aandumj雅 - 思写作课程教案

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IELTS Writing

雅思写作

课程教案

Foreign Language Teaching and Research Department

Heilongjiang University

Chapter One

雅思学术类（A类）写作考试简介

I. Teaching Objectives

On completion of this Chapter, students should be able to: 1. have some information about IELTS Writing 2. have some insights into the procedure of the exam.

II. The Points to Be Highlighted

雅思写作要求考生60分钟内完成两篇作文。A类、G类小作文不同，大作文相同。 Task 1要求考生在20分钟内完成一篇至少150词的文章。G类要求考生针对题目要求写一封信（投诉信、请求信、建议信、寻找失物信和邀请信）；A类要求考生针对题目要求写一个报告，对图表或表格进行描述或说明。小作文一般180－200词左右为宜。

Task 2要求考生在40分钟内完成一篇至少250词的议论文。G类一般比A类简单些，有时G类作文曾是A类作问题。Task 2要求考生对某个观点发表支持或反对意见，或者讨论对立的一组观点，或者解释某种问题出现的原因并提出相应的解决办法。字数以300词左右为宜。

III. Teaching Approaches and Facilities

Approaches: 1. Discussion 2. Questions and answers

Facilities: blackboard; on-line research;

IV. Teaching Procedures and Contents

1. Lead-in 要求学生回答问题：

为什么想要参加雅思考试？你认为雅思考试和我们国内的考试有何不同？ 2. Specific Contents 1 雅思写作考试简介

雅思考试共2小时55分钟，写作是笔试最后一项（一般是周六上午），考查英语笔头综合表达能力，包括思维、逻辑、知识和经验。雅思写作一直被认为是难度较大但通过有针对性的训练后成绩提高最显著的一项测试。（在听说读写四项考查内容中，中国学生的阅读和听力较好，但中国考生平均成绩明显低于全球总平均成绩，口语成绩为各项目最低。） 1.1 雅思写作分类

雅思写作考试分为两类：培训类（General Training Module）和学术类（Academic Module), 简称G类和A类。

G类（培训类）适合计划申请移民、国外培训或出国工作的考生，A类（学术类）适合计划申请到国外高校攻读本科或研究生课程的考生。

雅思写作要求考生60分钟内完成两篇作文。A类、G类小作文不同，大作文相同。 Task 1要求考生在20分钟内完成一篇至少150词的文章。G类要求考生针对题目要求写一封信（投诉信、请求信、建议信、寻找失物信和邀请信）；A类要求考生针对题目要求写一个报告，对图表或表格进行描述或说明。小作文一般180－200词左右为宜。

Task 2要求考生在40分钟内完成一篇至少250词的议论文。G类一般比A类简单些，有时G类作文曾是A类作问题。Task 2要求考生对某个观点发表支持或反对意见，或者讨论对立的一组观点，或者解释某种问题出现的原因并提出相应的解决办法。字数以300词左右为宜。

1.2写作评分方式——9分制

Task 1 和Task 2 分别评分，分值从1分至9分，两部分的分数在总分中各占一个百分比。基本上Task 1占三分之一，Task 2占三分之二。从2006年7月份开始，雅思写作、口语设半分，值得庆幸。考官采取总体评分法，根据总体印象给分，在一定程度上受考官主观看法的影响。一般考生分数集中在5——7分：

7：文章易于理解，有条理，语言错误较少（句型丰富、偶尔出错） 6：文章理解起来不太困难（通过四、六级基本可达到） 5：文章勉强可以理解，但表述不清楚 （其中，5分相当于及格的分数） 总体目标应定在保6争7。 1.3备考原则

“不抄、不背、不译”三大原则+“我思故我写”的应考思路：“不抄”即不要抄袭范文；“不背”即不要死记硬背套句；“不译”即不要逐字逐句进行汉译英；“我思故我写”，即用自己的头脑去思考问题，用自己的语言去表述自己的观点。

(1) 雅思考试要求的是用英语思考问题与表达思想的能力，而不是仅仅检验词汇、语法、套句。背记的句子很容易被考官识别而不计入成绩，这种所谓的“诀窍”或“捷径”会成为考生的负担，甚至可能是个“陷阱”。曾出现过一次考试中十多名考生的作文因如出一辙而全部计为零分的事件，其原因是这些考生都是由某一培训班“教”会背诵范文的。所以，死记硬背决不是明智的备考方法。

(2) 要注意研究东西方思维模式、语言表述方式及写作模式的差异。

(3) 要进行广泛的阅读，形成对事物的理解力和判断力，能够以较成熟的思维来认识事物的规律，这样才能在思考问题及发表观点时较为全面深入。

阅读报刊杂志，关心社会问题和最新动态。《二十一世纪》比较有用，许多单词有中文译文和解释。

看英语新闻和记录片节目，听英语广播。特别是DVD和VCD，有字幕。

上网：英语聊天室，探讨有用的话题；访问英语新闻网站；http://www.51ielts.com无忧雅思网，了解雅思最新动态。

(4)不要养成用电子词典的习惯，一是因为电子词典通常无法充分解释词语的用法与搭配，更不能提供语言使用的语境，使考生无法真正扩大单词量；二是一旦养成对电子词典的依赖性，就无法摆脱逐字汉译英的不良习惯，难以用英语进行思维。

(5)准备一个词汇本，按话题对词汇进行分类，词条后写上相关短语、介词和搭配。 (6)练习限时写作文。根据评分标准，比较自己的作文和范文在行文、内容、衔接方面的不足。 1.4重要提示 1.4.1备考提示：

(1) 再次提醒：不要死记硬背！

(2) 时间与字数的训练：由于考试时间紧张而字数要求多，对时间与字数的训练是非常必要的。方法是：以正常写作的速度与笔迹在模拟答题卡上写几行，数一下总字数，除以行数，就会得到每行的正常字数，再看一下所用时间，则得出自己写作的速度，如每100字用多少分钟，或每分钟写出多少字；以总时间1小时来衡量，将知道自己的速度是否足够快。数出完成Task 1和Task 2各需要多少行，在预计的段与段之间留出空行，并在最后一行做出标记, 这样就知道完成Task 1和Task 2所需的长度。平时有意识地按照所需长度写作，并调整自己的速度，考场上就不会出现因时间估计错误而手忙脚乱的情况了。 1.4.2写作提示：

(1) 首先将两部分的题目浏览一遍。建议先从Task 2开始做起，因为Task 2

分值高、时间长、字数要求多。当然并没有硬性要求。如果从Task 2做起，要确保留出足够的时间完成Task 1。

(2) 不用对写作涉及的话题过分担心，因为考试不是为了检测知识面，而是要检查考生的书面表达能力。

(3) 要按要求的字数写，否则文章太短，不足以表达深入、完整的思想，会影响成绩。（字数不够的文章一定会比达到最低字数的文章得分低。） (4) 阐释观点和表达清楚比少犯错误更重要。

(5) 考查的主要内容是运用语言的能力，所以如果只使用简单的英语，虽然不会犯错误，也不会得高分。

(6) 两个作文均不用写题目，因为写题目或原封不动地抄题，既占用时间，又有凑字之嫌。 (7) Task 2中可以运用自己的经验，并采用I，my，me等代词，但要避免人称指代混乱，

以及非正式语言的表达，如I?m，you?ve，he?s等缩写。 (8) 绝对不要使用死记硬背的套句和段落。 1.5.3考场提示：

(1) 考试时只能用铅笔，不能用钢笔。

(2) 考试中没有打草稿的时间，也不准带草稿纸进考场，可以在试题边的空白处设计简要的大纲，但试题不许带出考场。

(3) 绝对禁止携带、使用任何形式的字典，否则将被清出考场。

(4) 字迹虽不是评分的标准之一，但不清晰的字迹会影响考官对文章内容的理解，进而影响成绩。

(5) 注意考场规则。考试中不得携带或使用任何电子设备，不许换座，不许交头接耳，决无抄袭之可能。考试进行20分钟、30分钟、以及结束前5分钟时, 考官会提示时间。考试结束，考官叫停笔时，考生务必停笔，并把所有试卷、试题及答题卡一并交回，不得早退，否则考生的准考证号将被记下，影响成绩的评定。 1.6关于答题卡的填写 展示答题纸。

1.7 IELTS Task 2 Writing band descriptors (public version)

Band Task Response Coherence and Cohesion 9 ", fully addresses all parts of the task ", presents a fully developed position in answer to the question with relevant, fully extended and well supported ideas 8 ", sufficiently addresses all parts of the task ", presents a well-developed ", sequences information and ideas logically ", manages all aspects of cohesion ", uses a wide range of vocabulary fluently and flexibly to convey precise meanings ", skilfully uses ", uses a wide range of structures ", the majority of sentences are error-free ", makes only very ", uses cohesion in such a way that it attracts no attention ", skilfully manages paragraphing ", uses a wide range of vocabulary with very natural and sophisticated control of lexical features; rare minor errors occur only as ?slips? Lexical Resource Grammatical Range and Accuracy ", uses a wide range of structures with full flexibility and accuracy; rare minor errors occur only as ?slips?

response to the question with relevant, extended and supported ideas well ", uses paragraphing sufficiently and appropriately uncommon lexical items but there may be occasional inaccuracies in word choice and collocation ", produces rare errors in spelling and/or word formation occasional errors or inappropriacies 7 ", addresses all parts of the task ", presents a clear position throughout the response ", presents, extends and supports main ideas, but there may be a tendency to overgeneralise and/or supporting ideas may lack focus ", logically organises information and ideas; there is clear progression throughout ", uses a range of cohesive devices appropriately although there may be some under-/ over-use ", presents a clear central topic within each paragraph ", uses a sufficient range of vocabulary to allow some flexibility and precision ", uses less common lexical items with some awareness of style and collocation ", may produce occasional errors in word choice, spelling and/or word formation ", uses a variety of complex structures ", produces frequent error-free sentences ", has good control of grammar and punctuation but may make a few errors 6 ", addresses all parts of the task although some parts may be more fully covered than others ", presents a relevant ", arranges information and ideas coherently and there is a clear overall progression ", uses cohesive ", uses an adequate range of vocabulary for the task ", attempts to use less common vocabulary but with some inaccuracy ", makes some errors in ", uses a mix of simple and complex sentence forms ", makes some errors in grammar and punctuation but they

position although the conclusions may become unclear or repetitive ", presents relevant main ideas but some may be inadequately developed/unclear devices effectively, but cohesion within and/or between sentences may be faulty or mechanical ", may not always use referencing clearly or appropriately ", uses paragraphing, but not always logically spelling and/or word formation, but they do not impede communication rarely reduce communication 5 ", addresses the task only partially; the format may be inappropriate in places ", expresses a position but the development is not always clear and there may be no conclusions drawn ", presents some main ideas but these are limited and not sufficiently developed; there may be irrelevant detail ", presents information with some organisation but there may be a lack of overall progression ", makes inadequate, inaccurate or over- use of cohesive devices ", may be repetitive because of lack of referencing and substitution ", may not write in paragraphs, or paragraphing may be ", uses a limited range of vocabulary, but this is minimally adequate for the task ", may make noticeable errors in spelling and/or word formation that may cause some difficulty for the reader ", uses only a limited range of structures ", attempts complex sentences but these tend to be less accurate than simple sentences ", may make frequent grammatical errors and punctuation may be faulty; errors can cause some difficulty for the reader

inadequate 4 ", responds to the task only in a minimal way or the answer is tangential; the format may be inappropriate ", presents a position but this is unclear ", presents some main ideas but these are difficult to identify and may be repetitive, irrelevant or not well supported ", presents information and ideas but these are not arranged coherently and there is no clear progression in the response ", uses some basic cohesive devices but these may be inaccurate or repetitive ", may not write in paragraphs or their use may be confusing 3 ", does not adequately address any part of the task ", does not express a clear position ", presents few ideas, which are largely undeveloped or irrelevant 2 ", barely responds to the task ", does not organise ideas logically ", may use a very limited range of ", uses only a very limited range of words and expressions with very limited control of word ", attempts sentence forms but errors in grammar and punctuation predominate and distort the meaning ", uses only basic vocabulary which may be used repetitively or which may be inappropriate for the task ", has limited control of word formation and/or spelling; errors may cause strain for the reader ", uses only a very limited range of structures with only rare use of subordinate clauses ", some structures are accurate but errors predominate, and punctuation is often faulty cohesive devices, and formation and/or spelling those used may not indicate a logical relationship between ideas ", has very little control of ", uses an extremely limited range of ", errors may severely distort the message ", cannot use sentence forms except in

", does not express a position ", may attempt to present one or two ideas but there is no development 1 ", answer is completely unrelated to the task 0 ", does not attend organisational features vocabulary; essentially no control of word formation and/or spelling memorised phrases ", fails to communicate any message ", can only use a few isolated words ", cannot use sentence forms at all ", does not attempt the task in any way ", writes a totally memorised response

3. Task design

主要以问答和讨论的形式为主 3课时

V. Assignments

写作练习：

Should old people stay at home or be placed in nursing homes?

VI. Reference Material

《剑桥雅思考试全真试题解析1》外语教学与研究出版社、剑桥大学出版社 《剑桥雅思考试全真试题解析2》外语教学与研究出版社、剑桥大学出版社 《剑桥雅思考试全真试题解析3》外语教学与研究出版社、剑桥大学出版社 《雅思攻略系列丛书雅思考试（IELTS）学术类高分作文详解》复旦大学出版社

Chapter Two

英汉写作对比及英文写作标准

I． Teaching Objectives

On completion of this Chapter, students should be able to: 1. understand the difference between the two languages

2. have some insights into the four standards of writing in English.

II. The Points to Be Highlighted

英汉思维方式及语篇结构对比（中文：迂回式，具体一般型；英文：直线型，一般具体型） 英汉段落结构对比 （中文：螺旋形上升，通过反复强调提出主题；英文：直线型，有明显的主题句）

英汉句子结构对比 英文写作四个标准

III. Teaching Approaches and Facilities

Approaches: 1. Discussion 2. Questions and answers

Facilities: blackboard; on-line research;

IV. Teaching Procedures and Contents

1. Lead-in

? 要求学生翻译几个句子，通过学生的错误展示英汉句子结构的不同。 1. 我原先打算七月一日去香港旅游，后来不得不取消，这使我很扫兴。 2. 我有一个问题弄不懂，想请教你，你能回答吗？

3. 他先前在南方参加某项工程建设。完工后，就去乔治岛度假，享受高加索的阳光。他是

昨天才回来的。 2. Specific Contents I 英汉句子结构对比

要想写出地道的英文句子，应该首先掌握英语三种基本句子结构： (1) 简单句（Simple Sentences）——一个主语，一个动词 i. 一个谓语动词和一个单数主语 Computers make life easy for many people. ii. 两个并列谓语动词和一个单数主语

Computers cost a lot of money and require regular maintenance.

iii. 两个并列谓语动词和一个复数主语

Businesses and individuals buy computers but use them mostly for correspondence. iv. 一个谓语动词和一个复数主语 His teeth and his eyes hurt.

(2) 并列句（Compound Sentences）

并列句包括两个或两个以上独立句，它们用以下三种方式连接在一起： i. 用分号连接

Some people like computers; others are afraid of modern technology.

ii. 用逗号和括号内七个连词之一（并列连词and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet---boy fans） Students usually write with a computer, but I like writing by hand. iii. 用分号和连接副词，如furthermore, moreover, therefore等 Students usually write with a computer; however, I like writing by hand. 连接副词：

? 常见位置：句首，表示解释的可以位于句中

? 用连接副词连接并列句时，在第一个分句后用分号，而在连接副词后用逗号 表示让步：however, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the other hand, still

表示列举和补充：first(ly), second(ly), etc; finally, last; also, besides, furthermore, moreover, next, then, in addition

表示总结和结果: thus, therefore；as a result, consequently, hence, accordingly 表示总结：namely 转换话题：meanwhile 否定的条件：otherwise 表示对比：instead 完成第14页的练习

(3) 复合句（Complex Sentences）

复合句由一个主句和一个或多个从句组成。英语中一共有三种基本类型的复合句： i. 从句相当于副词——状语从句

Although computers can save time, they take a long time to understand. ? because/so, although/but不同时出现 ii. 从句相当于形容词——定语从句

Database software is essential for companies which need to maintain records. iii. 从句相当于名词——主，宾，补，同位语从句 Most experts insist that computers are essential in schools.

2.4 竹竿与大树

英文写作强调句子结构的变化和丰富性。在雅思考试中，考生应避免使用重复的句子结构，而应采用变化的方式来表达自己的观点。其实，练习使用变化的句型最好的方法就是注意观察其他的作者是如何构造句子的，并且模仿他们。另外，考生需要做大量的练习才能写出有意义的、富有变化的、准确的句子。

汉语的句式结构借助自然语序，按动作发生的顺序或因果逻辑关系来排列，各个分句逐步交代，呈线性递进，来表达复杂的思想。可以说，汉语的句子结构如同竹子一样一节节地延伸。而英语则不同。英语的句子就像一棵大树。句子中的主句就是大树的主干，各种从句，短语以及独立结构则是大树的树枝。 e.g.

我原先打算七月一日去香港旅游，后来不得不取消，这使我很扫兴。

It was keen disappointment that I had to cancel the visit I had intended to pay to Hong Kong on July 1st.

我又一个问题弄不懂，想请教你，你能回答吗？

Can you answer a question which I want to ask and which is puzzling me?

考虑到上届政府遗留下来的危机，我们在过去七年时间里所取得的成绩也就尤为显著，这是没有人可以否认的。

No one will deny that what we have been able to do in the past seven years is especially striking in view of crises which we inherited from the previous Government. 第一句中有三个动作：原先打算?不得不取消?使我很扫兴。 第二句中有三个动作：弄不懂?请教?回答。

第三句中有五个动作：考虑到?遗留下来?所取得的?尤为显著?没有人可以否认。 很显然，汉语句子是按照时间和事理发展顺序，运用词汇手段顺畅表达而出的。而所对应的英语句子却打破了汉语的顺序，每个句子以主句为主干，利用从句等结构来完成英语句子的树型结构。

由于汉语句子呈线性递进，竹竿型延伸，没有英文中树枝状的从属句结构，因此中国学生常常习惯用简单句和并列句，而不是用复合句来表达思想。但是，地道的英文写作中却要求大量使用从属结构。中国学生要改变在英文写作中大量使用简单句、并列句的倾向，就要善于利用英语中的从句、分词和短语等语言形式，构筑英语句子的树型结构。这是改变竹竿型简单句，写出地道英语的关键。 再请看如下例句：

（1）他先前在南方参加某项工程建设。完工后，就去乔治岛度假，享受高加索的阳光。他

是昨天才回来的。

(a) He had flown in just the day before from Georgia where he had spent his vacation basking in Caucasian sun after the completion of the construction job in which he had been engaged in the South.

(b) In the South he had been engaged in a construction job. After he completed the work he went to spend his vacation in Georgia. There he basked in Caucasian sun. And he had flown in just the day before.

(a)句为英语树型结构，(b)句为汉语竹竿形结构。

此句中，“他昨天才回来”是本句的主句, 整个句子借助from, where, basking, after, in which等词构造结构。

（2）上海的字面意思是“位于海之上”。它位于黄浦江岸。黄浦江是长江流入大海之前的最

后一条支流。

(a) Shanghai, which means “above the sea”, is on the Huangpu River, the lower tributary at the mouth of the Yangze.

(b) Shanghai means “above the sea”. It is on the Huangpu River. The Huangpu is the lower tributary at the mouth of the Yangze.

此句中，“上海位于黄浦江岸”是本句的主句，这个树形结构的复合句还包括一个非限定定语从句以及一个同位语。 英汉段落结构对比

由于英语和汉语的思维模式不同，人们写作时，段落的结构组织、内容安排、语义层次发展等方面都会表现出很大的差异。其中最主要的差异是—在段落发展方面英语采用直线性思维，而汉语呈现出螺旋型思维模式。

汉语段落的语义发展是螺旋型的，也就是说，一个段落针对一个意思或几个意思进行阐述，而这种阐述是顺着思想自然发展的，如螺旋形式向前运动。在汉语段落中，主题句可有可无，段落的中心思想由读者来体会。一个段落里包括的内容较多，甚至有的内容和段落中心思想没有密切的关系，比如作者突发的感想。由于汉语文章的许多段落没有主题句，一段里包括的内容观点就没有什么限制了。在写作过程中，作者对中心思想的发展是通过不断重复来实现的。在一个段落中，前面已谈论过的内容，后面还会提到，或强调，或借以引出新的内容，所以说是螺旋式的。下面的例段就是典型的汉语段落：

伟大的精神方能造就伟大的人。 古往今来，凡成就一番事业者，无不有着巨大的精神力量作后盾。伟大的精神造就伟大的事业。 对一个人是这样，对一个社会也是如此。不可想象，一个没有精神追求的人可以成就一番事业。精神有着神奇的作用。它一旦被人民群众所掌握就会变成巨大的物质力量。同时它也有之不可小视的销蚀作用。 这些年，在社会政治生活中出现的忽视精神文明建设的倾向，在忽视精神的正效应的同时，无形中也助长了精神的负效应。 目前社会现实中一些人政治信念的淡漠，道德支柱的倾斜，价值追求的扭曲，精神世界的苍白，行为方式的变态，日常生活中种种不文明，不道德的行为，社会上屡禁不止的腐败现象，我们已经尝够了苦果。

在这一段例文中，“伟大的精神方能造就伟大的人”可以说是主题句。但是只有接下来第二句是直接说明这一点。而第三句马上转到精神与事业的关系方面：“伟大的精神造就伟大的事业”。接下的第四句“对一个人是这样，对一个社会也是如此”使读者期待作者从个人和社会两方面来说明这一点。但接下来的三句作者只说明对个人的作用，而没有对社会作用的说明。第八句又引出新的观点“同时它也有着不可小视的销蚀作用”。整个段落涉及到四个内容： (1) 伟大的精神造就伟大的人。 (2) 伟大的精神造就伟大的事业。 (3) 精神有着神奇的力量。

(4) 同时精神也有着不可小视的销蚀作用。

与汉语段落相对比，英语段落呈线性发展，也就是说，段落的内容是循着一条直线发展的。典型的英文段落是由三部分组成的： （1）主题句（Topic sentence）

原则上讲，每个段落只应涉及一个主题,而主题句是一段中最重要的句子。它确定段落的中心思想，是对段落内容的高度概括。主题句可以帮助读者迅速准确地掌握段落的内容。 在英文段落写作中，作者首先要确定自己要阐述的观点，并用一个句子表达出自己的观点 — 这就是英文段落的主题句。主题句通常放在段落的开头（开门见山不跑题），而段落的其他内容应以主题句为基础，并以细节来支持主题句中所阐述的中心思想。

主题句通常是一个观点opinion，而不是一个事实fact。 ? Computers can be used to send e-mail. F ? Computers can save a large amount of data. F

? People can use computers to do complicated calculation. F ? Computers can make many jobs easier for people. O

主题句的形成过程：事实?（根据逻辑）分类?结论（即主题句） 例：我们的教室 A 地上没有垃圾 B 有很多电灯 C 有两台空调机 D 有三扇大窗子 E 有多媒体教学设施 F 桌椅一尘不染

可以分3组：A& F; B& D; C&E 结论：This is a very clean classroom. This classroom is very bright. This classroom is well equipped.

(2) 支持句（Supporting sentences）

确定了主题句后，就要用支持句来支持和说明主题句。也就是说，写作者利用具体的证据（－细节），以说明、描写、论证或阐述等方式来支持主导思想，使读者能正确地理解和获取写作者所企图表达的信息。写好支持句的关键在于紧扣主题、层次分明。（层层渐进，按逻辑顺序排列）

在通常情况下，一个段落具有若干个支持句，每个支持句都具有一定的信息，以支持主题句。支持句就是用来向读者提供事实、数据、实例、原因以及个人的亲身经历等信息，以便帮助读者更好地理解作者所阐述的中心思想。支持句一定要包括具体的、足够的信息，只有这样，段落的主题才会清晰地呈现在读者面前。 (3) 总结句（Summary sentence）

a. 重述中心思想 ( Restating the main idea )

作者可以转换词汇重述主题句中的中心思想。这一做法能够起到强调的作用，而且还可以提醒读者段落的主题，尤其是在一个较长的段落中。但是以这种方式结束段落时，一定不要把主题句重抄一遍。

b. 概括段落要点 ( Summarizing the main points )

有时候，主题句没有详细地论述段落的要点，因为作者会在支持句中对它们详加讨论。那么，在总结句中概括段落要点就能够帮助读者清晰地掌握段落的内容。 c. 最后阐述最重要的论点 ( Putting the most important point last )

有时候，一个段落会讨论某个论点的几个方面，那么作者可以把最重要的一点放在最后，以便使段落达到高潮，这样会使整个段落自然结尾。 d. 以推论结束段落 （ Drawing an inference ）

在详细阐述自己的观点后，作者可以采用推论来结束段落。 英汉思维方式及语篇结构对比

人们说话和写文章,为方便听话人和读者的理解,一定要遵循约定俗成的语篇组织规律。然而，由于不同文化在思维方式上存在着差异，其语篇组织结构也会因此而不同。中英文之间就存在这样的差异。 I 汉语语篇模式

中国人说话或写文章，常常不是采取直线式或直接切题的作法，而是习惯于迂回式思维，即避开主题，把自己的想法保留到最后或者含而不露，让读者自己去领悟。由于汉民族重综合的思维习惯，因此，汉语语篇模式属于典型的东方“螺旋式”。这种模式的特点是：对篇章的主题往往不是通过直截了当的方式，而是采用曲折起伏、隐喻含蓄、断续离合、迂回间接的方式来阐述而且，中国人表达事物总是按时间和事理发展顺序由因到果、由先到后、由大到小进行阐述，这种思维方式可称为具体一般型（Particular-General Pattern）。

例如：

（1）The village of Marlott lay amid the northeastern undulations of the beautiful Vale of Blackemore or Blackmore aforesaid, an engirdled and secluded region, for the most part untrodden as yet by tourists or landscape-painter, though within a few hours? journey from London.

（2）前面说过的那个美丽的布雷谷或布莱谷，是一处群山环抱、幽静偏僻的地方，虽然离伦敦不过4个钟头的路程，但是它的大部分都不曾有过游历家和风景画家的足迹。马勒村就在它东北部那块起伏地带的中间。

段（2）译文是张谷若的佳作。它与原文（1）的根本区别是： 英语直截了当以主题“马勒村”为主位和重心，由里向外扩展，直到远涉伦敦；中文则以一个已知信息为主位，先远涉伦敦，再迂回到近旁的、作为主题的“马勒村”。 II 英语语篇模式

Hoey（1988）McCarthy(1991)认为英语语篇有三种模式： 1）概括—具体型（General-specific Pattern），其特点就是由作者先把要表达的思想概括成全文的立证句（thesis statement）或段落的主题句 （topic sentence），然后举例说明或交代细节。这是典型的直线性思维。其中包括：概括—举例式（Generalization-Example）和整体—细节式（Preview-Detail）；2）问题解决型（Problem-Solution Pattern）；3）对照—匹配型(Matching-Pattern)。

1) 概括—具体型（General-Specific Pattern）。这种模式在英语中是最常见的、最有代表性的。它不但广泛应用于社会科学和自然科学的议论文和说明文中，而且也常用于描写文和记叙文中。它充分体现了英、美等西方人的直线性思维模式。这种模式在英语的段落层面或语篇层面俯拾皆是。例如：

An increase or a decrease in the price level affects the economic well-being of farmers. One of the best-known examples of this in American history took place throughout the late 1800s. Prices were going down, and this caused much displeasure to farmers, who were still relatively numerous. Many farmers were in debt; they had borrowed money to buy land and equipment. A farmer might have borrowed $500, and if his farm made $500 per year over his costs and living expenses, he might hope to pay the debt off in a year. If the prices the farmer received went down, say, to $250 per year, it made it very difficult for him to pay off his $500 debt. These facts show how directly the improvement of farmers? life depends on the prices of their farm products.

这是一个“概括—举例式（Generalization-Example）”的语篇。首句是一个主题句，道明了全段的主题思想, 下文的例证部分展开的是首句的内容：

The working conditions were poor. The tables where workers sat were very high, and uncomfortable. Except for a half hour at lunchtime, there were no breaks in the day to relieve the boring work. There was no music. The walls of the workrooms were a dull gray color. I was amazed that the workers hadn?t gone on strike.

这是一个“整体—细节式”(Preview-Detail Pattern)的语篇。其首句概括了主题思想，然后用细

节加以说明。

2) 问题解决型（Problem-Solution Pattern）。这种模式的特点是先说明情况，提出问题，随后进行分析，最后提出解决问题的意见或办法。这种模式多用于叙事性文体、文学作品，探讨科技、自然或社会问题的说明文也有时出现这种模式。例如：

Nowadays there are more and more traffic accidents in some big cities. It is estimated that thousands upon thousands of men, women and children are severely injured or even killed on the roads every year. Man is obviously much weaker than motor vehicles. It is a never-ending battle which man is losing.

Why have there been so many road accidents? The first reason is that some pedestrians, especially old people and children, cannot see, hear or judge very well. The second reason is that some young drivers recklessly violate traffic regulations, such as driving when drunk, going the wrong direction, etc. The third reason is that sometimes something goes wrong with vehicles, so that the drivers lose control of them at a critical moment. For all this, the main cause of the road accidents is due to carelessness.

It is high time that something were done about it. For example, drivers should be educated to see the importance of complying with traffic regulations and the terrible consequences of violating them. The motor vehicles should regularly be put through strict tests for safety. In addition, traffic facilities should be improved so as to make drivers safer on the roads. All these measures will certainly reduce the number of traffic accidents.

此语篇第一段提出问题，第二段分析原因，第三段提出解决问题的办法。

3) 对照—匹配型（Matching-Pattern）。 英语常用这种模式构成对比语段，比较两种事物的异同点。它往往存在于较长的语篇中，与“概括—具体型”一起组成更复杂的语篇模式。例如：

The American car of the 1980s is quite different from its old models. The most striking difference is the size. While the old models were large and spacious, the newer ones are smaller and more compact. In the past, cars were also constructed of heavier materials. Nowadays light-weight aluminum and plastic have replaced the heavy-weight metals of yesterday. Engines are now more fuel efficient. Ten years ago the average American car got ten miles per gallon to compete in the market. Many of these differences are advantageous to today?s driver, but unfortunately these smaller, lighter cars are not as safe if an accident occurs.

这一语篇分别就汽车的体积、重量、节能以及潜在的安全问题等方面进行了比较。 从以上各例我们可以看出，英语语篇的三种模式均具有“先抽象，后具体；先综合，后分析；先概括，后细节” 等特点。换句话说，英语语篇的组织和发展呈“直线型”，它通常以一个主题句（topic sentence）开头，直截了当地点明语篇的中心思想，然后在以后各句中发展这一中心思想。

对于许多学习英语的中国学生来说，尽管已经掌握了一定的英语词汇及语法规则，但因为缺乏对英语语篇结构的认识，他们常常会无意识地把汉语的语篇结构规则应用在英文写作的过程当中，因而造成了不符合英文语篇结构规律的问题，而这些学生虽然使用英文写作，他们的作文却表现出典型的中国式的思维惯式。这两种思维模式的差异造成了中国学生进行英文写作时的最大问题，即把汉语的思维模式应用在英文写作中。尽管用的是英语的词汇及语法，表现出的却是中国式的思维，这种思维是雅思英语考官所不熟悉的。因此，中国学生最需要英文思维模式的训练。

通过以下两篇文章, 我们可以具体讨论英语和汉语文章, 尤其是英汉议论文的语篇结构的区别。

Topic: Today PC games are very popular among teenagers. But some parents consider that these games are not instructive and that teenagers should be kept away from them. What do you think?

As one of the products of modern technology, PC games have definitely become an indispensable part of most teenagers? lives. Statistics show that teenagers are spending more time and money on entertainment items such as PC games than they did ten years ago. However, in my opinion, although PC games have certain positive effects such as giving teenagers relaxation and activating their imaginations, they have certain negative effects.

First, PC games occupy the time when teenagers should be sitting in the classroom or studying in the library. The colorful pictures and vivid characters of PC games are far more exciting than the dull black letters in textbooks. Therefore, addiction to PC games is often accompanied by poor academic work.

Furthermore, far from being instructive, some PC games contain violence and pornography, which are extremely harmful for the healthy growth of teenagers. It is said that most juvenile delinquents commit crimes just because their PC game heroes do so in a virtual-reality world.

In addition, speaking from the physical aspect, PC games have contributed a lot to failing eyesight among teenagers in recent years.

To sum up, despite their entertainment and relaxation values, PC games interfere with the education of teenagers. It would be better if teenagers could use such games in a more rational and controlled way, perhaps under the supervision of their parents.

这篇例文是一篇雅思范文，文章采用很典型的直线式思维结构。

(1) 首先，这篇文章的结构符合英文写作中最普遍的直线式思维模式。 文章提出了问题，并且在第一段就阐述了作者看法。作者先把要表达的思想概括成全文的立证句（thesis statement）：

However, in my opinion, although PC games have certain positive effects such as giving teenagers relaxation and activating their imaginations , they have certain negative effects. 然后每段以主题句 （topic sentence）开始，如:

First, PC games occupy the time when teenagers should be sitting in the classroom or studying in the library. (Paragraph 1)

Furthermore, far from being instructive, some PC games contain violence and pornography, which are extremely harmful for the healthy growth of teenagers. (Paragraph 2)

In addition, speaking from the physical aspect, PC games have contributed a lot to failing eyesight among teenagers in recent years. (Paragraph 3) 然后在每一段中举例说明或交代细节。

(2) 文章的讨论方式符合英语的习惯。在典型的英文写作中，作者习惯采用非此即彼的思维及表达方式。对于一个问题，他们的答案要么是yes, 要么是no，而不会模棱两可，含糊不清地回答问题。这篇文章的作者在第一段即明确指出： …they (PC games) have certain negative effects.

(3) 文章具有明确的观点和论据，以及详尽的论证过程。因此，这篇文章符合英语的思维习惯，在本质上，文章采用了英语的篇章结构。

Should Students Do Business Or Not?

In recent years, doing business is very popular on the campus. More and more college students spend more time doing business. This phenomenon causes a lot of hot argument. Is it right or not? In my opinion, we can not say it is right or wrong directly because the reason is complex. On the other hand, many students do business in order to reduce the burden of their families because their families have not enough money to support them. So their doing business is reasonable. We can not say it is not right. As to those students whose families are not very poor, some of them doing business just want to practice in the society and gain some experience. Earning money is not their main purpose. We can not say it is not right, either.

这篇例文是一位中国大学生写的文章，是很典型的迂回式思维结构。

(1) 首先，这篇文章的结构与英文写作中最普遍的直线式思维迥然不同。 文章提出了问题，却没有在一开始就阐述作者看法，而是亦此亦彼地给出模糊的答案，令读者费解 — ?We can not say it is right or wrong …?。

(2) 文章的讨论方式也与英语的习惯截然不同。本文的作者试图维护两种截然相反的观点，其态度模棱两可，含糊不清。这与英文写作中常见的非此即彼的明确态度形成鲜明的对比。

(3) 文章没有明确的观点和论据，更没有论证的过程。因此，这篇文章虽然使用英文写成，但它显然不符合英语的思维习惯，在本质上，文章采用了汉语的篇章结构。这样的文章显然无法达到英语国家考官的要求。

III英汉语篇模式差异对英语写作的影响

英语写作能力是英语学习者必须掌握的技能之一，是英语交际能力的重要体现。越来越多的大学生已经意识到英语写作的重要性。近年来，我国大学生的英语写作水平虽然有所提高，但是由于大部分人不甚了解英语语篇模式，而且深受汉语语篇模式的影响，他们写出的英语文章，虽然不存在遣词造句问题，也没有严重的语法错误，但读起来总觉得没有地道英文所具有的那种“洋味”。其表现在：1）讲述一个论点时，拐弯抹角，迟迟不切入主题，缺少地道英文直截了当的特点；2）总是围绕所议的主题进行论述，缺少地道英文观点明确和主题突出的特点。许多中外学者也都注意到了这一点。例如王墨希先生在其《中国学生英语语篇思维模式调查》一文中说到，中国学生的思维模式具有隐伏性的特点。他对六个组（非英语专业中没有学过英语写作的本科生、硕士生和学过一些英语写作的本科生和硕士生，英语专业中一年级、三年级和四年级学生）180篇中国学生的英语作文分析，其中有66.11%的作文属于隐伏性，即“阐述时不从主题入手，直接说明，而是用各方面的情况和问题给予暗示或明示”。Andy Kirkpatrick也研究了中国学生写的40封英文信，认为中国学生的英文书信写法太拐弯抹角，离题太多。

对我们中国学生来说，要写出符合西方人口味的、地道的英文文章或书信，就必须转换一种思维方式和习惯，摆脱汉语语篇模式的束缚，正确使用英语语篇模式。 IV重视英语语篇模式教学，提高学生英语写作水平

通过以上对英汉语篇模式的对比分析，我们可以看到：英语语篇呈“直线型”的逻辑特征，汉语语篇呈“螺线形”的逻辑特征。中国学生之所以写不出地道的英文文章，其中的一个主要原因就是不甚了解英语语篇的这种“直线型”特征。为了培养学生良好的英语思维习惯，提高学生的英语写作水平，在英语教学中，教师必须重视英语语篇模式的教学。具体做法可以是：1) 结合英语精读课的讲授，有意识地向学生介绍英语语篇模式 2) 进行英汉语篇模式对比分析，让学生了解英汉语篇模式的差异 3) 加强对学生英语写作的训练和指导

教师可经常结合课文中所出现的相关语段进行语篇分析，向学生布置相应的写作练习并仔细批阅，然后再向学生提供具有规范模式的范文，以便使学生达到对英语语篇模式的内化。 连接词

I表示转折的连接词:

当要介绍与已提出的观点相对立的观点时，经常会用到：however, but, although 和

nevertheless。 However

◆ 用来连接两句话。 ◆ 不一定只出现在句首。 ◆ 通常后面加逗号。

e.g. The main purpose of a university is to teach knowledge. However, skills such as teamwork and effective communication are also important.

The main purpose of a university is to teach knowledge; however, skills such as teamwork and effective communication are also important.

The main purpose of a university is to teach knowledge. Skills such as teamwork and effective communication, however, are also important. But

◆ 用来连接两句话。 ◆ 通常出现在句首。 ◆ 通常后面不加逗号。

e.g. Students study at university to gain knowledge. But employers also want people who can work in a team and communicate effectively.

Students study at university to gain knowledge, but employers also want people who can work in a team and communicate effectively.

Although (in spite of sth./but e.g. I think she?s going to apply for the job, although I?m not sure.) ◆ 用来连接两句话。 ◆ 通常出现在句首。 ◆ 通常后面不加逗号。

e.g. Although genetic research can bring many benefits to society, the danger is that it could be used for less peaceful purposes.

Genetic research can bring many benefits to society, although the danger is that it could be used for less peaceful purposes. 比较though 和although ◆ 用来连接两句话。 ◆ 不一定只出现在句首。 ◆ 通常后面加逗号。

e.g. It can be argued that China?s open door policy is negatively affecting Chinese culture. Nevertheless, the social and economic benefits far outweigh any disadvantages.

It can be argued that China?s open door policy is negatively affecting Chinese culture; nevertheless, the social and economic benefits far outweigh any disadvantages. II表示强调重要信息的连接词:

当考生阐述自己的观点时，可以通过使用in fact或者indeed等连接词来强调重要信息。 In fact

? 用来强调重要信息。 ? 不一定只出现在句首。 ? 通常后面加逗号。

e.g. There appears to be a growing interest in the Asian market. In fact, more and more foreign owned companies are setting up business in countries such as China.

There appears to be a growing interest in the Asian market; in fact, more and more foreign owned companies are setting up business in countries such as China. Indeed

? 用来强调重要信息。 ? 必须出现在句首。 ? 通常后面加逗号。

e.g. Many companies are located on the outskirts of big cities. Indeed, employers may spend several hours each week commuting to work.

Many companies are located on the outskirts of big cities; indeed, employers may spend several hours each week commuting to work. III表示结果的连接词:

当考生阐述自己的观点时，可以用as a result, because of this, therefore 等连接词介绍可能产生的结果。

As a result, Because of this, As a consequence ? 用来表示已发生或正在发生的结果。 ? 通常后面加逗号。

e.g. I began using a computer about 10 years ago. As a result/As a consequence, whilst I can work more efficiently, I actually have less leisure time.

Using a computer enables me to do considerably more work in a relatively short time. But because of this I find life much more stressful. Therefore

? 用来表示已发生或正在发生的结果。 ? 通常后面加逗号。 ? 不一定只出现在句首。

e.g. The dollar has gone down against the yen; therefore, Japanese goods are more expensive for Americans.

The dollar has gone down against the yen. Therefore, Japanese goods are more expensive for Americans. IV表示列举的连接词:

在英语中有个不成文的规定，即：一个句子中所列举的事物不能超过三个, 即“事不过三”原则。在列举事物时常用到下列短语：for instance, for example, such as 和 including。 请对比下面两个例句：

× Modern transport is cheap, convenient, safe, efficient, comfortable and easy to use.

√ Modern transport has many advantages. For example, it is cheap, convenient and easy to use. 上例中第一句在描述现代交通时使用了过多的形容词，而第二句中只点出现代交通的三项优点，符合“事不过三”原则。另外还需要注意的是，在学术类文章中要避免使用“etc.”，可用for example, such as或者 and so on 来代替。 For instance, For example ◆ 用在所列举的事物前面。 ◆ 可以引起一个新的句子。 ◆ 通常后面加逗号。

e.g. Environmental pollution is a serious problem. For instance/For example, the pollution from factories can pollute rivers, harm sea life which can have a negative effect on people?s health.

Such as，Including

◆ 用在所列举的事物的前面。

◆ 不能引起独立的句子，只能存在于句子之中。 ◆ 后面通常接名词或者动词的“ing”形式。 ◆ 后面不加逗号。

e.g. Much can be done to protect the environment, including/such as planting sustainable forests, encouraging the use of public transport and educating people. Namely

◆ 用在所列举的事物的前面。

◆ 不能引起独立的句子，只能存在于句子之中。 ◆ 后面通常接名词或者动词的“ing”形式。 ◆ 后面不加逗号。 ◆ 列举所有项目。

e.g. There are 3 colors in the British flag, namely red, white and blue. V表示并列/递进的连接词:

如果想要给句子增加信息量，可以使用如下词语： and, also, as well (as), additionally, in addition, furthermore 和moreover。 当考生要给句子增加信息量，可以： ◆ 将两句话合并成一句。 ◆ 连接两句话。

e.g. √ Public transport is very convenient. It is also cheap.

√ Public transport is very convenient and cheap. √ Public transport is very convenient. It is cheap as well. √ Public transport is very convenient. Additionally, it is cheap. √ Public transport is very convenient. Moreover, it is cheap. √ Public transport is very convenient. It is, moreover, also cheap. √ Public transport is very convenient. Furthermore, it is cheap. And, Also, As well (as)

◆ 不一定只出现在句子的开头部分。 ◆ 后面不加逗号。

e.g. Many students as well as/and teachers agree that education should be free for everyone. Additionally, In addition ◆ 通常后面加逗号。 ◆ 通常出现在句首。 ◆ 用在正式文体中。

e.g. Planting more trees can greatly improve the environment. Additionally/In addition, the recycling of paper can reduce the destruction of rain forests. Moreover

◆ 不一定要用在句首。 ◆ 通常后面加逗号。 ◆ 用在正式文体中。

e.g. Planting more trees can greatly improve the environment. Moreover, the recycling of paper can reduce the destruction of rain forests. Furthermore ◆ 通常出现在句首。 ◆ 通常后面加逗号。 ◆ 用于正式文体中。

e.g. Modern working pressure is far greater than it used to be because of the distance people have to travel to work. Additionally / In addition /Moreover /Furthermore, people are expected to do more work in the same amount of time. 3. Task design

主要以问答和讨论的形式为主 6课时

V. Assignments

Exercise 1-15

VII. Reference Material

《剑桥雅思考试全真试题解析1》外语教学与研究出版社、剑桥大学出版社 《剑桥雅思考试全真试题解析2》外语教学与研究出版社、剑桥大学出版社 《剑桥雅思考试全真试题解析3》外语教学与研究出版社、剑桥大学出版社 《雅思攻略系列丛书雅思考试（IELTS）学术类高分作文详解》复旦大学出版社

Chapter Three

学术类Task 2:论说文写作

I. Teaching Objectives

On completion of this Chapter, students should be able to: fulfill Task 2 successfully

II. The Points to Be Highlighted

第一步：简化、分析题目（Simplify and analyze the question）

通常Task 2 的题目由两部分组成: 第一部分是背景资料，第二部分才是真正的问题。 第二步：构思文章 (Think about the answer) 第三步：列出提纲 (Plan the answer) 第四步：检查文章（Check the answer）

III. Teaching Approaches and Facilities

Approaches: 1. Discussion 2. Questions and answers

Facilities: blackboard; on-line research;

IV. Teaching Procedures and Contents

1. Lead-in

总结学生的作文，讨论学生犯的错误。 2. Specific Contents

第一步：简化、分析题目（Simplify and analyze the question）

通常Task 2 的题目由两部分组成: 第一部分是背景资料，第二部分才是真正的问题。 通过研究背景资料,考生能够更好地理解题目,并且易于收集与题目相关的论点。 考生提出的观点十分关键，因为它将关系到整篇文章的质量。 为了避免文章跑题，考生最好在动笔之前留出1-2分钟简化并分析题目。 例子：

Topic: There is a general trend, worldwide, for people to move from the countryside to the cities. In spite of that, the developed world insists that developing countries should go against this trend.

Countries that send aid to the Third World should not insist that their aid be invested in the development of rural areas.

可能有些考生对人口流动这一现象并不了解，但是在雅思考试中常会出现考生所不了解的题目。这种情况下，考生需要简化一下给出的题目。首先，考生应该知道在这个题目中, “ the developed world” 指的就是 “countries that send aid” , “developing countries” 就是 “the Third World” ，而 “rural areas” 就是 “countryside” 。那么，“Countries that send aid to the Third World should not insist that their aid be invested in the development of rural areas.” 也就可以简化为 “The developed world insist that developing countries use their aid to develop the countryside.” 而考生需要讨论的就是Should (or should not) the developed world insist that aid be used to develop the countryside? 经过这样的简化，考生就知道该从何谈起了。 例子：

Nuclear power is far too dangerous. Therefore, countries should ban its use and concentrate, instead, on developing alternative sources of energy such as hydroelectric power, wind power and solar energy.

Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons for your answer.

在简化问题时，建议考生首先将题目中的重要信息划线，因为这将有助于考生掌握题目的关键点。在标出重要信息之后，考生可以用自己的话重新改编题目，以便更好地理解题目。 上例中的题目可简化为：Because nuclear power is so dangerous, countries should use safer methods of producing electricity.

经过改题，作文题目更加清楚易懂。有时省略背景资料部分。

e.g. Some people think universities should provide knowledge and skills related to future career; others think the true function of the university is to give access to knowledge for its own sake. What is your pinion of the main function of the university?

Individuals can do nothing to improve the environment, only governments and large companies can make a difference. To what extent do you agree or disagree?

A类问题和B类问题

在简化题目之后，考生可将Task 2的题目大致分为两大类。本书暂且称之为A类问题和B类问题。

A类问题通常具有争论性，人们对它可能持肯定或否定的答案。这类问题需要考生写一篇议论文作为回答。在文中，考生的观点和看法至关重要，因为这反映了考生对于这个具有争论性的问题的理解，而且考生一定要明确表述自己的观点（肯定的或是否定的），而不能含

糊其词。

B类问题不太强调考生一定要有自己的观点，而是要求考生对某个题目进行描述说明，或探究其原因。这类问题需要考生写一篇说明文作为回答 B类例子： Question 1

Describe some of the problems that overpopulation causes, and suggest at least one possible solution. Question 2

Discuss the causes and some effects of widespread drug use by young people in modern day society. Make any recommendations you feel are necessary to help fight youth drug abuse. 第二步：构思文章 (Think about the answer)

构思可以帮助考生收集素材，而且还可以帮助他们发展创造性的思维技巧。在构思文章时，有如下四种方式可供考生选择： (1) 联想—问答式：

所谓的联想－问答式是指在构思文章时考生要根据题目问自己几个问题，即：事件

（what）,时间（when），原因（why）,如何发生（how），地点（where），主要人物（who）等。最后最好再加上一个选择式疑问句，来问问自己有了这么多论点后，到底最后赞成哪一个观点。然后根据具体情况回答这些问题，在回答的同时也就为本篇文章提供了素材。 例子：

问题 答案

Why is the nuclear power dangerous? The nuclear radiation is harmful to

people?s health.

The nuclear pollution may put people?s life into peril. There was a nuclear accident in the former Soviet

Union.

What are the benefits of using nuclear It is more efficient，and doesn?t use power? natural resources.

It is clean and cheap.→People have more

money.

What are the disadvantages of the nuclear If we don?t deal with the nuclear waste power? properly, it is very dangerous.

What are the advantages of developing They are very clean and don?t use fossil fuels. the alternative sources of energy? The alternative sources are sustainable resources. They are very safe.

What are the disadvantages of Developing them may need rather developed developing the alternative sources economies.

of energy?

If we develop wind power, it may cause

much noise and need large areas of land.

Do you agree or disagree on developing

the alternative sources of energy? No, I disagree. (2) 随意写式：

当考生不知从何写起，头脑一片空白时，这种随意写式会提供帮助。这种方式的特点是，考生写文章时不必为可能出现的语法错误、标点错误、拼写错误而担忧，因为这只是草稿，不是考官最后阅读的文章，而且由于不用担心发生错误，思维停顿次数可以减少，写出的文章比较流畅、连贯。

在五分钟内，考生可以随意写，尽可能多地写，这时如果不知该用哪个词，或者思维出现停顿时，可以用“…”或者“—”等符号来做标记。 例子：

There are, of course, many dangers associated with the use of nuclear energy. However, modern technology ensures the dangers are minimal, and they are far outweighed by the benefits it can bring to an economy.

A well-known nuclear accident has happened in the former Soviet Union. For the people there it seemed like a big disaster. Also nuclear power may bring much nuclear waste which is rather harmful to people?s health. But all those may be due to our improper treatment. We believe our modern and much developed technology can ensure the dangers are minimal. And from my point of view, the nuclear power has much more advantages than the alternative sources if energy. Nuclear power is much cheaper than the alternative sources of energy. So people can get much cheaper electricity and save more money which can be used for education. Moreover, nuclear power doesn?t use natural resources, which is good for the environment. However, if we want to develop the alternative sources of energy, we must have a much more developed economies and also may need global effort. Also for example, developing wind power needs large areas of land and may bring noise pollution.

For all the reasons above, with a proper treatment to the nuclear power, developing nuclear power is much better. (3) 罗列式：

当考生头脑中已经有许多素材时，我们建议采用罗列式。罗列和题目有关的素材时, 可以先不用考虑这些素材的重要性。这种罗列式可以帮助考生找到足够多的素材。 例子： nuclear power:

doesn?t use natural resources clean & cheap

efficient

good for the environment people may have more money alternative resources: inefficient

needs much more developed economies wind power noisy needs large areas of land may damage to the environment expensive (4) 提纲式：

提纲式是这四种方式中最快速有效的一种。它包含了以上四种技巧的特点。提纲中罗列的素材都是和题目有关的，而且有一定的层次性、顺序性。从提纲中可以很轻松地掌握整篇文章的脉络，所以比较容易在有限的考试时间内将文章有条理地一气呵成。 例子： nuclear power: 1. clean & cheap

a: people may have more money→saved for education 2. doesn?t use natural resources→good for the environment 3. effecient

alternative resources: 1. expensive

a: need much more developed economies 2. bad to the environment

a: needs large areas of land→damage to the environment b: wind power may bring much noise 3. inefficient

第三步：列出提纲 (Plan the answer)

英语文章有一个规范的结构，一篇文章通常由三个部分组成：

INTRODUCTION ● Background information ● Thesis statement BODY PARAGRAPH 1 ● Topic sentence including connective word ● First supporting sentence ● Second supporting sentence ● Third supporting sentence

BODY PARAGRAPH 2 BODY PARAGRAPH 3 CONCLUSION ● Final assessment with concluding connective 1. 首段（Introduction）

一般说来，Task 2的首段应该简洁，而且开门见山。文章的首段必须包括两个要素, 一是background information(背景知识), 二是thesis statement(立证句，即考生提出的观点)。关于背景知识，考生只须把题目中的背景材料用自己的话再描述一遍即可。比较而言，thesis statement, 即立证句的作用更重要，因为它提供了文章的主题。而且，如果考生在首段没有以立证句来阐述自己的观点，考官就会很难跟得上考生的思路。

(1)分析43页例子。在这个例子中，作者在首段没有提供背景知识（background information），也没有提出立证句（thesis statement），而是提出了一个问题，如果没有事先读过题目，读者很难能跟上作者的思路。但许多中国考生喜欢以提问的方式开始自己的文章，因为他们习惯了汉语中设问句这种自问自答的方式。 （2）观点的确立

Topic: Nuclear power is far too dangerous. Therefore, countries should ban its use and concentrate, instead, on developing alternative sources of energy such as hydroelectric power, wind power and solar energy. Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons for your answer.

如果考生反对使用核能，认为修建核电站、发展核能技术、处理核废物只是浪费金钱，而应该投资研究发展其他替代性能源，那么这篇文章的首段可以是：

The consequences of a nuclear accident are so severe that its use as an energy source should be banned, with the money being invested in the development of sustainable source of energy. 如果考生赞成使用核能，因为它能为国家的经济发展以及人们的日常生活带来诸多好处，那么这篇文章的首段可以是：

There are, of course, many dangers associated with the use of nuclear energy. However, modern technology ensures the dangers are minimal, and they are far outweighed by the benefits it can bring to an economy.

通过这个例子，考生应该看出，文章的首段应该首先简单地阐述一下背景知识。而首段的最后一句必须是文章的立证句（thesis statement）。如果完成这两点，这篇文章就有了好的开始。

2. 主体段落(Body paragraphs)

考生应该在主体段落中详细阐述分支观点以便支持文章首段中的立证句。这些观点一定要按照一定的逻辑顺序排列好，这样会使文章更加紧凑并有层次感。主体段落不要太多，最好是2-3个段落，而且段与段之间要注意连接词的使用。每段的主题句最好都是本段的第一句，

这样文章层次才会更加清晰，自然而然地将文章推向结论。 3. 结尾段(Conclusion)

结尾段落最好不要只写一句话。有些题目是不能用一句话作为结论的，因为这会让考官感觉衔接极不自然，有种生硬的感觉。 一个好的结尾一定要有如下的作用：

● 能看出来这是文章的结束部分，作者的论证也将结束。 ● 结尾段落中包含了作者对题目的最终观点。 ● 结尾段落能够加强对论点的论证。 ● 不要只是一味地重复开头段的内容。

文章的结尾段可以是对全文观点的总结，也可以用推论来预测可能产生的结果。但应注意的一点是，结尾段的内容一定要与主体段落的论点，尤其使文章首段的立证句相吻合。 讨论45页例子。对于这个题目，本文作者给出的立证句为 Some people think teachers will not play more important role in the class. To some extent I don?t agree with this view. 在主体段落中，三个主题句也都是顺应着作者的这一观点。然而，在结尾段中，作者只字未提教师的重要性及不可替代性，只是说明计算机有很大的作用，而且对教学很有帮助。结尾段里这样的内容容易造成读者的困惑。因此，结尾段的内容一定要与首段的立证句保持一致。考生不要因为想做到面面俱到而在结尾段引出新话题，分散读者的注意力。 I 排版及标点 (presentation/layout & punctuation) 在排版方面希望考生遵守以下规则：

(1) 雅思写作考试不需要文章标题，而且也不需要把题目重抄一遍。

(2) 排版时，考生可以采用传统的首行缩进式，或者在两段之间空一行的齐头式，但注意

不要把两种排版方式混合使用。

(3) 考生最好不要把单词拆开分别写在两行，因为这样做要遵循一些比较复杂的规则。与

其记住那些复杂的规则，不如不要把单词拆开写。

(4) 在保证单词书写清晰的前提下，考生最好连笔书写，因为这样看起来比较成熟，会给

考官留下一个好印象。

一般的考生在使用标点方面都有一定的常识，在这里，提醒雅思考生注意以下几个标点： (1) 不要过多使用逗号，尤其是在两个独立的、没有任何连接词连接的句子之间。否则，

很容易出现错误的串句。

e.g. Rita decided to stop smoking, she did not want to die of lung cancer.

(2) 考生应注意使用分号。分号是大多数中国考生经常忽略使用的一个标点符号，它用来

连接两个独立的，但语义上有密切联系的两个句子。

e.g. Chemical waste from factories is still drained into river systems; it is hard to believe that this practice is still allowed by law in some areas. (3) 考生可以用冒号提醒读者注意下文。

e.g. The environment is important for the following reasons:

(4) 不要在正式英文写作中使用缩写形式，而应该使用完全形式。 e.g. don?t, shouldn?t, can?t, it?s

(5) 在雅思写作考试中，不要使用感叹号，而且应避免使用问号提问。 II 词汇 (vocabulary)

在词汇方面，考生应从单词拼写、词汇搭配、以及词汇的变化等三方面来考虑词汇的使用。 1. 单词拼写 (spelling)

在考生写完文章后，往往很难发现其中的拼写错误。这方面的原因很多，比方说，写作时不够细心；检查速度过快；检查时只看到一个词的大概，而顾及不到具体字母的拼写等等。另外，也可能考生对某些单词的印象是错误的，这样就看不出其中的拼写错误。单词拼写没有什么窍门，考生需要对那些容易拼错的词多下功夫。 2. 词汇搭配（collocation）

英汉的表达习惯、句法结构都有区别，甚至逻辑思维也有不同。如，汉语说“救火”，英语认为这样说是不可思议的。英语应当是：“灭火”“与火斗”，因此是“fight fires”。同样，汉语说“让孩子们出去多晒晒太阳”。英语认为这不合逻辑，应该是“太阳晒孩子”，所以要说成是“Take the children out to get as much sun as possible.”。如果考生不考虑英汉两种语言不同的表达习惯，甚至不顾基本的语法规则，而根据汉语句子逐字翻译，那么写出来的就是汉式英语，即Chinglish。如：

A 对词义差异的不了解造成 B对文化习俗差异不了解造成的：

同英语相比，汉语的词语搭配能力更强。如“学习”一词，汉语中说：学习知识，学习讲英语，学习榜样，但英语里分别说：pursue knowledge, learn to speak English, follow the example。再如“环境”，无论是指自然环境，社会环境，还是指周围环境，汉语只有一个词“环境”，但英语根据不同的上下文所表示的不同含义要分别用environment, circumstances, surroundings。因此， 考生一定要注意学习地道的英语表达方式，避免进行“汉译英”，这也是我们提出“不译”这一备考原则的根由所在。 3. 词汇的变化 (variety)

凡是批过学生英语作文的教师都有一种感觉：学生的用词相当贫乏，词语重复现象非常严重。

讨论50页例1。

这一段尽管在语法上没有什么大的问题，但实在是令人难以诵读。问题就在于不必要的、过多的重复。在总共只有46个词的这一小段中，retirement 就重复了两次，problems重复了五次，economic重复了两次，people重复了四次，many重复了三次，often重复了两次。如此高的用词重复率，怎能使文章生动呢？ 而此段英文译成中文倒可以为人接受：

失业经常带来许多问题，即使没有经济问题，也会碰到“今天我应该做什么事”的问题，人们注意到失业不仅会带来经济上的问题，而且还会带来巨大的心理上的问题，许多人失业了经常得病，甚至身体迅速变坏。

对比以上两个例子，可以看出中文写作中可以重复使用同一词语，但这一做法在英文写作中是不可取的。比较英汉文章中的用词，我们发现汉语中词语重复率大大高于英语。汉语在讨论同一事物时，往往采取重复相同词语的手段。但同样是表达同一事物，英语则采用完全不同的方法。 讨论50页例2。

在这一段中提到“好学校”，作者分别用了a great high school和a good independent school。两次提到“高级教学大纲”，一次用了a special program of studies，一次用了an advanced program of studies; 三次提到“好学生”，分别用了outstanding boys and girls, boys and girls of high ability, superior students。同样是“成绩优秀的学生”，另一篇文章也用了三个不同的词： Hard work isn?t the whole story either. Some of these high-achieving students actually put in fewer hours than their lower-scoring classmates. The students at the top of the class get there by mastering a few basic techniques that others can easily learn. Here, according to education experts and students themselves, are the secrets of A students.

而汉语虽然也有“成绩优秀”，“成绩名列前茅”，“成绩出类拔萃”，“班里第一二名”等表达方式，但在同一篇文章里很少有变化。

英汉在表达同一事物时用词的这种反差，同两种语言的词语能力和语言本质有关。英语中能够用不同的词来表达或替代同一意思，这与英语有着极为丰富的词汇量有关。英语在其发展中，不断吸收了各民族、各语言中的词，加上原来就有表达某一意思的词，因而形成了极为丰富的同义词和近义词。另外，英语是形合性语言，它有连词等语言形态手段保证句子意思的连接，这样它就可以无所顾忌地追求词的变化。

对于中国学生来说，避免词汇重复的最好办法就是追求词语的变化。考生在学习英语的过程中，要积极丰富自己的词汇量，注意同义词及词组的收集、搭配及使用。 第三步：检查文章

考生在进行雅思写作考试时要留出5分钟时间对文章进行检查，这5分钟主要是针对语法错误及文章结构进行的检查。检查文章时可以采用两种方式，一种是常用的通读式（通读全文，发现错误就改正），另一种就是问答式（心中带着几个问题来对全文检查），后一种方法是我们提倡的最有效的检查方式。在检查文章时, 考生应该看看自己的文章：

(1) 是否运用了正确的语法，譬如说，统一的时态，主谓是否一致，词语的词性以及冠词的使用是否恰当。

(2) 是否使用了不同的句子结构。 (3) 是否使用了恰当的词汇。

(4) 词汇拼写是否正确。

(5) 文章中每一段的主题句是否真正起到了主题句的作用，所有的主题句是否是围绕着题目展开的。

(6) 段与段之间、句与句之间的连词使用是否有效。 (7) 每段内容的论证是否充分。 1) 冠词的错误使用：复习冠词用法

冠词的错误使用包括两个方面：混用了两个冠词或者缺少冠词。 2) 第三人称单数的使用错误：

考生写文章时一定要注意第三人称单数的使用。虽然第三人称单数的问题在初中时就重点学过，但因中文没有这种语言现象，考生常常忽略这个问题。有时出现这种错误是因为一时马虎，有时却是因为误将主语当成复数名词。 3) 动词时态、语态错误：

考生有时不太清楚所用谓语动词的施动者是谁，因此经常出现主、被动语态乱用的情况。

4) 动词形式使用错误：

5) 主谓不一致：当主语是复数时，切记也要将谓语动词改成复数。 6) 可数、不可数名词的错误运用：

有时考生也会将可数、不可数名词混用，而这种错误一般来说不是马虎造成的，是平时养成的坏习惯。所以考生要想避免此类错误，一定要在平时就多加注意。 7) 代词使用错误： A: 代词指代不清：

有时考生写出的句子中，会出现指代不清的代词。也就是说，除了考生本人，其他人都无法理解（或者是从语法角度无法理解）它的来源。代词一般是用来指代前面出现过的名词，但是当句子中名词很多时，使用代词就要多加小心，否则就会出现这种指代不清错误。 B：代词转移

C：代词与所指代的名词要保持数的一致 D：比较结构中，代词应保证平行 E：反身代词使用中的错误 (8) 介词的使用错误：

介词的搭配错误一直以来都是考生最头疼的事情，为了避免这种错误发生，建议考生平时多做这方面的练习，发现错误后多加总结，并牢记在心。 (9) 词性使用错误：

有些考生常混用形容词和名词、副词和形容词、动词和名词等词性的词。 3. Task design

主要以问答和讨论的形式为主 8课时

V. Assignments

按照每一步的要求完成对一个题目的写作

VI. Reference Material

《剑桥雅思考试全真试题解析1》外语教学与研究出版社、剑桥大学出版社 《剑桥雅思考试全真试题解析2》外语教学与研究出版社、剑桥大学出版社 《剑桥雅思考试全真试题解析3》外语教学与研究出版社、剑桥大学出版社 《雅思攻略系列丛书雅思考试（IELTS）学术类高分作文详解》复旦大学出版社

Chapter Four

学术类Task 1: 图表作文写作

I. Teaching Objectives

On completion of this Chapter, students should be able to: fulfill Task 1 successfully.

II. The Points to Be Highlighted

A 类 Task 1 图表作文写作简介 评分标准(Marking criteria) 纵向发展类 横向比较类 复合型 流程图

III. Teaching Approaches and Facilities

Approaches: 1. Discussion 2. Questions and answers

Facilities: blackboard; on-line research;

IV. Teaching Procedures and Contents

1. Lead-in

要求学生讨论下面的问题：

为什么雅思考试要考学生对图表的阐述能力？ 2. Specific Contents

A 类 Task 1 图表作文写作简介

学术类考试Task 1是图表作文，要求考生根据所给的数据在二十分钟之内完成一篇150字的报告。考生须要使用正式的语言对所给的数据进行描述，这些数据主要以曲线图(a graph/ curve graph/ line graph)、柱状图(a bar chart/ column chart)、圆形图(a pie chart)、表格(a table)、流程图(a flow chart)和物体结构图(a picture of an object showing how it works)等形式出现。有时信息不止以一种形式出现，可能是两-多个图表的结合。 评分标准(Marking criteria)

IELTS Task 1 Writing band descriptors (public version) Band 9 Task Achievement ", fully satisfies all the requirements of the Coherence and Cohesion ", uses cohesion in such a way that it ", uses a wide range of vocabulary with very Lexical Resource Grammatical Range and Accuracy ", uses a wide range of structures with full

task ", clearly presents a fully developed response 8 ", covers all requirements of the task sufficiently ", presents, highlights and illustrates key features / bullet points clearly and appropriately attracts no attention ", skilfully manages paragraphing ", sequences information and ideas logically ", manages all aspects of cohesion well ", uses paragraphing sufficiently and appropriately natural and sophisticated control of lexical features; rare minor errors occur only as ?slips? ", uses a wide range of vocabulary fluently and flexibly to convey precise meanings ", skilfully uses uncommon lexical items but there may be occasional inaccuracies in word choice and collocation ", produces rare errors in spelling and/or word formation flexibility and accuracy; rare minor errors occur only as ?slips? ", uses a wide range of structures ", the majority of sentences are error-free ", makes only very occasional errors or inappropriacies 7 ", covers the requirements of the task ", (Academic) presents a clear overview of main trends, differences or stages ", (General Training) presents a clear purpose, with the tone consistent and appropriate ", clearly presents and highlights key features / bullet points but could be more fully extended ", logically organises information and ideas; there is clear progression throughout ", uses a range of cohesive devices appropriately although there may be some under-/over-use ", uses a sufficient range of vocabulary to allow some flexibility and precision ", uses less common lexical items with some awareness of style and collocation ", may produce occasional errors in word choice, spelling and/or word formation ", uses a variety of complex structures ", produces frequent error-free sentences ", has good control of grammar and punctuation but may make a few errors 6 ", addresses the requirements of the task ", (Academic) presents an overview with information appropriately selected ", (General Training) presents a purpose ", arranges information and ideas coherently and there is a clear overall progression ", uses cohesive devices effectively, but cohesion within and/or between ", uses an adequate range of vocabulary for the task ", attempts to use less common vocabulary but with some inaccuracy ", makes some errors in spelling and/or word formation, but they do not impede ", uses a mix of simple and complex sentence forms ", makes some errors in grammar and punctuation but they rarely reduce

that is generally clear; there may be inconsistencies in tone ", presents and adequately highlights key features / bullet points but details may be irrelevant, inappropriate or inaccurate 5 ", generally addresses the task; the format may be inappropriate in places ", (Academic) recounts detail mechanically with no clear overview; there may be no data to ", (General Training) may present a purpose for the letter that is unclear at times; the tone may be variable and sometimes inappropriate ", presents, but inadequately covers, key features / bullet points; there may be a tendency to focus on details 4 ", attempts to address the task but does not cover all key features / bullet points; the format may be inappropriate ", (General Training) fails to clearly explain the purpose of the letter; the tone may be inappropriate sentences may be faulty or mechanical ", may not always use referencing clearly or appropriately communication ", presents information with some organisation but there may be a lack of overall progression ", makes inadequate, inaccurate or over-use of ", may be repetitive because of lack of referencing and substitution ", uses a limited range of vocabulary, but this is minimally adequate for the task ", may make noticeable errors in spelling and/or word formation that may cause some difficulty for the reader ", uses only a limited range of structures ", attempts complex sentences but these tend to be less accurate than simple sentences ", may make frequent grammatical errors and punctuation may be faulty; errors can cause some difficulty for the reader support the description cohesive devices ", presents information and ideas but these are not arranged coherently and there is no clear progression in the response ", uses some basic cohesive devices but these may be ", uses only basic vocabulary which may be used repetitively or which may be inappropriate for the task ", has limited control of word formation and/or spelling; ", errors may cause strain for the reader ", uses only a very limited range of structures with only rare use of subordinate clauses ", some structures are accurate but errors predominate, and punctuation is often faulty

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