作用大小相等的反力到结构上。

If computation shows that the reactions balance the loads (weight of structure, occupants, stored materials，vehicles，wind，and earthquake forces)，the structure is in static equilibrium.

如果计算显示反力平衡了荷载（结构、人群、存放的材料等的重量，车辆荷载，风力和地震力），那么结构就处于静力平衡状态。

The next step is determination of internal forces and unit stresses in the components of the structure.

接下来的一步就是确定结构的各组成部分的内力和单位应力。

Finally，if necessary，the deformation of the structure as a whole and of its components may be calculated.

最后，如果需要的话，还可能计算结构整体和各部分的变形。

These steps are facilitated by use of principles and concepts such as the law of equilibrium.

通过使用一些原理和概念，比如平衡原理，可以简化这些步骤。

Many of these tools are based on the assumption that the structure is elastic under loads；that is, stress is proportional to strain．

这些工具中的许多都是基于这样一个假定：结构在荷载作用下是弹性的，也就是说，应力和应变成比例。

The structural analysis for stresses and strains in frame members includes consideration of static loads，such as the weight of the members and floors，contents of the building，and live loads (considered to be static)，and dynamic loads such as wind and earthquakes．

框架构件中，应力和应变的结构分析包括静荷载的考虑，比如构件和楼板的重量，建筑物容量的考虑，活荷载的考虑（被认为是静态的），动荷载比如风和地震荷载的考虑。 Because of the nature of wind and the lack of better information，wind forces are considered to be statically applied to the structure．

因为风的特性和缺乏更好的信息，所以风力往往被考虑成静止地施加到结构上。 The manner of calculating the loads and location of lines of action on the building face are prescribed by local building codes．

计算荷载的模式和作用到建筑物表面的（荷载）路线的位置由当地的建筑规范规定。

On the other hand，earthquake motions are applied at the base of the building from the ground below and are considered to be a random-type loading．

另一方面，地震运动从地下施加到建筑物的基础上，被考虑成随机荷载。

The analysis for gravity and wind loads is performed by the application of the usual methods for linear-elastic statically determinate and indeterminate structures．

重力和风荷载的分析是应用线弹性静定和超静定结构的常规方法进行的。

For earthquake forces，a building designed with a conventional rectangular configuration is analysed by the equivalent lateral load method prescribed by the local building code．

对于地震力，一个传统的矩形构造设计的结构物是通过当地建筑规范规定的等效侧向荷载方法来分析的。

For other types of irregular buildings having abrupt changes in plan and elevation，dynamic methods of analysis must be used in order to determine the internal stresses on all the components of the structure．

对于在平面和立面上有突然变化的其他类型的不规则建筑物，为了确定结构所有构件上的内应力，必须采用动力学分析方法。

These dynamic methods of analysis require an understanding of the principles of structural dynamics and vibrations of buildings．

这些动力学分析方法要求理解结构动力学原理和建筑物震动原理。

As such，because of the complexity of the methods，highly sophisticated computers are required to determine the solution of the many equations of motions of the structure．

同样地，因为这些方法的复杂性，就需要高尖端的计算机来确定结构运动的许多方程式的答案。

In general，the standard procedure for analysis is a consideration of the linear elastic behavior of the building．

通常，标准的分析程序就是考虑结构的线弹性特征。

However，for analysis of earthquake-resistant buildings for which collapse is to be avoided, inelastic and nonlinear dynamic behavior must be taken into account.

然而，对于要避免倒塌的抗震建筑的分析，则必须考虑非弹性和非线性的动态特征。

The law of equilibrium is basic in structural analysis. 平衡原理是结构分析的基础。

It is useful in computing external reactions of beams，trusses，frames，arches and other structures, as well as internal stresses.

它在计算梁、桁架、框架、拱和其他结构的外部反力和内应力时很有用。

For example, the structures in Fig.1 are acted upon by coplanar，nonconcurrent force systems，or loads and reactions．

比如，图1中的结构被作用了同一平面的，非共点的力系，或荷载和反力。 These must balance if the structures are stable． 如果结构是稳定的，那么这些力必须达到平衡。

When in equilibrium，the structures must satisfy three conditions：(1)The sum of the horizontal components of all the forces must equal zero；(2)the sum of the vertical components must equal zero；and (3)the sum of the moments about any axis normal to the plane must equal zero．

当处于平衡时，结构必须满足3个条件：（1）所有力的水平分力必须等于0；（2）垂直分力必须等于0；（3）对平面上任何法线轴的弯矩必须等于0。

The three independent equations permit three unknowns to be determined． 这3个独立方程能够确定出3个未知量。

Thus，the equilibrium equations can be used directly to compute the reactions，bending moments，shears，and therefore the stresses．

因此，平衡方程可以直接用来计算反力，弯矩，剪力和应力。

When these equations are satisfied，a structure is said to be statically determinate． 当这些方程都满足时，这个结构就被称为静定结构。 Fig. 1a is an example of such a structure；there are three unknowns－vertical and horizontal components of the reaction at the left end and a vertical reaction at the right end．

图1的a图就是这种结构的一个例子；有3个未知数——左端反力的垂直分力和水平分力以及右端的一个垂直反力。

The structures in Fig. 1b，with no horizontal reaction to balance the horizontal load，and Fig. 1c，with no balancing support moment，do not satisfy the law of equilibrium；they are unstable．

图1b中的结构没有水平反力来平衡水平荷载，图1c，没有平衡支撑弯矩，都不满足平衡原理；它们是不稳定的。

Another basic tool of structural analysis is the principle of superposition． 结构分析的另一个基本工具是叠加原理。 It states that the total moments，shears，stresses，and deflections caused by a group of loads are equal to the sum of the effects of the separate loads if the combined effects do not stress the material beyond the elastic limit．

它规定：如果组合作用没有使材料超出它的弹性限制的话，那么由一组荷载产生的总弯矩，剪力，应力和挠曲等于单独荷载的作用之和。

When the number of reaction components exceeds the number of independent equations that must be satisfied by the loads and reactions when equilibrium exists，the structure is statically indeterminate．

当反力的分力数量超过平衡存在时荷载和反力必须满足的独立方程的数量时，结构就是超静定的。

For example，if the columns of the rigid frame in Fig.2(a) are fixed at their bases d and e，there will be six reaction components，as indicated in Fig.2(b)．

比如，图2a中刚框架的柱子如果被固定在它们的基础d点和e点上的话，那么将有6个反作用分力，就像图2b显示的那样。

This structure will be indeterminate to the third degree，there are six unknowns，whereas the law of equilibrium yields only three equations．

这个结构将是3次超静定的，有6个未知数，而平衡条件只生成3个方程。

Approximate methods are available for the analysis of statically indeterminate structures．

对超静定结构的分析可用近似的方法。

These methods are based on the results of exact analysis or examination of models constructed of flexible materials．

这些方法是以对柔性材料建成的模型的分析或检验的结果为基础的。

Such studies show that in a rigid frame restrained against rotation at the base，the members change curvature somewhere near their midpoints，as indicated in Fig.2(c)． 这些研究显示：在基础部位被限制了旋转的刚框架中，构件会在它们的中点附近某个地方改变曲率，就像图2c显示的一样。

Bending moment is zero at such points．Thus，these points of contraflexure are equivalent to pin joints．

在这些点处弯矩为0。因此，这些反向弯曲的点就相当于铰接。

If their locations are assumed in the columns and the girder of the frame in Fig.2，and if it is also assumed that column shears are each equal to one-half the lateral load，the reactions may be found from the equations of equilibrium．

如果假定它们的位置在图2框架的柱和梁上，如果还假定每个柱剪力都等于侧向荷载的1/2，那么反力就可能从平衡方程中求出。

Similar approximate methods (described in the following subsection) have been used to estimate wind stresses in building frames (Fig.3)．

类似的近似方法（在下一小节中描述）已经被用来估算建筑框架中的风载应力。 The portal method of computing wind stresses in multistorey frames assumes that there are points of contraflexure at the midpoints of columns and girders and that each interior column will receive twice as much shear as an exterior column.

在多层框架中计算风载应力的门架式解法假定：柱和梁的中点存在反弯点，每根内柱承受的剪力是每根外柱承受剪力的两倍。

The resulting structure is statically determinate. 得到的结构就是静定的。

The cantilever method also assumes that there are points of contraflexure at the midpoints of columns and girders．

悬臂法也假定柱和梁的中点存在反弯点。

However，it further assumes that the direct stresses in the columns vary as the distance of the columns from the neutral axis，the centre of gravity of the columns.

然而，它进一步假定：柱内的直接应力会随着柱到中性轴（柱的重心）的距离而变化。

As with the portal method，a statically determinate structure results. 像用门架法一样，会得到一个静定结构。

Other approximate methods for determining the effects of horizontal loads on multistorey frames take into account the stiffness of the members．

确定水平荷载对多层框架的影响的其他近似方法考虑了构件的刚度。（这些方法包括……）

Many high buildings were designed with the aid of the portal or cantilever method at a time when the more theoretical (exact) methods available were the laborious，time-consuming Castigliano’s theorem and the method of least work．

许多高层建筑曾一度在门架法或悬臂法的帮助下被设计出来，那时可利用的更理论的（严密的）方法是既费力又耗时的Castigliano定理和工作量最小的方法。

However，with additional analytical methods and electronic computers available，the approximate methods are used only for preliminary estimates and spot-checking computer solutions．

然而，随着另外的分析方法和电子计算机的使用，近似方法就只被用于初步估算和现场检测的计算结果了。

The advent of the electronic computer has introduced methods of analysis for structural systems known as the flexibility or force method and the stiffness or displacement method. 电子计算机的出现已经引入了结构系统的被称为柔度法或力法和刚度法或位移法的分析方法。

These two methods consider the behavior of a structure in the linear elastic range of the material, and are applied to those structures which are statically indeterminate.

这两种方法考虑了结构在材料的线弹性范围内的特性，并被运用于那些超静定结构中。

The essence of the flexibility method is the superposition of displacements which are expressed in terms of the statically determinate force systems． 柔度法的本质是结构按静定力系表达的位移叠加。

The magnitudes of the redundant forces are determined from the known compatible displacement conditions of the structure.

多余的力的大小能从结构已知的一致位移条件确定。

In order to satisfy the compatibility requirements，it is necessary to solve n simultaneous linear equations, where n is the number of redundants in the structural system．

为了满足一致性要求，有必要解n个联立线性方程，其中n是结构系统中多余力的数量。

An equation is written for each known condition of displacement in the loaded structure．

在加载结构中每一个已知的位移条件就可以写一个方程。

Displacements must be calculated for (n+1) loading conditions, one equation for the applied loads and n equations for the effects of each of the redundants of the structure． 必须计算n+1个荷载条件下的位移，一个方程是施加了荷载列出的，n个方程是根据结构每一个多余力的影响列出的。

The stiffness method involves the consideration of linear and angular displacements as the unknown quantities in the analysis；otherwise the method is similar to the flexibility method. 刚度法涉及到在分析中将线位移和角位移考虑成未知量；否则，该方法就和柔度法近似。

Depending upon the number of unknowns，both methods may involve hand calculations for structures with only a few redundants，or for those structures which are more complex a matrix algebra format may be required for the solution．

这两种方法，取决于未知量的个数，都可能涉及到手算只有几个多余量的结构，或者那些在求解时要用到矩阵代数形式的更复杂的结构。

A comparison of the two methods indicates that each includes the inversion of a matrix．

这两种方法的比较表明：每一个都包括矩阵的倒置。

In the flexibility method the matrix is n by n the number of redundants. 在柔度法中，矩阵是n×n个未知量。

This method requires more matrix multiplications than the stiffness method． 这种方法比刚度法要求有更多的矩阵相乘。

In the stiffness method n is the number of possible movements of the joints which include displacements and rotations．

在刚度法中，n是接点处包括位移和转动的可能运动的数量。

The choice of the better method in any application depends upon the size of the matrix to be inverted.

在任何一次运用中选取最好的方法取决于要倒置的矩阵的规模。

Although most structures are analyzed for linear elastic behavior，certain extreme loading conditions，such as earthquake effects，require the analysis to be performed by taking into account the nonlinear mechanical properties of the material and the nonlinear

geometrical changes caused by the varying load on the structure．

虽然大多数结构都是用线弹性特征分析的，但是某些极端的荷载条件，比如地震影响，却要求分析时要考虑材料的非线性力学特征和由结构上变化的荷载导致的非线性几何变化。

This text introduced the laws and methods of structural analysis. The basic principles include the law of equilibrium and the principle of superposition. For statically indeterminate structures, approximate methods are often used.

这篇文章介绍了结构分析的原理和方法。基本原理包括平衡原理和叠加原理。对于超静定结构，通常使用近似方法。

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