语言学期末复习

第一章

（判）Language is only a means of communication.（F） Language has a form-meaning correspondence.(F)

The function of language is to exchange information.(F) English is more difficult to learn than Chinese.(F)

Black English is not standard and should be reformed.(F) The following are some fundamental views about language.

判）Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction.(T)

Language operates by rules.(T)

All languages have three major components: a sound system语音系统, a system of lexicogrammar词汇语法 and a system of semantics语意学.(T) Everyone speaks a dialect.(T) Language slowly changes.(T)

Speakers of all languages employ a range of styles and a set of jargons行话.(T) Languages are intimately related to the societies and individuals who use them.(T) Writing is derivative 来源的of speech.(T) Language is a means of verbal communication.

分析）P3)it is instrumental in that communication by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Design features of language

The features that define our human languages can be called design features.

(1)Arbitrariness任意性 分析，以下三点

瑞士Saussure（现代语言学之父）: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning . (定义)

(1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme词素 and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic拟声的 words:

The dog barks bow wow in English but “汪汪汪” in Chinese.

2）Arbitrariness at the syntactic句法的 level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level. （判）

By syntax that sentences are constructed to the grammar of arrangement 3）Arbitrariness and convention. Conventionality 规约性

The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.

Conventionality , as learners of English we are often told “this is an idiom”—meaning it is conventional to say things this way and you cannot change the expression any other way even if you think it does not look or sound logical.

(2)Duality 双重性 定义/单

By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level (3)Creativity 创造性 定义/填

Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness递归性. (4)Displacement 移位性 定义

Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.

And one thing we can say for certain is that language evolves within specific historical, social and cultural contexts.单

Functions of language

For Jakobson, language is above all for communication.

In his famous article, Linguistics and Poetics, he defined six primary factors of any speech event, namely:

speaker, addressee, context, message, code元语言解码, contact. Six key elements of communication,namely: referential (to convey message and information), Poetic诗学 (to indulge in language for its own sake),

emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),

conative 意动(to persuade and influence others through commands and requests), phatic 寒暄(to establish communion with others)

Metalingual funcation (to clear up intentions and meanings).

Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational概念功能, interpersonal 人际功能and textual 语篇功能functions. 填 (1)Informative function最重要

For most people the informative function is predominantly the major role of language.判

The informative function is indeed a crucial function of language. (2)Interpersonal function

By far the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society. (3)Performative function施为功能

The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of

children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. For example, sui sui ping an

(4)Emotive function Expressive function

(5)Phatic communion 寒暄功能 书上的例句选择 (6)Recreational function 娱乐功能

the use of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby's babbling or a chanter's chanting.

(7)Metalingual function 源语言 填空 Our language can be used to talk about itself. What is Linguistics?

The scientific study of human language Main branches of linguistics 定义/填空/大题 Phonetics 语音学 Phonology 音系学 Morphology 形态学 Syntax 句法学 Semantics 语义学 Pragmatics 语用学

Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc. We can approach it on various levels.

At one level, speech is a matter of anatomy 解剖学and physiology生理学. We can study organs such as tongue and larynx and their functions in the production of speech. At another level, we can focus on the speech sounds produced by these organs by identifying and classifying the individual sounds. This is the domain of articulatory phonetics发音语言学.

We can also investigate the properties of the sound waves — acoustic phonetics声学语言学.

As speech is intended to be heard or perceived, it is therefore possible to focus on the way in which a listener analyses or processes a sound wave — auditory phonetics听觉语言学.

Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure.

A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning.

Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning — morphemes and word-formation processes. Morphemes serve different purposes.

Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct sentences. Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.

Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. Psycholinguistics 心理语言学 单

Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, for example, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition. ? Sociolinguistics

Sociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the

characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community. Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述 ? Synchronic vs. diachronic

A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.

Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. The structure of Shakespeare English ? Langue & parole 区别

Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as langue and parole.

? Competence and performance

This fundamental distinction is discussed by Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965).

A language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.

Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations 第二章

Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.定义 Three main areas:

Articulatory phonetics: studies the production of speech sounds; Acoustic phonetics: studies the physical properties of speech sounds; Auditory phonetics: studies the perception of speech sounds.

Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of language.单 Speech Organs 发音器官 定义/填空

=Vocal organs: parts of human body involved in the production of speech Vocal tract, oral cavity口腔, nasal cavity鼻腔 Vocal folds 声带

apart: voiceless sounds [p, s, t] Close together: voiced sounds [b, z, d] Totally closed：glottal stop 声门塞音 The IPA

International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标表格

The idea was first proposed by the Danish grammarian Jespersen in 1886. The first version of IPA was published in August 1888. The latest version was revised in 2005. Consonants and Vowels

Consonants: produced by a closure接近 in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.

Vowels: produced without such stricture so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through mouth or nose.

Distinction between C and V: Obstruction of airstream气流是否受阻 单/填空 The Sounds of English RP vs GA

Teaching of English as a foreign language, it is referred to as received pronunciation(RP)

In the USA, the widely accepted accent used by most educated speakers is often referred to as general American(GA)

Manner of Place of articulation articulation bilabialabiodentadental alveolal l r postalveolar palatal j velar glottal Stop/plosive Nasal Fricative P b m f v θ e t d n s z r l ∫ ? t∫ d? k g ? h Approximant (w) Lateral Affricate w Description by features: Consonants:

[p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop [s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative P36 The description of vowels:

The height of tongue raising （high, mid, low）

The position of the highest part of tongue (front, central, back) The length or tenseness of the vowel(tense, lax)

Lip-rounding (rounded & unrounded) Vowels

[i?] high front tense unrounded vowel [?] high back lax rounded vowel [?] mid central lax unrounded vowel [?] low back lax rounded vowel [e] mid front lax unrounded vowel Coarticulation 协同发音 定义P37

When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process Coarticulation Broad transcription Narrow transcription Allophones 音位变体P40 Peak /speak

A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. P45

Elsewhere condition 剩余条件规则 定义

The more specific rule applies first. 较为特殊的规则应用在先 Distinctive features

The idea of Distinctive features was first developed by Roman Jacobson Suprasegmentals 超音段

Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmentals are stress, tone and intonation.

The syllable structure 音节 理解P47

A syllable must have a nucleus核心节 or peak节峰, which is often the task of a vowel 第三章

Morpheme and morphology定义

Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning.

The systematic study of morpheme is a breach of linguistics called morphology, which investigates the internal structures and rules of morphemes by which words are formed. Types of morphemes Root affix stem(P53)

Inflectional affix and derivational affix简答P54

less productive grammatical function e.g. toys, walks, John?s more productive form new words e.g. receive, reception, receptionist do not change the word class of the word might change the word class

depend on other factors within a phrase or a sentence depend on the meaning we want to express in most cases suffixes prefixes/suffixes Word 1)Stability

2)Relative uninterruptibility相对联系 3)A minimun free form Classification of words

1) variable and invariable words可变化和非变化词 2) Grammatical words and lexical words语法词和词汇词 Grammatical/Function words: 功能词

conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns.

Lexical/Content words: 实义词

nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.

3) Closed-class words and open-class words封闭类词和开放类词 Closed-class words: New members cannot normally be added e.g. pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries.

Open-class words: New members can be added; membership is infinite or unlimited

e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. 4) Word class

Word formation(1) 看PPT Word formation(2): lexical change Invention 发明法

Blending 混成法 举例/定义

Blending is a process in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words.

smog烟雾 (smoke+fog); boatel水上旅馆(boat+hotel); brunch早午餐(breakfast+lunch); telecast

Abbreviation 缩写词(clipping 截断法)

A new word is created by the following methods Cutting the final part: fanatic(fan), advertisement(ad) Cutting the initial part: aeroplane(plane), omnibus(bus)

Cutting both the initial part and final parts accordingly: influenza(flu), refrigerator(fridge) Acronym 首字母缩略词

Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. Eg: CIA, EEC, WTO, UNESCO

This process is also widely used in shortening extremely long words of word groups in science, technology, and other special fields. Eg: AIDS, SARS, Radar, VAT Backformation 逆构词法 定义

An abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. Analogical creation 类推构词 Class shift 词类转换 Borrowing 借词 PPT Greek: electricity, atom French: entail, mortgage Spanish: macho, grandee Latin: adjacent, inferior German: quartz, plunder 第四章

Syntax 句法学 P17

Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences.

或者Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures. Syntactic relations 句法关系 单P73单

Syntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds: positional relations 位置关系 relations of substitutability 替代关系 relations of co-occurrence 同现关系 Positional relation 位置关系

Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.

Relation of substitutability可替换性关系

Grammatical construction语法结构P75 Immediate constituents直接成分

Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. IC analysis 直接成分分析法 Tree diagram要求会画树形图P77

Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions向心结构和离心结构单

Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types

Exocentric ：the basic sentence, the prepositional phrase, the predicate (verb + object) construction, the connective (be + complement) construction. Predicate 谓语

除主语之外的其他所有成分，谓语通常表达主语的动作，过程和状态

Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together. Category 范畴 单 Number 数 Gender 性 Case 格

Agreement 一致关系 单

This syntactic relationship may be anaphoric, as when a pronoun agrees with its antecedent, Recursiveness 递归性

Recursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category.

Recursiveness also includes several phenomena such as coordination and subordination, conjoining 连接and embedding嵌入, hypotactic and paratactic.判

第五章

Semantics 语义学

The subject concerning the study of meaning 研究意义的学科

Semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.

Meanings of “meaning”

Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning Seven types of meaning: Conceptual meaning概念意义 Associative meaning 联想意义 Connotative meaning内含意义 Social meaning社会意义 Affective meaning情感意义 Reflected meaning反射意义 Collocative meaning搭配意义 Thematic meaning主位意义 The referential theory 指称论

The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.

Words → Meaning: Words ?name? or ?refer to? things -- Platonic

And that something is abstract, which has no existence in the material world and can only be sensed in our minds. This abstract thing is usually called concept(概念）.

Sense relations PPT单 Synonymy同义词 buy/purchase

world/ universe brotherly/ fraternal Antonymy 反义词

1.Gradable antonyms 等级反义词

hot Vs. cold

2. Complementary antonyms 互补反义词

male Vs. female

3.Converse antonymy 反向反义词

teacher Vs. pupil

Hyponymy 上下意义关系 PPT后的选择题

1. Which of the following statements about language is NOT true?C A. Language is a system. B. Language is symbolic. C. Animals also have languages. D. Language is arbitrary.

2. Arbitrariness of language was first discussed by ___D___. A. Chomsky B. Halliday C. Firth D. Saussure

3. Which function is the major role of language?A A. Informative B. Interpersonal C. Performative D. Emotive

4. Which branch of study cannot be included in the scope of linguistics?D A. Syntax B. Pragmatics C. Phonetics D. Anthropology

5. What are the dual structures of language?B A. Sounds and letters B. Sounds and meaning

C. Letters and meaning D. Sounds and symbols

6. Productivity is one of the _____ features of languages.B A. distinctive B. design C. Suprasegmental D. pragmatic

7. The function of the sentence “Lovely weather, isn?t it?” is _B____. A. informative B. phatic C. performative D. recreational

8. Once the notion of __B__ was taken into consideration, semantics spilled into pragmatics.

A. meaning B. context C. form D. content

9. Which of the following is NOT the function of language?D

A. Metalingual function B. Interpersonal function C. Emotive function D. Cultural transmission

10. _A___ investigates the interrelation of language and mind. A. Psycholinguistics B. Sociolinguistics

C. Anthropological linguistics D. Computational linguistics

11. The following about language are wrong EXCEPT _A____. (大外，11年) A. Language evolves within specific historical, social and cultural context. B. Language has a form-sound correspondence. C. Language is a means of communication.

D. Language is not related to any of the individuals who use it.

12. Verbal dueling, the use of language for the sheer joy of using it, is mainly to do with the _B___ function of language. (武汉大学11) A. performative B. interpersonal C. informative D. recreational

13. “I can refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2000 years ago.” This shows that language has the design feature of _B__. (天外11) A. arbitrariness B. creativity C. duality D. displacement

14. _A___ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. (天外11) A. Langue B. Competence C. Communicative competence D. Linguistic potential

15. _B___ has been widely accepted as the father of modern linguistics. (天外12) A. Chomsky B. Saussure C. Bloomfield D. Halliday

1. Which of the following is the most important function of languge?C A. Interpersonal function B. Performative function C. Informative function D. Recreational function

2. _C__ function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations.

A. Performative B. Interpersonal C. Phatic D. Metalingual

3. _C__ refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations. A. Competence B. Performance C. Eloquence D. Action

4. _B___ is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community. A. Psycholinguistics B. Sociolinguistics C. Anthropological linguistics D. Computational linguistics

5. The sentence “Close your textbook and listen to me carefully!” performs a(n) _D___ function.

A. Interrogative B. informative C. Performative D. directive

6. C___ is defined as the study of the relationship between language and mind. A. Semantics B. Pragmatics C. Cognitive linguistics D. Sociolinguistics

7. A___ refers to the learning and development of a language. A. Language acquisition B. Language comprehension C. Language production D. Language instruction

8. Language is a tool of communication. The symbol “ Highway closed” on a highway serves __B__.

A. An expressive function B. an informative function C. A performative function D. a persuasive function

9. Which of the following is NOT a design feature of human language?D A. Arbitrariness B. Displacement C. Duality D. Diachronicity

10. The distinction between parole and langue was made by___D__. A. Halliday B. Chomsky C. Bloomfield D. Saussure

1.All syllables contain a __A___. （北二外）

A. nucleus B. coda C. onset

2.A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language is ___C__. （北二外）

A. allophone B. phone C. phoneme

3.__D___ is one of the suprasegmental features.

A. stop B. voicing C. deletion D. tone（东南）

4.Which of the following consonants does not exist in English? （东南）A

A. dental stop B. bilabial stop C. alveolar stop D. velar stop

5.Of the following sound combinations, only _A___ is permissible. A. kibl B. bkil C. ilkb D. ilbk

6.Which pair of words is NOT a minimal pair?B A. cat/bat B. put/but C. jig/pig D. sit/bit

7.If two sounds are in complementary distribution, they are __B__ of the same phoneme.

A. symbols B. allophones C. phones D. signs 8.Where are the vocal cords?D

A. in the mouth B. in the nasal cavity C. above the tongue D. inside the larynx

9._B___ studies the sound systems in a certain language. A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Syntax 10.Distinctive features are used to describe _D___. A. phones B. phonology C. allophones D. phonemes

11.In the production of consonants at least __B__ articulator(s) are involved. A. one B. two C. three D. four

12.Voiceless sounds are produced when the vocal folds are B____. A. closed B. apart C. totally closed D. completely open 13.__C__ involve more than one manners of articulation. A. Stops B. Fricatives C. Affricates D. Laterals

14.The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in _B___.

A. the place of articulation B. the obstruction of airstreams C. the position of the tongue

D. the shape of the lips

1. __C__ are bound morphemes because they can not be used as separate words. A. Roots B. Stems C. Affixes D. Compounds

2. __C__ is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content.

A. Root B. Allomorph C. Morpheme D. Word

3. The English word “untouchable” is composed of _B___ morphemes.

A. four B. three C. two D. five

4. Which of the following is NOT a compound word?B A. pencil box B. unreasonable C. deadline D. upstairs

5. When the suffix _A__ is added to a verb, it changes this verb into an adjective. A. less B. ness C. fully D. er 6. The “s” in drums is _D__. A. a free morpheme B. a stem C. a root D. an inflectional affix 7. The word “bodyguard” is a __A___. A. compound word B. complex word C. derivational word D. free morpheme

8. Which of the following words is a derivational one?C A. blackboard B. sings C. astonishment D. boys

1. Atom is a word of __B__ origin. A. Latin B. Greek C. Arabic D. Spanish

2. English has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages EXCEPT _B___.

A. French B. Korean C. Latin D. Greek

3. Which of the following words is built by abbreviation?B A. smog B. fridge C. motel D. edit 4. The word “hamburger” is of __C_ origin. A. American B. Italian C. German D. French 5. The word “smog” is formed through __B_.

A. derivation B. blending C. clipping D. backformation 6. WTO is _B____.

A. an abbreviation B. an acronym

C. a blending word D. a backformation word

7. Of the following word formation processes, _D__ is the most productive. A. clipping B. blending C. initialism

D. derivation

8. Motel is a(n) __C___.

A. abbreviation B. coinage C. blending D. acronym

1. The relation between the determiner “this” and the noun “man” in the phrase “this man” is __B__. A. government B. concord C. binding D. paradigmatic

2. Which of the following phrases is exocentric?D A. women and men B. on the table C. a clever boy D. an ugly man

3. __C__are the defining properties of units like nouns(number, gender, case, etc)and verbs(tense, aspect, voice, etc). A. Parts of speech B. word classes C. categories D. functions of words

4. _D___ is NOT a grammatical category of English verbs. A. tense B. aspect C. voice D. gender

5. _D___ is NOT a grammatical category of English pronouns. A. gender B. number C. case D. voice

6. Expressions like“Tom”or “He” can both be filled in the blank of the sentence “__D__ is smiling”. So Tom and He have ____ relation. A. syntagmatic B. paradigmatic C. systematic D. governing

7. The phrase “the three small Chinese children”is _A___ construction. A. endocentric B. exocentric C. hierarchical D. linear

1. “Big” and “small” are a pair of _B___ opposites. A. complementary B. gradable C. complete D. converse

2. __A__ examines how meaning is encoded in a language. A. Semantics B. Syntax

C. Pragmatics D. Morphology 3. Leech divided meanings into _D___ types. A. 4 B. 5 C. 6 D. 7

4. The relation between “food” and “bread” is called __D__. A. synonymy B. polysemy C. homonymy D. hyponymy

5. “Buy” and “sell” form a pair of _A___. A. converse antonyms B. gradable antonyms C. complementary antonyms D. marked antonyms 6. _D___ is a pair of complementary antonyms. A. wild and tame B. nimble and lame C. cold and warm D. alive and dead

7. __D__ is NOT included in Leech?s associative meaning. A. connotative meaning B. social meaning C. collocative meaning D. conceptual meaning 8. The words “male” and “female” are __B__ antonyms. A. gradable B. complementary C. converse D. complete

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