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C H A P T E R

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CHAPTER SUMMARY

MOTIVATION AND

VALUES

Marketers try to satisfy consumer needs, but the reasons any product is purchased can vary widely. The identification of consumer motives is an important step in ensuring that the

appropriate needs will be met by a product. Motivation refers to the processes that cause people to behave as they do. Marketers are very interested in consumer goals, drives, and wants.

Traditional approaches to consumer behavior have focused on the abilities of products to satisfy rational needs (utilitarian motives), but hedonic motives (e.g., the need for exploration or for fun) also play a role in many purchase decisions. Drive theory focuses on biological needs that produce unpleasant states of arousal. This theory explains some of human behavior but not all. Expectancy theory suggests that behavior is largely pulled by expectations of achieving desirable outcomes—positive incentives—rather than pushed from within.

Motivational conflicts occur. Three conflicts are characterized in the chapter. First, in an

approach-approach conflict, a person must choose between two desirable alternatives. Second, in approach-avoidance conflict, many products and services we desire have negative consequences attached to them. Lastly, in avoidance-avoidance conflict, consumers face a choice with two undesirable alternatives.

As demonstrated by Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs, the same product can satisfy different needs, depending upon the consumer‘s state at the time. In addition to the consumer‘s objective

situation (i.e., whenever basic physiological needs have already been satisfied), the consumer‘s degree of involvement with the product must be considered.

A fact of the marketplace is that not all consumers are motivated to the same extent. Involvement refers to the level of perceived personal importance and/or interest evoked by a stimulus (or stimuli) within a specific situation. Involvement has many faces. Included in these are product involvement, message-response involvement, and purchase situation involvement. Degree of involvement becomes a means by which to segment a market and, therefore, devise strategies to reach different involved segments.

Consumer motivations are often driven by underlying values. In this context, products take on meaning because they are seen as being instrumental in helping the person to achieve some goal that is linked to a value (such as individuality or freedom) Numerous forms of values are examined in the chapter. Also examined are scales that measure the shift in values over time.

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This chapter concludes with an examination of the impact that the events of September 11, 2001, had on societal values.

CHAPTER OUTLINE

1. The Motivation Process

a. Motivation refers to the processes that cause people to behave as they do. Once a need has been activated, a state of tension exists that drives the consumer to attempt to reduce or eliminate the need. b. Needs can be:

1) Utilitarian—a desire to achieve some functional or practical benefit.

2) Hedonic—an experiential need, involving emotional responses or fantasies. c. The desired end state is the consumer‘s goal. Marketers try to create products and services that will provide the desired benefits and permit the consumer to reduce this tension.

d. With the consideration of unmet needs, a discrepancy exists between the

consumer‘s present state and some ideal state. Tension is created. The consumer seeks to reduce tension. The degree of arousal is called a drive.

e. Personal and cultural factors combine to create a want. This is one manifestation of a need.

1) Once a goal is attained, tension is reduced and the motivation recedes. 2) Motivation can be described in terms of: a) Its strength b) Its direction Discussion Opportunity—Ask: Pretend you are to explain motivation to a friend. What would you say? What examples would you use? (Do the same substituting goal, drive, and want) Discussion Opportunity—Bring in examples of magazine ads that demonstrate an attempt to activate (a) a utilitarian need or (b) a hedonic need. 2. Motivational Strength

a. The degree to which a person is willing to expend energy to reach one goal as opposed to another reflects his or her underlying motivation to attain that goal.

Biological Versus Learned Needs b. Early work on motivation ascribed behavior to instinct (the innate patterns of behavior that are universal in a species) When an instinct is inferred from the behavior it is supposed to explain, this circular explanation is called tautology. c. Drive theory focuses on biological needs that produce unpleasant states of arousal. 1) Tension reduction has been proposed as a basic mechanism governing human behavior.

2) Homeostasis—goal-oriented behavior that attempts to reduce or eliminate an unpleasant state and return to a balanced one.

3) Drive theory runs into difficulty when it tries to explain why people sometimes do

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things that might increase a drive state (such as delaying gratification). d. Expectancy theory suggests that behavior is largely pulled by expectations of achieving desirable outcomes—positive incentives—rather than pushed from within. Discussion Opportunity—Ask: Can you think of purchase situations that illustrate drive theory and expectancy theory? Which one of the theories do you think is superior? Discussion Opportunity—If a car of tourists drives into an unfamiliar town at meal time and stops at McDonald’s instead of an equally attractive and price-competitive JOE’S Eats, which of the two theories (expectancy or drive) would probably be at work? How would JOE’S combat this? 3. Motivational Direction

a. Motives have direction as well as strength. Most goals can be reached by a number of paths.

Needs Versus Wants b. The specific way a need is satisfied depends on the individual‘s unique history, learning experiences, and his or her cultural environment.

1) The particular form of consumption used to satisfy a need is termed a want.

Types of Needs c. Needs can be:

1) Biogenic needs—food, water, air, and shelter 2) Psychogenic needs—power, status, affiliation

3) Utilitarian needs—emphasizes objective, tangible attributes (miles per gallon) 4) Hedonic needs—subjective and experiential (excitement, self-confidence, fantasy) Discussion Opportunity—Ask: What is a product or service you could purchase to fulfill a psychogenic need? Utilitarian need? Hedonic need? How would a marketer advertise to you with respect to fulfilling these needs? How would you know that you had fulfilled the need? ? Consumers’ desire for adventure, even tinged with a bit of danger, has meant big business for the adventure travel industry, which specializes in providing white-knuckled experiences. Bungee jumping, which originated in 1979, has now been joined by white-water rafting, skydiving, mountain biking, and other physically stimulating activities that are increasing in popularity. This segment of the travel industry has been estimated to account for one fifth of the U.S. leisure travel-market.1 Motivational Conflicts d. A goal has valence, which means that it can be positive or negative. Therefore goals can be sought or avoided.

1) Not all behavior is motivated by the desire to approach a goal.

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2) Consumers often find themselves in situations in which different motives, both positive and negative, conflict with one another. Discussion Opportunity—Think of goals that are sought and those that are not. Share some examples with the students. Discussion Opportunity—Give an illustration of when motives conflict with one another in purchasing situations. Ask: Can anyone think of another example of when motives conflict? e. Conflicts can occur. Three different types of goal conflicts are:

1) Approach-approach conflict—a person must choose between two desirable alternatives.

a) The theory of cognitive dissonance is based on the premise that people have a need for order and consistency in their lives and that a state of tension is created when beliefs or behaviors conflict with one another. b) People attempt to reduce dissonance.

c) A state of dissonance exists when there is a psychological inconsistency between two or more beliefs or behaviors. Discussion Opportunity— Ask: How could a marketer use theory of cognitive dissonance to their advantage? What do you think of Miller’s classic “Tastes Great, Less Filling” campaign? 2) Approach-avoidance conflict—many products or services we desire have negative consequences attached to them.

3) Avoidance-avoidance conflict—a choice between two undesirable alternatives. *****Use Figure 4-1 Here; Use Consumer Behavior Challenge #1 Here ***** Discussion Opportunity—Give an illustration of each of the three major forms of conflict. You might even find examples of advertisements that demonstrate the three conflict situations. Ask: How can marketers use these conflicts to their advantage? Classifying Consumer Needs f. Much research has been done on classifying human needs. 1) Various universal need classifications have been attempted.

2) There seems to be no universally accepted list (though many needs are common to all lists).

a) Murray‘s psychogenic needs—used as the basis for the Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT).

g. Those needs that seem particularly relevant to buying behavior include: 1) Need for achievement 2) Need for affiliation 3) Need for power

4) Need for uniqueness.

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h. Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs implies that the order of development is fixed. This hierarchy is most closely associated with product benefits that people might be looking for. Lower order needs must be satisfied before climbing the needs ladder. The needs are: 1) Physiological 2) Safety 3) Social 4) Esteem

5) Self-actualization *****Use Figure 4-2 Here ***** i. Problems with Maslow‘s method include:

1) Climbing the ladder is not set in stone. Some activities cover several levels of needs.

2) The hierarchy may be culture-bound.

3) Consumer‘s have different needs priorities. *****Use Consumer Behavior Challenge #2 Here ***** Discussion Opportunity—(a) Tell the class about a product you could buy that could fit into all five levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs; (b) Bring an advertisement to class that demonstrates each one of the needs (you may have to bring five ads). 4. Consumer Involvement

a. Involvement refers to ―a person‘s perceived relevance of the object based on their inherent needs, values, and interests.‖

1) Involvement can be viewed as the motivation to process information.

2) As involvement increases, people devote more attention to ads related to the product, exert more cognitive effort to understand these ads, and focus their attention on the product-related information in them. *****Use Figure 4-3 Here ***** Discussion Opportunity—Ask: Who can give me an example of involvement with a product category or brand? How can marketers use involvement to construct advertising campaigns? Levels of Involvement: From Inertia to Passion b. The type of information processing that will occur depends upon the consumer‘s level of involvement. It can range from simple to elaborate processing. 1) Simple processing— only basic features of a message are considered.

2) Elaboration—information is linked to one‘s preexisting knowledge systems.

c. Because a person‘s degree of involvement can be conceived as a continuum,

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consumption at the low end of involvement is characterized by inertia.

1) In this state, decisions are made out of habit because the consumer lacks the information to consider alternatives.

2) To the contrary, decisions can be very passionate and carry great meaning for a person. 3) In consumer situations of high involvement, the consumer enters a flow state, where the consumer is in an elated state of focus and concentration and loses track of time. d. Cult products command fierce consumer loyalty, devotion, even worship. *****Use Consumer Behavior Challenge #8 Here ***** Discussion Opportunity—Ask the class to think of a time when they purchased something based on the concept of inertia or passion. Have students share what they thought of. The Many Faces of Involvement d. Involvement can be cognitive or emotional. There are several types of broad involvement:

1) Product involvement is related to a consumer‘s level of interest in a particular product. Sales promotions increase this involvement.

2) Message-response involvement (or advertising involvement), refers to the consumer‘s interest in processing marketing communications. a) Television is considered a low-involvement medium. b) Print is considered a high-involvement medium.

3) Purchase-situation involvement refers to differences that may occur when buying the same object for different contexts. Social risk is considered. Discussion Opportunity—Illustrate each of the “faces of involvement.” How would marketers make appeals in these areas? Provide illustrations of when “gift giving” might fall under each of the involvement situations. 5. Measuring Involvement

a. Measurement of involvement is important for a variety of reasons.

1) An involvement profile can be constructed using the following components: a) Personal interest in a product category.

b) Perceived importance of the potential negative consequences associated with a poor product choice.

c) The probability of making a bad purchase. d) The pleasure value of the product category. e) The sign value of the product category. *****Use Table 4-1 and Table 4-2 Here ***** 63

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Discussion Opportunity— Create a handout using the consumer involvement scale in Table 4.1 to measure involvement of two or three different products. Have the students quickly respond to the scale and total their scores. Ask for general ranges of scores for each product or have specific students share their scores. Encourage students to discuss the results and whether or not they accurately describe how they feel about each product. ? To increase involvement, some campaigns have featured disguised products in blind taste-test challenges. Philip Morris updated its Merit Taste Challenge by introducing the Mystery Taste Challenge in 1991. Smokers sent in a coupon for two free packs of an unnamed cigarette. This approach simultaneously stimulates sampling and enables the company to generate a database to identify smokers of competitive brands.2 ? Involvement level is an important consideration in political marketing. Not surprisingly, for example, people who are more interested in political campaigns and are more likely to vote are also more likely to watch candidates’ debates and political conventions on television.3 Discussion Opportunity—Ask: What are some products that people buy that seem to require a great deal of involvement? 2) It is possible to segment by involvement levels. There is diversity among involvement groups.

3) There are specific strategies that can be used to increase involvement. a) Appeal to hedonic needs (sensory appeals).

b) Use novel stimuli (cinematography, sudden silences, or unexpected movements in commercials).

c) Use prominent stimuli (loud music, large ads, color, fast action). d) Include celebrity endorsers.

e) Build a bond with the consumer (relationship marketing--example, R.J. Reynolds Tobacco). *****Use Consumer Behavior Challenges #6 and #8 (Used Previously) Here ***** Discussion Opportunity—Construct and then discuss an example of market segmentation based on involvement. b. A value is a belief that some condition is preferable to its opposite.

1) Two people can believe in the same behaviors but their underlying belief systems may be quite different.

2) Consumers often seek out those that have similar belief systems to their own. Discussion Opportunity—Ask students to share examples of how people with similar values band together. Bring in some example ads illustrating this concept.

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Core Values c. Every culture has a set of core values that it imparts to its members. Core values do change over time. In many cases, values are universal.

1) What sets cultures apart is the relative importance or ranking of universal values. This set of rankings is a culture‘s value system.

2) Every culture is characterized by its members‘ endorsement of a value system. 3) Each set of core values that uniquely define a culture is taught to that culture by socialization agents (parents, friends, and teachers).

a) The process of learning the beliefs and behaviors endorsed by one‘s own culture is termed enculturation.

b) Acculturation is the process of learning the value system and behaviors of another culture. Discussion Opportunity—Ask: What are some values that are important to you? Which of these values are transferred to your purchase behavior? In what way? ? Instructors wishing to expand their coverage of values may wish to consult an additional perspective on values. Sheth, Newman, and Gross develop a theory of market choice based on what they term consumption values. The five consumption values are functional, social, emotional, epistemic, and conditional. This approach focuses to a great extent on the benefits perceived as deriving from brand choice, rather than to the view of products as helping to obtain culturally valued goals. It provides specific guidelines for operationalization, measurement, and application.4 Applications of Values to Consumer Behavior d. Despite their importance, values have not been as widely applied to direct

examination of consumer behavior as might be expected. The reason is that many values are very general or relative by nature (e.g., freedom, security, inner peace). Because values drive much of consumer behavior, it could be said that virtually all consumer research is ultimately related to the identification and measurement of values.

1) Research has tended to classify values as being: a) Cultural (such as security)

b) Consumption-specific (such as convenient shopping or prompt service) c) Product-specific (such as ease of use or durability) 2) Research in values:

a) The Rokeach Value Survey—the psychologist Milton Rokeach identified two sets of values:

1. Terminal values—desired end-states that apply to many different cultures.

2. Instrumental values—composed of actions needed to achieve these terminal values. *****Use Table 4-3 Here ***** 65

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Discussion Opportunity—Provide an example that illustrates terminal values and instrumental values. How do these values relate to advertising attempts to influence behavior? ? For an application of Rokeach’s work to consumer behavior that focuses on sets of these values rather than just the highest-ranked ones and identifies value-based segments in a Brazilian sample, see Wagner A. Kamakura and Jose Afonso Mazzon’s article.5 b) The List of Values (LOV)—identifies nine consumer segments based on the values they endorse (and then relates these to consumption).

c) The Means-End Chain Model—specific product attributes are linked at increasing abstraction to terminal values via ―laddering.‖ Laddering is a technique whereby consumers‘ associations between specific attributes and general consequences are uncovered.

1. Advertising uses this concept to develop advertising strategy. 2. Elements include:

a. Message elements—which attributes or product features. b. Consumer benefit—positive consequences of use. c. Executional framework—style and tone of ad.

d. Leverage point—how to link terminal values with product features. e. Driving force—end value on which the advertising will focus. *****Use Figure 4-4 Here; Use Consumer Behavior Challenge #5 Here ***** Discussion Opportunity—Provide an illustration of the means-end chain model. Comment on applications and usefulness of the model. d) Syndicated Surveys—a variety of surveys are available

1. The Yankelovich Monitor attempts to track changes in values over time. 2. This survey identifies voluntary simplifiers as consumers who believe that once basic needs are met, additional income will not add to happiness. 3. Modern syndicated surveys that track changes in values are VALS2, GlobalScan, New Wave, and the Lifestyles Study. *****Use Table 4-4 Here; Use Consumer Behavior Challenge #10 Here ***** Materialism: ―He Who Dies with the Most Toys, Wins . . .‖

e. Materialism refers to the importance people attach to worldly possessions. 1) America is a highly materialistic society.

2) Materialists are more likely to value possessions for their status and appearance-related meanings. *****Use Consumer Behavior Challenges #4, #5, and #9 Here ***** 66

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Discussion Opportunity—What is your opinion on materialism? Is it good or bad? Be careful how you answer this. How do marketers use materialism to their advantage? What is the alternative to materialism? Would this be good for our economy? Consumer Behavior in the Aftermath of September 11 a. The events of September 11, 2001, led to a marked shift in values.

b. This value shift was evident in the shift in consumer purchases from travel and hospitality to home improvement products and carry-out foods.

c. One of the biggest value shifts related to consumers‘ willingness to sacrifice privacy for security.

SUMMARY OF SPECIAL FEATURE BOXES

1. Marketing Opportunity I (page 126)

This box highlights the power of creating a cult brand. This feature supports the section ―Cult Products.‖ 2. Net Profit (pages 131–132)

This box gives various examples of how Web sites have used personalization as a means of developing consumer involvement. The examples illustrate product involvement, message-response involvement, and purchase situation involvement. This feature supports the section ―The Many Faces of Involvement.‖ 3. Marketing Opportunity II (pages 133–134)

This cultural vignette demonstrates how the values treasured by some cultures create the

opportunity for products that would seem obscure to other cultures. Illustrated is Japan‘s fixation on time spent in the bathroom and the market that this has created for various types of toilet features. This feature supports the section ―Values.‖ 4. The Global Looking Glass (page 135)

This box takes a look at the global perceptions of the United States as a culture. This feature supports the section ―The Rokeach Value Survey.‖ 5. Marketing Pitfall I (pages 138–139)

This box focuses on the impact that cultural values can have on the marketing of products. Tampons are featured as a specific product that has met resistance in various countries. This feature supports the section ―Values.‖

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6. Marketing Pitfall II (page 144)

This box highlights the effect that the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, had on the surge in patriotism as well as the ensuing trend marketing efforts involving references to patriotism. It is shown that these conditions have carried on, even more than one year after the events. This feature supports the section ―Consumer Behavior in the Aftermath of 9/11.‖

STUDENT PROJECTS

Individual Projects 1. Assign students the task of finding a couple of ads that seem to have indirect appeal to

latent motives. Ask a student to show the class an ad and point out the indirect appeals. Does the class agree? Do they perhaps see other latent motives?

2. Ask students to have ten people describe the personality of one of the following products

or another product of the students‘ choosing: light or foreign beer; iMac computer; a

Corvette; your college or university; Crest toothpaste; or a favorite local restaurant or pub. How are the descriptions similar? How are they different? (This question might be done as an in-class activity, assigning each student to interview five different people within the class itself. Simply direct students to mingle about the room, pairing off with another person, and interviewing each other. Allow students to continue until each has interviewed at least five other people.)

3. Find a student who is not too shy to do this one. Ask the student to search for

unconscious motives by asking six people if they are wearing perfume or cologne. Make sure they keep asking until at least three people say, ―Yes.‖ Then have them ask the respondents, ―Why do you wear cologne?‖ Ask three of those who said they were not wearing cologne, ―Why not?‖ Ask the three who said, ―No‖ if they wore any the last time they had a date. Share their responses with the class and evaluate them. Can the class uncover any hidden motivations? 4. Ask students to come up with a list of products or services that people primarily buy

because they want to ―belong.‖ Have them explain why they listed the particular items.

5. Have students find advertisements that attempt to persuade consumers to think of

products as objects that satisfy one of the motives described in this chapter. Have them identify and classify that motive.

6. Ask students to find a print ad that appeals to a level of Maslow‘s hierarchy. Then, for

each level of the hierarchy, have a student show their ad in class and explain why their ad appeals to this level. Ask why they think the firm selected this particular appeal. Is there overlap between levels? Is this good or bad?

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7.

Have your students think of some product or service they have purchased recently. Then have them respond to the consumer involvement scale in Table 4.1. Is their involvement with this product best described as product involvement, message-response involvement, or purchase situation involvement? Why?

Assign students to visit a shopping mall or a superstore. Have them evaluate the retail environment for ways that both the retailer and product manufacturers try to increase consumer involvement. Direct them to use the strategies suggested on pages 129–131 of the textbook.

Have each student list what they perceive to be their own most important five (or ten) values. How do these values transfer to purchase decisions? How would marketers find out about their values?

Have each student list what they perceive to be the five most important values to their parents. How do these values transfer to purchase decisions? How would marketers find out about their values? Is there a similarity between the values of other students‘ parents and yours?

Considering Questions 9 and 10, what values between the groups might be in conflict? Is it the marketer‘s responsibility to resolve these conflicts? What strategies might a marketer use to market to groups that value conflict? Provide an illustration.

After reading the section ―Materialism: ?He Who Dies with the Most Toys, Wins . . .,‘‖ have students create an argument either for or against more materialism. Does the Internet promote materialism? Explain.

8.

9. 10.

11. 12.

Group Projects 1. Have members of a club, fraternity, or sorority analyze how members of their

organization are following Maslow‘s hierarchy in their purchases. (Different products can be used to demonstrate the various motives.) 2. Assign groups of students to observe a table of people eating in either a restaurant or

cafeteria setting. See if they can identify any of the major motives at work. Have them report on their conclusions. (Hint: Watch the respondents‘ behavior while they eat and during their conversation. Perhaps students might like to videotape part of the meal—five minutes max.) 3. Have groups of students discuss products or services that each of them have purchased

that fit the three types of Motivational Conflicts found in Figure 4-1. 4. Have the class keep a diary of their consumer decisions for a two-day period. (Make sure

they include both actual purchases and conscious decisions not to buy.) At the end of the period have them review their diaries and classify their apparent motives. (Maslow‘s scheme may be useful here.) During this process were they more aware of ads? Have students discuss their diaries in groups.

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Have the group go to a shopping center or mall and observe others‘ behavior. What

conclusions can they make about motives, involvement, and values after having made the observation?

Have a group construct an example of the means-end chain model. Explain the thought process used.

Have groups evaluate a purchase made by a teenager using roles or characteristics similar to those shown in Table 4-4.

eLAB

Individual Assignments 1. Go to www.benjerry.com. Ben & Jerry‘s Ice Cream is famous for a well-rounded

mission statement and care and concern for the environment. What is their mission? What indications are there about the organization‘s commitment to the environment? What values does the company try to express? How might this expression help the organization market products?

2. Go to www.coachfederation.org or www.mentorcoach.com. It has become popular to

have a ―life coach‖ to aid one in daily decision making and mastering life‘s skills. How might a ―life coach‖ impact a person‘s consumer decisions? What evidence do you find that a ―life coach‖ might impact one‘s value system? How might this be important to marketers?

3. Go to www.burton.com. Burton Snowboards are very popular with Gen X. How does

this Website attempt to motivate consumers to try the sport and the Burton products? Be specific with the description of strategies that Burton uses. Do you think the Burton approach is effective? Explain.

4. Go to www.simmonsresearch.com. After examining the Simmons site, indicate what

methods the company might use to analyze consumers‘ motivations and values. Which of the methods might be used to explore the three conflict methods described in the chapter.

5. Go to www.specialized.com. Specialized Bicycles is one of the leading manufacturers

and marketers of all types of bikes. Browse their Web site. Give a brief description of

their different product lines. How does Specialized motivate consumers to get into biking? Are there any value statements made (either directly or indirectly)? Explain. What might Specialized do to improve the ―motivation‖ aspect of their site (you might want to compare it to the Burton Snowboard site discussed previously)?

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Group Assignments 1. Go to www.sric-bi.com. Your group should explore the VALS, VALS2, and iVALS

methods discussed on the Web site. Describe each of the methods. Pick one of the

methods for further research. Were you able to take the VALS test online? What were the results? Comment on these methods as a means to explore consumer values. Devise an experiment by which VALS studies could be used to explore consumer values. 2. Go to www.gallup.com or www.pollingreport.com. Have the group read about polling.

What can we learn about consumer behavior from polls? What can we learn about motivation and values from polls? Participate in one of the polls available on the Web site. Project what might have been learned about your motivations or values by participating in the poll. Comment.

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CHALLENGE

1.

Describe three types of motivational conflicts, citing an example of each from current marketing campaigns.

The text lists the three types of motivational conflicts as: (1) approach-approach—choosing between two desirable alternatives (e.g., new car or new entertainment center), (2) approach-avoidance—referring to the negative and positive aspects of many products that the consumer must consider (e.g., I want a new car but I would have to pay higher insurance and I couldn‘t take a vacation), and (3) avoidance-avoidance—having to choose between two undesirable alternatives (e.g., do I have the mechanic overhaul my motor or do I buy a motor out of a

wrecked car?). In citing examples, students should identify the particular characteristics of the marketing campaign that define it as one type of conflict or another. Additional discussion could be centered on the effectiveness of using each type of conflict for particular product types. 2. Devise separate promotional strategies for an article of clothing, each of which stresses

one of the levels of Maslow?s hierarchy of needs.

Students should be encouraged to review Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs, including physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization. Although their selection of clothing articles for this exercise maybe diverse, there is likely to be some consistency within need categories. Examples include: (1) the promotion of name-brand/designer-label clothing stressing consumers‘ need to belong to a particular social group; (2) the promotion of warm and durable jackets or boots stressing consumer physiological need; (3) the promotion of protective equipment for amateur athletes (e.g., knee and elbow guards, helmets, and goggles) stressing consumer‘s safety needs; (4) the promotion of elegant dress or a tux for esteem; (5) anything you want to wear (like Sam Walton did) because clothes don‘t matter that much to you.

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Collect a sample of ads that appear to appeal to consumers? values. What value is

being communicated in each ad, and how is this done? Is this an effective approach to designing a marketing communication?

Encourage students to look at the types of values in either the Rokeach Value Survey or List of Values (LOV) to determine which consumer values they would like to share with the class. (Possible Field Project Idea) 4. What is your conception of paradise? Construct a collage consisting of images you

personally associate with paradise and compare the results with those of your classmates. Do you detect any common themes?

This project will demonstrate to students how values, goals, or motivations can be brought from the subconscious to the conscious thinking level. If a marketer could see the collage, they would have some valuable information about the student. An interesting sidebar is to ask the students to have one of their parents do the same task and mail (or give) the results to them. When the students look at the symbols displayed they will see their parents‘ value structure but they may also learn some surprises (which shows why marketers should be careful of generalizing—for example, an older person who desires to hang glide, snowboard, or drive a fast car). You might ask students how the Survivor television program has changed their perception of paradise. 5. Construct a hypothetical means-end chain model for the purchase of a bouquet of

roses. How might a florist use this approach to construct a promotional strategy?

Students should be encouraged to review the text discussion of the means-end change model and incorporate the laddering technique of probing for more and more abstract associations between products and desired outcomes in completing this exercise. Attributes of a bouquet of roses are beauty, pleasant scent, and deep and vivid colors. If you kept probing you could probably find feelings of being loved, a sense of respect and admiration, sympathy, or romance. In discussing how florists might use this approach to construct a promotional strategy, students should include the Means-End Conceptualization of the Components of Advertising Strategy (MECCAs) 6. Describe how a man?s level of involvement with his car would affect how he is

influenced by different marketing stimuli. How might you design a strategy for a line of car batteries for a segment of low-involvement consumers, and how would this strategy differ from your attempts to reach a segment of men who are very involved in working on their cars?

Different levels of involvement with a product influence the amount of attention paid to

marketing stimuli, affecting the amount of cognitive processing capacity directed toward stimuli (e.g., the product related information in an ad). In discussing the development of advertising targeted at low-involvement consumers, students should recognize that peripheral cues are used in place of product-related information. Behaviors resulting from such cues do not last long and are likely to change over time. (Bobby Unser uses a Die-Hard battery!) Conversely, developing advertising directed toward high-involvement consumers will rely less on peripheral cues and more on substantial product-related information (i.e., the central route to persuasion). Behaviors

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resulting from this emphasis will be more resistant to change. (How many amps? How many minutes of reserve capacity? What are the cold cranking amps? What are the marine cranking amps?) 7. Interview members of a celebrity fan club. Describe their level of involvement with the

“product,” and devise some marketing opportunities to reach this group.

Student responses to this exercise might consider a variety of celebrities—movie stars, musicians, politicians—living and dead. They might be asked to consider the Elvis Presley fan club

phenomenon in terms of the tremendous marketing opportunities that have derived from tours of his home in Memphis (Graceland), his personal property displayed in ―museums‖ (guitars, clothing, music awards, etc.), his ―signature‖ hairstyle and sideburns, other actors‘ and

musicians‘ remakes of his movies and songs, television programs, Elvis parades, books, postage stamps, etc. The quickest way to do this project is to ―go online‖ to a ―favorite site.‖ Most of the recognized search engines (e.g., Yahoo!) will have ways for you to reach the celebrity sites. (Possible Field Project Idea) 8. “High involvement is just a fancy term for expensive.” Do you agree?

If students have an inadequate understanding of involvement, it is likely that they will agree with this statement. What needs to be made clear is that the price of a product is only one potential determinant of product involvement. The instructor should stress the role that personal relevance of the product has for an individual and point out that it is influenced by the person, the product, and the unique purchase/consumption situation. A good exercise would be for students to develop a list of items that they would classify as high involvement. Along with the list, they should provide price estimates for each item (or simply note them as ―expensive‖ or ―not

expensive‖). This type of display would illustrate the lack of association between involvement and price. 9. “College students? concerns about the environment and vegetarianism are just a

passing fad: a way to look ?cool.?” Do you agree?

Students will have mixed views about this subject. What they need to see is that a fad that lasts for some length of time becomes a value (or is at least tied to values). For example, is the trend toward not smoking a value or a fad? The value might be healthy living or avoidance of what is now considered to be a nasty habit. The result is not smoking. Those who smoke might not only do it because they like it but as a way to be peer accepted or make a nonconformity statement (or to shock their parents and other authority figures). Ask students for their feelings about these subjects. How can the marketer capitalize on these ―value‖ feelings? How do consumers reinforce their deep-seated values?

10. Some market analysts see a shift in values among young people. They claim that this

generation has not had a lot of stability in their lives. They are fed up with superficial relationships and are yearning for a return to tradition. This change is reflected in attitudes toward marriage and family. One survey of 22- to 24-year-old women found that 82 percent thought motherhood was the most important job in the world. Brides magazine reports a swing toward traditional weddings—80 percent of brides today are

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Chapter 4: Motivation and Values

tossing their garters; Daddy walks 78 percent of them down the aisle. What?s your take on this? Are young people indeed returning to the values of their parents (or even their grandparents)? How have these changes influenced your perspective on marriage and family?

Various answers are likely to arise. When asked if they are returning to the values of their parents or grandparents, many students will shudder at that thought, regardless of how they might be leaning. The way that students respond to this question will depend very much on how they have been raised. The question itself asserts that ―this generation‖ has not had stability in their lives. While this may be true in many instances, it is also true that many students come from very stable homes. Additionally, students may recognize that they desire more traditional values in some ways (such as a traditional wedding), but not in others (such as cohabitating or desiring a dual-income home) E N D N O T E S 1. For an interesting ethnographic account of skydiving as voluntary, high-risk, consumption activity, see Richard L. Celsi, Randall L. Rose, and Thomas W. Leigh, ―An Exploration of High-Risk Leisure Consumption Through Skydiving,‖ Journal of Consumer Research 20 (June 1993): 1–23. See also Jerry Adler, ―Been There, Done That,‖ Newsweek (July 19, 1993): 43 (7). For an empirical treatment of river rafting as a ―high involvement‖ activity, see Eric J. Arnould and Linda L. Price, ―River Magic: Extraordinary Experience and the Extended Service Encounter,‖ Journal of Consumer Research 20 (June 1993) 1: 24–45. 2. Judann Dagnoli and Alison Fahey, ―What‘s Behind the Mystery Ad?‖ Advertising Age (September 16, 1991): 17. 3. David R. Eppright, ―Involvement and Party Affiliation Effects on Campaign Television Exposure,‖ Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Southern Marketing Association, ed. Robert L. King, Richmond, VA, 1991, 94–97. 4. Jagdish N. Sheth, Bruce I. Newman, and Barbara L. Gross, Consumption Values and Market Choices: Theory and Applications (Cincinnati, South-Western Publishing Co.: 1991). 5. Wagner A. Kamakura and Jose Afonso Mazzon, ―Value Segmentation: A Model for the Measurement of Values and Value Systems,‖ Journal of Consumer Research 18 (September 1991) 2: 208–218. 74

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