美国宪法全文(中、英文版)

篇一：美国宪法

美利坚合众国宪法

（1787年9月17日）

序言

我们合众国人民，为了建立一个更完善的联邦，树立正义，确保内部安宁，提供共同防御，增进公共福利，并保证我们自身和子孙后代永享自由的幸福，特制定美利坚合众国宪法。

第一条 第一款 本宪法所授予的全部立法权均属于由参议院和众议院组成的合众国国会。

第二款 众议院由各州人民每两年选举产生的议员组成。每个州的选举人应具备该州州议会人数最多一院的选举人所需具备的资格。

凡年龄不满25岁，成为合众国公民未满7年以及当选时非其选出州居民者，不得为众议院议员。

众议员人数和直接税税额均应按本联邦所辖各州的人口比例分配于各州。各州人口数是指自由人总数加上所有其它人口的3／5.自由人总数包括必须在一定年限内服劳役的人，但不包括未被征税的印第安人。人口的实际统计应于合众国国会第一次会议后3年内和此后每10年内，依法律规定的方式进行。众议员人数以每3万人选出1人为限，但每州至少应有众议员1人；在实行此种人口统计前，新罕布什尔州可选出3人，马萨诸塞州8人，罗得岛州和普罗维登斯种植地1人，康涅狄格州5人，纽约州6人，新泽西州4人，宾夕法尼亚州8人，特拉华州1人，马里兰州6人，弗吉尼亚州10人，北卡罗来纳州5人，南卡罗来纳州5人，佐治亚州3人。

任何一州所选众议员中出现缺额时，该州行政长官应发布选举令以补足此项缺额。众议院应选举本院议长和其它官员，并独自享有弹劾权。

第三款 合众国参议院由每州州议会选出的两名参议员组成，参议员任期6年，每名参议员有一票表决权。

参议员在第一次选举后集会时，应即尽可能平均分为三组：第一组参议员应于第二年年终改选，第二组参议员应于第四年年终改选，第三组参议员应于第六年年终改选，以便每两年改选参议员总数的l／3.在任何一州州议会休会期间，如因辞职或其它原因而出现参议员缺额，该州行政长官在州议会召开下次会议补足缺额之前，任命临时参议员。

凡年龄未满30岁，为合众国公民末满9年以及当选时非其选出州居民者，不得为参议员。

合众国副总统应为参议院议长，但除非出现该院全体参议员的赞成票和反对票相等的情况，无表决权。

参议院应选定本院其它官员，遇副总统缺席或行使合众国总统职权时，应选举临时议长。参议院独自拥有审理一切弹劾案的全权。因审查弹劾案而开庭时，参议员应宣誓或做郑重宣言。合众国总统受审时，应由最高法院首席大法官主持审判。无论何人，非经出席参议员2／3人数同意，不得被定罪。

弹劾案的判决，应以免职和剥夺其担任和享有合众国荣誉职位、信任职位或高收益职位的资格为限；但被定罪者仍应依法接受起诉、审讯、判决和惩罚。

第四款 举行参议员和众议员选举的时间、地点和方式，由各州州议会自行规定，但除选举参议员地点一项外，国会可随时以法律制定或改变此类规定。

国会每年至少开会一次，除非国会以法律另订日期外，此会议应在12月的第一个星期一举行。

第五款 各院应自行审查本院议员的选举、报告选举结果和议员资格。各院议员出席过半数即构成议事的法定人数；不足法定人数时可逐日休会，并可依照各院规定的方式与罚则强迫缺席议员出席会议。

各院可制定其议事程序规则，处罚扰乱秩序的议员，并可经2／3议员的同意开除议员。各院应保持本院的会议记录，并不时予以公布，但各该院认为需要保密的部分除外。各院议员对任何问题的赞成票和反对票应依出席议员1／5的请求加载会议记录。

在国会开会期间，一院未经另一院同意不得休会3日以上，也不得从两院开会地点移往它处。

第六款 参议员和众议员应取得由法律规定，并从合众国国库中支付的服务报酬。两院议员，除犯有叛国罪、重罪和妨害治安罪外，在出席各自议院会议期间和往返于各自议院途中不受逮捕；也不得因其在各自议院发表的演说或辩论而在任何其它地方受到质问。参议员或众议员在当选任期内不得出任合众国当局在此期间设置或增加薪俸的任何文官职务；在合众国属下供职者，在继续任职期间，不得担任国会任何一院的议员。

第七款 所有征税议案应首先由众议院提出，但参议院可以如同对待其它议案一样，提出修正案或对修正案表示赞同。

众议院和参议院通过的每一议案，均应在成为法律之前送交合众国总统；总统如批准该议案，即应签署；如不批准，则应附上异议书将该议案退还给最初提出该项议案的议院。该院应将总统异议详细加载本院会议记录，并进行复议。如经复议后，该院2／3议员同意通过，即应将该议案连同异议书一起送交另一院，另一院亦应加以复议，如经该议院2／3议员认可，该项议案即成为法律。但在这种情况下，两院的表决应以投赞成票和反对票来决定，投赞成或反对票的议员姓名应分别加载各该院的会议记录。如议案在送交总统后10天内（星期日除外）未经总统退回，即视为业经总统签署，此项议案即成为法律；但如果因国会休会而阻碍该议案退还，则该项议案不能成为法律。

凡须经参议院和众议院一致同意的命令，决议或表决（有关休会问题者除外）均应送交合众国总统，以上命令、决议或表决须经总统批准始能生效。如总统不予批准，则应按照对于议案所规定的规则和限制，由参议院和众议院2／3议员再行通过。

第八款 国会拥有下列权力：

规定和征收直接税金、间接税、进口税与货物税，以偿付国债、提供合众国共同防御与公共福利，但所有间接税、进口税与货物税应全国统一；

以合众国的名义借贷款项；

管理合众国与外国的、各州之间的以及同印第安部落的贸易；

制定全国统一的归化条例和破产法；

铸造货币，确定国币和外币的价值，并确定度量衡的标准；

规定有关伪造合众国证券和通货的罚则；

设立邮政局并开辟邮路；

保障著作家和发明家对各自著作和发明在限定期限内的专有权利，以促进科学和实用技艺的进步；

设立低于最高法院的各级法院；

界定和惩罚在公海上所犯的海盗和重罪以及违反国际法的犯罪行为；

宣战，颁发捕获敌船许可证和报复性拘捕证，制定关于陆上和水上的拘捕条例；招募陆军和供给军需，但此项用途的拨款不得超过2年；

装备海军并供应给养；

制定统辖和管理陆海军的条例；

规定征招民兵，以执行联邦法律、平息叛乱和抵御外侮的条例；

规定民兵的组织、装备和纪律，规定用来为合众国服役的那些民兵的管理办法，但民兵军官的任命和按国会规定纪律，训练民兵的权力由各州保留；

在任何情况下，对由某些州让与合众国，经国会接受，充作合众国政府所在地的区域（其面积不超过10平方英里）行使专有的立法权；并对经州立法机构同意由合众国在该州购买的一切用于修筑要塞、军火库、兵工厂、船厂及其它必要建筑物的地方行使同样的权力；制定为执行上述各项权力和依据本宪法授予合众国政府或政府中任何机关或官员的其它一切权力所必要的和恰当的法律。

第九款 现有任何一州认为应予接纳的人员移居或入境时，国会在1808年以前不得加以禁止，但对于入境者可征收每人不超过10美元的税金或关税。

根据人身保护令享有的特权，除非在发生叛乱或入侵，公共治安需要终止此项特权时，不得终止。

不得通过公民权利剥夺法案或追溯既往的法律。

除依本宪法前文对人口普查或统计结果规定的比例证税外，不得征收人头税或其它直接税。

对于任何一州输出的货物，不得征收税金或关税：

任何贸易条例或税收条例不得给予一州入港以优于另一州港口的特惠；开往或来自一州的船舶不得强令其在另一州入港、出港或交纳关税。

除根据法律规定拨款外不得从国库支款；一切公款的收支报告和账目应不时予以公布。合众国不得授予贵族爵位；在合众国担任任何信任职位或高收益职位者，未经国会许可，不得接受任何外国君主或国家所赠与的任何礼物、金额、官职或爵位。

第十款 无论何州不得缔结条约结盟或加入邦联；不得颁发缉拿敌船许可证和报复性拘捕证；不得铸造货币；不得发行信用券；不得将金银以外的任何物品作为偿还债务的法定货币；不得通过公民权利剥夺法案、追溯既往的法律或损害契约义务的法律；不得授予任何贵族爵位。

无论何州，未经国会同意，不得对进出口货物征收进口税或间接税，但为执行该州检查法令所绝对必要者不在此限。任何一州对进出口货物所征得的一切间接税和进口税的净所得额应充当合众国国库之用；所有这类法律都应由国会负责修订与控制。

无论何州，未经国会同意，不得征收船舶吨位税，不得在和平时期保持军队或战舰，不得与另一州或外国缔结协议或条约，除非已实际遭受入侵或遇到刻不容缓的危险，不得进行战争。

第二条 第一款 行政权属于美利坚合众国总统。总统任期为4年，副总统任期与总统任期相同。总统和副总统的选举办法如下：

每个州依照该州议会规定的方式选派选举人若干名，其人数应与该州所应选派于国会的参议员和众议员的总数相等；但参议员或众议员或在合众国政府中担任信任职位或高收益者不得被选派为选举人。

选举人应在各自州内集会，投票选举2人，其中至少应有1人不是选举人同州的居民。选举人应开列名单，写明所有被选人和每人所得票数；在名单上签名作证，封印后送至合众国政府所在地，呈交参议院议长。参议院议长应在参议院和众议院全体议员面前开拆所有证明书，计算票数。获得选票最多者，如选票超出选举人总数的一半即当选总统。如不止1人获得过半数选票的且票数相等，众议院应立即投票选举其中1人为总统。如无人获得过半数票，则众议院应以同样方式从名单上得票最多的5人中选举1人为总统。但众议院选举总统时，应以州为单位计票，每州代表有1票表决权；以此种方式选举总统的法定人数为全国2／3的州各有1名或数名代表出席，并须取得所有州的过半数票始能当选。在总统选出后，获得选举人所投票数最多者即当选为副总统；但如有两人或数人获得相等票数，参议院应投票选举其中1人为副总统。

国会可决定选出选举人的时间以及选举人的投票日期，该日期须全国统一。

任何人除出生于合众国的公民或在本宪法通过时已为合众国公民者外，不得当选为总统。年龄未满35岁及居住在合众国境内居住未满14年者亦不得当选为总统。

如遇总统免职、死亡、辞职或丧失履行总统权力和责任的能力时，该项职务应移交给副总统。在总统和副总统均免职、死亡、辞职或丧失履行职务能力时，国会得依法律规定宣布某一官员代行总统职权，该官员即为代总统，直至总统恢复任职能力或新总统选出为止。总统在规定的时间获得服务报酬，此项报酬在其当选总统期间不得增加或减少。总统在任期内不得收受合众国或任何一州给予的任何其它酬金。

总统在就职前做如下宣誓或郑重声明：“我谨庄严宣誓（或郑重声明），我一定忠实执行合众国总统职务，竭尽全力，恪守、维护和捍卫合众国宪法。”

第二款 总统是合众国陆海军总司令，并在各州民团被征召为合众国服役时任民团总司令；总统可要求各行政部门长官就其职责有关事项提出书面意见，并有权对触犯合众国利益罪行发布缓刑令与赦免令，但弹劾案不在此列。

总统在咨询参议院并经该院出席议员2／3的赞成后，有权缔结条约；总统应提出人选，并在咨询参议院和取得其同意后，任命大使、其它使节和领事、最高法院法官以及任命手续

未经本宪法另行规定而须以法律加以规定的其它一切合众国官员。但国会认为合适的话，可根据法律将下级官员的任命权授予总统一人，或授予各级法院或各部部长。

总统有权委任人员填补参议院休会期间可能出现的官员缺额，此项任命应在参议院下次会议结束时满期。

第三款 总统应随时向国会提出有关国情的报告，并将他认为必要而妥善的议案提请国会审议；总统可于非常时期召集国会两院或任何一院举行会议，如两院对休会时间有意见分歧，总统可使两院休会到他认为适当的时间为止；总统应接见大使及其它使节；应监督一切法律的切实执行，并任命合众国的一切官员。

第四款 总统、副总统及合众国一切文职官员因叛国罪、贿赂罪或其它重罪与轻罪而受弹劲并被判定有罪时，应予以免职。

第三条 第一款 合众国的司法权属于最高法院及国会随时规定设置的下级法院。最高法院和下级法院的法官如行为良好可继续任职，并应在规定的时间得到服务报酬，此项报酬在他们继续任职期间不得减少。

第二款 司法权的所及范围如下：一切基于本宪法、合众国法律以及根据合众国权力所缔结或将缔结的条约而产生的普遍法律的衡平法的案件；一切涉及大使、其它使节和领事的案件；一切有关海事法和海事管辖权的案件；以合众国为当事人的诉讼；两个或数个州之间的诉讼；一州与另一州公民之间的诉讼；各州公民之间的诉讼；同州公民之间对他州让与土地的所有权的诉讼；一州或其公民同外国或外国公民或国民之间的诉讼。

涉及大使、其它使节和领事以及一州为当事人的一切案件，其初审权属于最高法院。对上述的所有其它案件，无论是法律方面还是事实方面，最高法院有上诉审理权，但须遵照国会所规定的例外与规则。

一切罪案，除弹劾案外，应由陪审团审判；审判应在犯罪发生的州内举行；但如不止在一个州内发生，审判应在国会以法律规定的一处或数处地点进行。

第三款 只有对合众国发动战争或依附、帮助、庇护合众国敌人者，才犯叛国罪。无论何人，非经两个证人对同一公然行为作证或本人在公开法庭上的供认，不得被判定为叛国罪。国会有权宣告对叛序国罪的惩治；但叛国罪犯公民权利的剥夺，不得影响其继承人的权益，除剥夺公民权利终身者外，不得包括没收财产。

第四条 第一款

第二款 各州对于其它州的公共法令、记录和司法程序应给予充分信任和尊重。国会可用一般法律规定此类法令、记录和司法程序的验定方法及其效力。每州公民均应享受其它各州公民的一切特权和豁免权。

篇二：美国宪法

美国宪法（中文）

序言

我们美利坚合众国的人民，为了组织一个更完善的联邦，树立正义，保障国内的安宁，建立共同的国防，增进全民福利和确保我们自己及我们后代能安享自由带来的幸福，乃为美利坚合众国制定和确立这一部宪法。

第一条

第一款 本宪法所规定的立法权，全属合众国的国会，国会由一个参议院和一个众议院组成。

第二款众议院应由各州人民每两年选举一次之议员组成，各州选举人应具有该州州议会中人数最多之一院的选举人所需之资格。凡年龄未满二十五岁，或取得合众国公民资格未满七年，或於某州当选而并非该州居民者，均不得任众议员。众议员人数及直接税税额，应按联邦所辖各州的人口数目比例分配，此项人口数目的计算法，应在全体自由人民－－包括订有契约的短期仆役，但不包括末被课税的印第安人－－数目之外，再加上所有其他人口之五分之三。实际人口调查，应於合众国国会第一次会议后三年内举行，并於其后每十年举行一次，

其调查方法另以法律规定之。众议员的数目，不得超过每三万人口有众议员一人，但每州至少应有众议员一人 ; 在举行人囗调查以前，各州得按照下列数目选举众议员 : 新罕布什尔三人、麻萨诸塞八人、罗德岛及普罗维登斯垦殖区一人、康涅狄格五人、纽约州六人．新泽西四人、宾夕法尼亚八人、特拉华一人、马里兰六人、弗吉尼亚十人、北卡罗来纳五人、南卡罗来纳五人、乔治亚三人。任何一州的众议员有缺额时，该州的行政长官应颁选举令，选出众议员以补充缺额。众议院应选举该除议长及其他官员 ; 只有众议院具有提出弹劾案的权力。

第三款合众国的参议院由每州的州议会选举两名参议员组成之，参议员的任期为六年，每名参议员有一票表决权。参议员於第一次选举后举行会议之时，应当立即尽量均等地分成三组。第一组参议员的任期，到第二年年终时届满，第二组到第四年年终时届满，第三组到第六年年终时届满，俾使每两年有三分之一的参议员改选 ; 如果在某州州议会休会期间，有参议员因辞职或其它原因出缺，该州的行政长官得任命临时参议员，等到州议会下次集会时，再予选举补缺。凡年龄未满三十岁，或取得合众国公民资格未满九年，或於某州当选而并非该州居民者，均不得任参议员。合众国副总统应为参议院议长，除非在投票票数相等时，议长无投票权。参议院应选举该院的其他官员，在副总统缺席或执行合众国总统职务时，还应选举临时议长。所有弹劾案，只有参议院有权审理。在开庭审理弹劾案时，参议员们均应宣誓

或誓愿。如受审者为合众国总统，则应由最高法院首席大法官担任主席 ; 在末得出席的参议员的三分之二的同意时，任何人不得被判有罪。弹劾案的判决，不得超过免职及取消其担任合众国政府任何有荣誉、有责任或有俸给的职位之资格 ;但被判处者仍须服从另据法律所作之控诉、审讯、判决及惩罚。

第四款 各州州议会应规定本州参议员及众议员之选举时间、地点及程序 ; 但国会得随时以法律制定或变更此种规定，惟有选举议员的地点不在此例。国会应至少每年集会一次，开会日期应为十二月的第一个星期一，除非他们通过法律来指定另一个日期。

第五款 参众两院应各自审查本院的选举、选举结果报告和本院议员的资格，每院议员过半数即构成可以议事的法定人数 ;不足法定人数时，可以一天推一天地延期开会，并有权依照各该议院所规定的程序和罚则，强迫缺席的议员出席。参众两院得各自规定本院的议事规则，处罚本院扰乱秩序的议员，并且得以三分之二的同意，开除本院的议员。参众两院应各自保存一份议事记录，并经常公布，惟各该院认为应保守秘密之部分除外 ; 两院议员对於每一问题之赞成或反对，如有五分之一出席议员请求，则应记载於议事记录内。在国会开会期间，任一议院未得别院同意，不得休会三日以上，亦不得迁往非两院开会的其他地点。

第六款参议员与众议员得因其服务而获报酬，报酬的多寡由法律定之，并由合众国国库支付。两院议员除犯叛国罪、重罪以及扰乱治安罪外，在出席各该院会议及往返各该院途中，有不受逮捕之特权 ; 两院议员在议院内所发表之演说及辩论，在其它场合不受质询。参议员或众议员不得在其当选任期内担任合众国政府任何新添设的职位，或在其任期内支取因新职位而增添的俸给 ; 在合众国政府供职的人，不得在其任职期间担任国会议员。

第七款 有关徵税的所有法案应在众议院中提出 ; 但参议院得以处理其它法案的方式，以修正案提出建议或表示同意。经众议院和参议院通过的法案，在正式成为法律之前，须呈送合众国总统 ; 总统如批准，便须签署，如不批准，即应连同他的异议把它退还给原来提出该案的议院，该议院应将异议详细记入议事记录，然后进行复议。倘若在复议之后，该议院议员的三分之二仍然同意通过该法案，该院即应将该法案连同异议书送交另一院，由其同样予以复议，若此另一院亦以三分之二的多数通过，该法案即成为法律。但遇有这样的情形时，两院的表决均应以赞同或反对来定，而赞同和反对该法案的议员的姓名，均应由两院分别记载於各该院的议事记录之内 。如总统接到法案后十日之内 (星期日除外) ，不将之退还，该法案即等於曾由总统签署一样，成为法律¨准有当国会休会因而无法将该法案退还时，该法案才不得成为法律。任何命令、决议或表决 (有关休会问题者除外) ，凡须由参议院及众议院予以同意者，均应呈送合众国总统 ; 经

其此准之后，方始生效，如总统不予批准，则参众两院可依照对於通过法案所规定的各种规则和限制，各以三分之二的多数，再行通过。

第八款 国会有权规定并徵收税金、捐税、关税和其它赋税，用以偿付国债并为合众国的共同防御和全民福利提供经费 ;但是各种捐税、关税和其它赋税，在合众国内应划一徵收 ;以合众国的信用举债 ;管理与外国的、州与州间的，以及对印第安部落的贸易 ;制定在合众国内一致适用的归化条例，和有关破产的一致适用的法律 ;铸造货币，调议其价值，并厘定外币价值，以及制定度量衡的标准 ;制定对伪造合众国证券和货币的惩罚条例 ;设立邮政局及延造驿路 ;为促进科学和实用技艺的进步，对作家和发明家的著作和发明，在一定期限内给予专利权的保障 ;设置最高法院以下的各级法院 ;界定并惩罚海盗罪、在公海所犯的重罪和违背国际公法的罪行;宣战，对民用船苹颁发捕押敌船及采取报复行动的特许证，制定在陆地和海面虏获战利晶的规则 ;募集和维持陆军，但每次拨充该项费用的款项，其有效期不得超过两年 ;配备和保持海军;制定有开管理和控制陆海军队的各种条例 ;制定召集民兵的条例，以便执行联邦法律，镇压叛乱和击退侵略 ;规定民兵的组织、装备和训练，以及民兵为合众国服务时的管理办法，但各州保留其军官任命权，和依照国会规定的条例训练其民团的权力 ;对於由某州让与而由国会承受，用以充当合众国政府所在地的地区 (不逾十哩见方) ，握有对其一切事务的全部立法权 ; 对於经州议会同意，向州政府购得，用以建筑要塞、弹药库、兵工厂、船坞

篇三：美国宪法

Chapter 6

Government and Politics

in the United States

A wise and frugal government shall restrain men from injuring one another.

[And] shall leave them otherwise free to regulate their own pursuit of industry and improvement.

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) Before You Read

Preview Vocabulary

A. Read the following sentences from the chapter and notice the words in italics. These key AWL words will help you understand the chapter reading. Use context clues to help you figure out the meanings. Then choose which definition is best for the italicized word. _______ 1. The way in which the national government is organized in the U.S. Constitution

provides an excellent illustration of the American suspicion of governmental power.

a. example that shows the truth very clearly

b. argument against an idea

_______ 2. The judicial branch both interprets the law and determines whether the law is

constitutional-that is, whether the law is permitted under the U.S. Constitution. a. explains

b. rejects

_______ 3. The Senate has certain powers over foreign treaties and military actions.

a. relating to legislative matters

b. relating to war

_______ 4. This requires the president to have "the advice and consent of the Senate" before

taking certain action on the international front.

a. permission to do something

b. a careful plan for action

_______ 5. The Bill of Rights guarantees the right of a fair criminal procedure for those

accused of breaking laws.

a.

b. punishment method

_______ 6. The recount found an even smaller margin, fewer than 1,000 votes separating the

two candidates.

a. difference (in the number of votes)

b. problem with the voting process

_______ 7. After a series of legal challenges, the U.S. Supreme Court decided about a month

after the election that the Florida state legislature had a right to stop recounting

the ballots and certify the electoral votes.

a. events that are related and have a particular result

b. events that break the law and have consequences

_______ 8. The Great Depression of the 1930s greatly weakened the businessperson's

position as the American ideal of the free individual, and big business lost

respect.

a. a time when there was not much business activity and many people had no jobs

b. a time when there was much corruption and greed among business leaders

_______ 9. The widespread unemployment and other economic hardships of the Depression

gave rise to the assumption that individuals could not be expected to rely solely

on themselves in providing for their economic security.

a. promise that something will happen in the future

b. belief (that you think is true although you have no proof)

_______ 10. Still, it is individuals, their rights, their interests, and their ambitions, not those

of the nation as a whole, that are the focus of attention.

a.

b. emphasis difficulty

B. Read the quotation by Thomas Jefferson at the beginning of the chapter and find the

words with the following meanings. Write each word next to its meaning.

___________________________1.

___________________________2.

___________________________3.

___________________________4. the act of trying to get something prevent someone from doing something to control an activity by ruleshurting

A Suspicion of Strong Government

1The ideal of the free individual has had a profound effect on the way Americans view their government. Traditionally, there has been a deep suspicion that government is the natural enemy of freedom, even if it is elected by the people. The bigger and stronger the government becomes, the more dangerous many Americans believe it is to their individual freedom.

2This suspicion of strong government goes back to the men who led the American Revolution in 1776. These men believed the government of Great Britain wanted to discourage the freedom and economic opportunities of the American colonists by excessive taxes and other measures which would ultimately benefit the British aristocracy and monarchy. Thomas Paine, the famous revolutionary writer, expressed the view of other American revolutionists when he said, "Government even in its best state is but a necessary evil; in its worst state, an intolerable one."

The Organization of the American Government

3The way in which the national government is organized in the U.S. Constitution provides an excellent illustration of the American suspicion of governmental power. The provisions of the Constitution are more concerned with keeping the government from doing evil than with enabling it to do good. The national government, for example, is divided into three separate branches. This division of governmental power is based on the belief that if anyone part or branch of government has all, or even most of the power, it will become a threat to the freedom of individual citizens. 4The legislative or lawmaking branch of the government is called the Congress. Congress has two houses—the Senate, with two senators from each state regardless of the size of its population, and the House of Representatives, consisting of a total of 435 representatives divided among the fifty states by population. (In the House, states with large populations have more representatives than states with small populations, while in the Senate, each state has equal representation.) The president, or chief executive, heads the executive branch, which has responsibility to carry out the laws. The Supreme Court and lower national courts make up the judicial branch. The judicial branch settles disputes about the exact meaning of the law through court cases. It both interprets the law and determines whether the law is constitutional-that is, whether the law is permitted under the U.S. Constitution.

5 If anyone of the three branches starts to abuse its power, the other two may join together to stop it, through a system of checks and balances. The Constitution is most careful in balancing the powers of the legislative and executive branches of the government because these two (Congress and the president) are the most powerful of the three branches. In almost every important area of governmental activity, such as the power to make laws, to declare war, or to conclude treaties with foreign countries, the Constitution gives each of these two branches enough power to prevent the other from acting on its own.

6 Observers from other countries are often confused by the American system. The national government may seem to speak with two conflicting voices, that of the president and that of Congress. For example, a treaty with a foreign government signed by the president dies if the Senate refuses to ratify it—that is, if the Senate doesn't vote to accept it. The Senate has certain powers over foreign treaties and military actions. This requires the president to have "the advice and consent of the Senate" before taking certain action on the international front.

7On the other hand, the president may prevent a bill passed by Congress from becoming law. When both houses of Congress have agreed on a piece of legislation or a resolution, it is sent to the president. The president has ten days to act, not counting Sundays. At that point, there are four possibilities:

1. The president agrees with the bill, signs it, and it becomes law.

2. The president disagrees with the bill, vetoes it, and sends it back to the Congress with his reasons for refusing to sign it. If two-thirds of both the House and the Senate vote to override the president's veto, the bill becomes law.

3. The president may take no action and after ten days (not counting Sundays), the bill becomes law without his signature.

4. If the Congress adjourns1 before the ten-day period is over, and the president has neither 1 Adjourns: stops meeting for a short time

signed nor vetoed the bill, it is defeated. This is called a pocket veto. Presidents sometimes do this with bills they do not like but do not want to go on record as having vetoed.

8 Although the American system of divided governmental power strikes many observers as inefficient and even disorganized, most Americans still strongly believe in it for two reasons: (1) It has been able to meet the challenges of the past, and (2) it gives strong protection to individual freedoms.

9 In addition to dividing government powers into three branches, the Constitution includes a Bill of Rights which is designed to protect specific individual rights and freedoms from government interference. Some of the guarantees in the Bill of Rights concern the freedom of expression. The government may not interfere with an individual's freedom of speech or freedom of religious worship. The Bill of Rights also guarantees the right of a fair criminal procedure for those accused of breaking laws. Thus, the Bill of Rights is another statement of the American belief in the importance of individual freedom.

The Election of the President and the Congress

10 The president and both houses of Congress have almost complete political independence from each other because they are all chosen in separate elections. For example, the election of the Congress does not determine who will be elected president, and the presidential election does not determine who will be elected to either house of Congress. It is quite possible in the American system to have the leader of one political party win the presidency while the other major political party wins most of the seats in Congress. It is also important to remember that the elections of the members of the two houses of Congress are separate from each other. Thus, the Republicans may control one house, while the Democrats may control the other. During the late 1900s, while most of the presidents were Republican, the Democrats often controlled one or both of the houses of Congress. In 1994, the reverse happened: While Bill Clinton, a Democrat, was president, the Republicans won control of both the House of Representatives and the Senate. Then in the early 2000s, for a time the Republican Party controlled the presidency (George W. Bush) and both houses of Congress.

11 In order to understand what is happening in Washington, it is important to know not only the party of the president, but also which parties control the House and the Senate. Because both the House of Representatives and the Senate must agree on all legislation before it goes to the president, legislation may pass one house but be blocked in the other. Furthermore, the party in control of the House or Senate has the potential of changing every two years. Members of the House of Representatives are elected for two-year terms, while senators serve six-year terms. The Senate terms are staggered2 so that only one-third of the senators run for re-election each time the House elections are held, every two years.

12 Presidential elections are held every four years, on the first Tuesday in November. When the Constitution was written, the founding fathers had a disagreement about how the president should be elected. Some did not want the members of Congress to choose the president, and others were afraid to leave the choice entirely to the voters. The result was a compromise—the electoral 2 staggered: arranged so that their terms of office (time serving as a senator or representative) to not all begin and end at the same time

college, a system for indirectly electing the president. The system persists today. In presidential elections, people are actually voting for representatives called electors, and it is these electors who officially choose the president. With the electoral college system, the winner of the plurality (the highest number) of each state's popular votes gets all of that state's electoral votes. The number of each state's electoral votes is equal to the total number of their representatives in the House and the Senate. Though the number of electoral votes varies according to each state's population, it is still possible for a person to be elected president without getting the highest number of the popular, or individual, votes.

13 Although Americans were aware of the electoral college system, the average voter did not give it much thought until the election of 2000. There had been only three previous instances of presidents ever losing the popular vote but winning the electoral vote, and it seemed a remote possibility. The last time it had happened was in 1888, when Benjamin Harrison won the presidency even though Grover Cleveland had the majority of popular votes. All through the 1900s, the presidents who were elected had won at least a plurality, the highest number of the popular votes, in addition to winning the electoral votes. However, in the election of 2000, Al Gore, the Democratic candidate, won more popular votes than George W Bush, the Republican candidate, but Bush won the most electoral votes and became president. In the 2004 election between George W Bush and John Kerry, the electoral college was not an issue, because Bush won both the popular vote and the electoral vote.

14The result sent shock waves through the American political system. One reason was that the vote was incredibly close, and several states had to count their votes a second time. The state with the most controversial results was Florida, where the governor of the state was Jeb Bush, George W Bush's brother. Although Gore had won the popular vote nationwide, whoever won the twenty-five Florida electoral votes would win the election. The first count of the votes showed a difference of less than one-half of 1 percent, so there was a recount by machine. This found an even smaller margin, fewer than 1,000 votes separating the two candidates.

15There were many questions about the voting procedures in Florida, especially about certain ballots marked by punching a hole next to the name of the candidate. Some of the holes were not punched all the way through, leaving what's called a "hanging chad." Therefore, a number of the ballots had to be recounted and examined by hand. The results were extremely close. The recount showed Bush winning by 537 votes out of the almost 6 million votes cast. The Florida government declared Bush the winner, but the Gore campaign wanted more ballots recounted because the numbers were so close. After a series of legal challenges, the U.S. Supreme Court decided about a month after the election that the Florida state legislature had the right to stop recounting the ballots and certify the electoral votes. The Supreme Court ruled that a state has the ultimate right to determine how its electors are chosen.

The Ideal of the Free Individual

16 In the late 1700s, most Americans expected the new national government created by the Constitution to leave them alone to pursue their individual goals. They believed the central purpose of government was to create the conditions most favorable to the development of the free individual.

17 Before the Civil War of the 1860s, the American ideal of the free individual was the frontier

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