兰德集团对中国人民解放军的评价.ch11

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11.THE CHINESE SECOND ARTILLERY CORPS:TRANSITION TO

CREDIBLE DETERRENCE

By Bates Gill,James Mulvenon,and Mark Stokes1142 INTRODUCTION

The concepts,history,organization,force structure,and posture of China’s Strategic Rocket Forces(also known as the“Second Artillery”from the Chinese Dierpaobing)remain some of the most heavily shrouded and poorly understood aspects of the Chinese military.Yet,as China undergoes a continued qualitative and quantitative modernization of its nuclear and conventional missile forces,to include improved mobility,reliability,accuracy and firepower,concerned analysts are compelled to understand and analyze the Second Artillery more precisely,including its evolving history,organization,and hardware,and their implications for international security.

To date,the most prominent work on these questions has either dwelled primarily on hardware and R&D1143,focused on doctrinal debates1144,or described the

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1142Dr.Bates Gill holds the Freeman Chair in China Studies at the Center for Strategic and International Studies,Washington,D.C.His next book,]Contrasting Visions:the United States,China,and World Order is forthcoming from the Brookings Institution Press in2003.;James Mulvenon is an Associate Political Scientist at the RAND Corporation in Washington,DC and Deputy Director of RAND’s Center for Asia-Pacific Policy.A specialist on the Chinese military,Dr.Mulvenon’s current research focuses on Chinese strategic weapons doctrines(information warfare and nuclear warfare),ballistic missile defenses(TBMD)in Asia,Chinese military commercial pestiture,and the military and civilian implications of the information revolution in China.;Lieutenant-Colonel Mark Stokes is Senior Country Director for China and Taiwan in the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs.The authors wish to thank Ken Allen,Peter Almquist,John Corbett,Torrey Froscher,Catherine Johnston,Iain Johnston,Dunbar Lockwood,Evan Medeiros,Brad Roberts,Michael Swaine,and J.D.Yuan for comments on earlier drafts,and Kevin Pollpeter and James Reilly for their outstanding research assistance.

1143See,for example,Mark A.Stokes,China’s Strategic Modernization: Implications for the United States,Carlisle Barracks,PA:Strategic Studies Institute,U.S. Army War College,September1999;Robert S.Norris,Andrew S.Burrows,and Richard Fieldhouse,Nuclear Weapons Databook,vol.5,British,French,and Chinese Nuclear Weapons Boulder:Westview Press,1994;and Robert S.Norris and William M.Arkin,

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technological development of Chinese strategic forces in the form of political-military histories.1145Some past work,now more than ten years old,attempts to weave several of these strands together to present a“cultural”analysis of these issues.1146More recent work from the mid-1990s by Johnston and Xue goes farthest in providing more unifying analyses which carefully draw together aspects of doctrine and force structure,yet this work to requires some reexamination in light of China’s current strategic modernization efforts.1147

An updated and more comprehensive framework is needed to understand the Second Artillery’s past,present,and future.Such an analysis would fully pull together China’s declared nuclear principles with an empirical assessment of the Second Artillery’s history,organization,and force structure.Taking such an approach,we reach several key findings on the Second Artillery’s nuclear and conventional posture:? The organizational history of the Second Artillery appears to be largely shaped

by the introduction of successively more sophisticated missile systems in its

arsenal,necessitating modifications of deployment,command and control,and

procedures;

? One important trend in the current organizational structure is the introduction of conventional missile units alongside the traditional nuclear forces,

suggesting a new tactical dimension to the force’s roles and missions,including

greater operational integration with other services of the PLA.

? From a technical perspective,while we agree with analysts who highlight the role of technology in shaping Chinese doctrine,we go beyond the somewhat

simplistic understanding that technology drives doctrine.Rather,we see

patterns of rational strategic choice made for China’s nuclear posture,though

technology limited the realm of the possible for Chinese leaders.Perhaps it

“British,French,and Chinese Nuclear Forces,”Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, November/December1996.

1144Alastair Iain Johnston,“China’s New‘Old Thinking’:The Concept of Limited Deterrence,”International Security,vol.20,no.3,winter1995/96.

1145See,for example,John Wilson Lewis and Xue Litai,China’s Strategic Seapower:The Politics of Force Modernization in the Nuclear Age,Stanford:Stanford University Press,1994;and John Wilson Lewis and Xue Litai,China Builds the Bomb, Stanford,CA:Stanford University Press,1988.

1146Chong-pin Lin,China’s Nuclear Weapons Strategy:Tradition within Evolution,Lexington,Massachusetts:Lexington Books,1988.

1147Alastair Iain Johnston,“Prospects for Chinese Nuclear Force Modernization: Limited Deterrence Versus Multilateral Arms Control,”China Quarterly,June1996;and Litai Xue,“Evolution of China’s Nuclear Strategy,”in John C.Hopkins and Weixing Hu, eds.,Strategic Views from the Second Tier:The Nuclear Weapons Policies of France, Britain,and China,New Brunswick,New Jersey:Transaction Publishers,1995.

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could be said that the Chinese made a virtue out of necessity in the construction

of their nuclear deterrent,accepting the technological constraints of the system

and making rational choices under those constraints.

? The evolution over time of China’s doctrine and force structure is the story of trying to close the gap between real capability on the one hand,and what one

might call“aspirational doctrine”on the other.In the U.S.,the appropriate

analog would be a comparison of current operational doctrine,as outlined in

the Joint Doctrine publications series,with an aspirational doctrine,such as

Joint Vision2010.In the Chinese case,the discontinuity between reality and

aspiration is oftimes referred to as the“capabilities-doctrine gap.”At the

present stage in the Second Artillery’s modernization,China is nearing an

historic convergence between doctrine and capability,allowing it to

increasingly achieve a degree of credible minimal deterrence vis-à-vis the

continental United States–a convergence of its doctrine and capability it has

not confidently possessed since the weaponization of China’s nuclear program

in the mid-1960s.

? Looking ahead,the doctrine and force structure of China’s Second Artillery should be analyzed at three distinct levels,reflecting a multi-faceted force with

very different missions:a posture of credible minimal deterrence with regard to

the continental United States and Russia;a more offensive-oriented posture of

limited deterrence with regard to China’s theater nuclear forces;and an

offensively-configured,preemptive,counterforce warfighting posture of“active

defense”or“offensive defense”for the Second Artillery’s conventional missile

forces.

In reaching these findings,the work proceeds in six sections.First,we briefly consider several declaratory principles which have traditionally defined the Second Artillery’s mission.Second,we provide an historical overview of the Second Artillery. In the next two sections,we detail the operational organization and force structure of the Second Artillery.A final two sections draw this analysis together to reach conclusions about the Second Artillery’s likely future force posture,and its implications for international security.

CHINA’S NUCLEAR WEAPONS PRINCIPLES

We begin our analysis with an overview of China’s traditionally declared nuclear-weapons principles.These principles are as close as China gets to a publicly declared “doctrine”for nuclear weapons.In the absence of an open and official declaration of the Second Artillery’s doctrine,we examine these principles as a way to introduce China’s conceptual approach to its strategic forces,and to inferentially deduce certain aspects of China’s nuclear posture.In addition,a close examination of these principles reveals certain unanswered questions and inconsistencies which open the door to new and evolving missions for the Second Artillery.We consider these declared principles in

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three parts:China’s no-first-use principle,its negative and positive security assurances, and its declared adherence to nuclear weapon free zone agreements.1148

No First Use

Public Chinese statements consistently reiterate the“defensive”purpose of Chinese nuclear weapons to counterbalance foreign threats.Chinese leaders decided to pursue nuclear weapons in January1955due to U.S.nuclear threats during the Korean War and Taiwan Straits crisis of the early1950s.1149In a statement issued on the day of its first nuclear explosion in October1964,China cited this achievement in its“struggle to strengthen[its]national defense and oppose the U.S.imperialist policy of nuclear blackmail and nuclear threats”:

China cannot remain idle in the face of the ever-increasing nuclear threats

from the United States.China is conducting nuclear tests and developing

nuclear weapons under compulsion...China is developing nuclear weapons

for defense and for protecting the Chinese people from U.S.threats to

launch a nuclear war.1150

This declared“defensive”nuclear policy has changed little in the subsequent35-plus years that China has been a nuclear weapon state.In a July1997speech to the U.S. Army War College,Lt.General Li Jijun,Vice President of the PLA’s Academy of Military Science,reiterated China’s public position regarding its nuclear posture: China’s nuclear strategy is purely defensive in nature.The decision to

develop nuclear weapons was a choice China had to make in the face of

real nuclear threats.A small arsenal is retained only for the purpose of

self-defense.China has unilaterally committed itself to responsibilities not

yet taken by other nuclear nations,including the declaration of a no-first-

use policy,the commitment not to use or threaten to use nuclear weapons

against non-nuclear states and in nuclear-free zones...In short,China’s

strategy is completely defensive,focused only on deterring the possibility

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1148The database on China compiled by the East Asia Nonproliferation Project, Center for Nonproliferation Studies,Monterey Institute of International Studies,is particularly helpful in covering the Chinese nuclear principles discussed here.

1149See,for example:Lewis and Xue,China Builds the Bomb,pp.11-34.

1150Statement of the Government of the People’s Republic of China,16October 1964,found in Lewis and Xue,China Builds the Bomb,pp.241,242.

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of nuclear blackmail being used against China by other nuclear

powers.1151

The cornerstone of this publicly-declared defensive position is China’s NFU policy. Since first detonating a nuclear device in October1964,China has consistently declared an unconditional NFU policy.1152Since that time,China has persistently proposed that nuclear weapon states conclude a no-first-use agreement.The achievement of such an agreement was one of China’s initial bargaining points in its CTBT 1718de1cfad6195f312ba6eater, China sought to gain such an agreement with the United States in return for a Sino-U.S. detargeting pledge.Neither of these efforts succeeded,though the CTBT was completed and a Sino-U.S.detargeting deal was reached.However,China and Russia signed a bilateral NFU accord in September1994.

Negative and Positive Security Assurances

Another set of declaratory principles involves both negative and positive security assurances(NSAs and PSAs).As for NSAs,China’s declaratory stance is clear: China undertakes not to use or threaten to use nuclear weapons against

non-nuclear-weapon States or nuclear-weapon-free zones at any time or

under any circumstances.This commitment naturally applies to non-

nuclear-weapon States Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of

Nuclear Weapons[NPT]or non-nuclear-weapon States that have

undertaken any comparable internationally binding commitments not to

manufacture or acquire nuclear explosive devices.1153

Of note here is China’s pledge not to use nuclear weapons against non-nuclear weapon states(i.e.Japan)under any circumstances;the U.S.NSA,for example,is conditional in retaining the possibility of nuclear weapons use against non-nuclear weapon states who take part in an attack on U.S.territory,armed forces,or allies.1154 As for PSAs,China has agreed with the other four major nuclear weapon states (France,Great Britain,Russia and the United States)to work within the Security Council ___________

1151Lieutenant General Li Jijun,Traditional Military Thinking and the Defensive Strategy of China,Letort Paper No.1,Carlisle Barracks,PA:U.S.Army War College,29August1997,p.7.

1152China’s no-first-use pledge:“China undertakes not to be the first to use nuclear weapons at any time or under any circumstances.”See China’s National Statement On Security Assurances,5April1995.

1153Ibid.;see also China’s white paper entitled China:Arms Control and Disarmament,Beijing:Information Office of the State Council,November1995.

1154As presented by Ambassador Steven J.Ledogar,U.S.Ambassador to the Conference on Disarmament,6April1995.

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to take“appropriate measures to provide…necessary assistance to any non-nuclear weapon State that comes under attack with nuclear weapons.”1155The precise nature of the assistance is not elaborated,and the Chinese statement makes clear that this position does not in any way compromise its desire for a universal NFU pledge and unconditional NSAs,nor does it endorse the use of nuclear weapons.

Of related note,Chinese declaratory policy is particularly critical of the policy of extended nuclear deterrence,or so-called“nuclear umbrellas,”provided by other nuclear weapon states to their allies.In operational terms,this means China officially opposes the deployment of nuclear weapons outside national territories,and states that it has never deployed nuclear weapons on the territory of another country,a point corroborated by open-source evidence.When Japan sanctioned China for continued nuclear testing in 1995and1996during the course of the CTBT negotiations,Beijing derisively dismissed Japanese censure as hypocritical,citing the fact that Japan enjoyed the protection of extended deterrence.

Nuclear Weapon Free Zones

China has signed onto several nuclear weapon free zone(NWFZ)treaties.These are the Treaty of Pelindaba(Africa NWFZ),the Treaty of Raratonga(South Pacific NWFZ),and the Treaty of Tlatelolco(Latin American NWFZ).During the ASEAN Regional Forum Minister’s meeting in July1999,China stated it would also sign the Southeast Asian NWFZ Treaty.In its1995white paper on arms control and disarmament,the Chinese government stated its support for“the establishment of nuclear-free zones in the Korean Peninsula,South Asia,Southeast Asia,and the Middle East.”1156

At a conference focusing on a Central Asian NWFZ convened in Tashkent in September1997,a Chinese Foreign Ministry official heading the Chinese delegation listed seven principles related to the establishment of NWFZs.Among them,China insisted that“any other security mechanism”should not interfere with the non-nuclear status of a nuclear weapon free zone,including military alliance relationships.In addition,perhaps with reference to the South China Sea,the Chinese official declared that NWFZs should not include“areas where there exist disputes over sovereignty of territory or maritime rights.”He also called on nuclear weapon states to commit to an unconditional pledge not to use nor threaten to use nuclear weapons against NWFZs.

In practice,China’s adherence to NWFZ pledges does not greatly affect its nuclear weapon deployments,especially given that it deploys no nuclear weapons abroad.Should China sign and ratify the Southeast Asian NWFZ Treaty,then presumably this would place an added political onus on its ability to threaten or use nuclear weapons against such targets as Vietnam or the Philippines,and,depending on caveats,if any,at the time of its signing,could also affect use in the South China Sea.However,the pledges of nuclear weapon states to adhere to NWFZs are not verifiable,and some include escape ___________

1155See China’s National Statement.

1156See China:Arms Control and Disarmament.

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clauses.For example,in signing the Treaty of Raratonga(South Pacific NWFZ),China stated that it could reconsider obligations in the event that other nuclear weapon states or treaty parties violated the treaty.

Conceptual Contradiction and Evolution

In reviewing these principles,we note a number of inconsistencies relevant to China’s Second Artillery force modernization and doctrinal evolution.

First,a number of questions attend China’s no-first-use(NFU)pledge.First,such a pledge is highly symbolic–it is not verifiable and any violation of the pledge would not be detected until it is too late.Second,as a practical matter,we need to recognize that the NFU pledge is probably less an altruistic principle,and more a simple reflection of the traditional operational constraints imposed on Chinese doctrine by the country’s qualitatively and quantitatively limited nuclear arsenal:China maintains an NFU pledge because it fits with the realities of nuclear weapons inventory.As its force structure changes,so too might its NFU principle.Over the years there have been some indications that China’s pledge may not be relevant to the first-use of nuclear weapons on Chinese soil.Faced with the threat of a conventional Soviet invasion in the1980s,Beijing’s military strategists argued that the first-use of nuclear weapons on Chinese territory would not have violated its NFU pledge.Similarly,mounting evidence in Chinese military writings and through interviews suggests increased unhappiness within the PLA about the NFU pledge,especially in consideration of the overwhelming stand-off conventional force of countries such as the United States.Revisions to the NFU pledge could advocate launch-on-warning or launch-under-early-attack policies.1157 In adhering to its NSA and PSAs,China’s deployments and targeting would presumably be focused only on nuclear weapon states and possibly other states not party to the NPT or similar arrangements(such as India,for example).However,several questions arise about China’s commitments,particularly with regard to NSAs.For example,like the NFU pledge,China’s NSAs are not verifiable or enforceable.Also,the pledge would not apply to such states as India,Israel and Pakistan,which are not members of the NPT.Even if they joined,the question arises whether China’s NSA would apply to a country such as India,which while not officially recognized by China as a nuclear weapon state,certainly has attained such de facto status.

In addition,observers question the need for certain Chinese deployments–such as the DF-21series–insofar as its range and basing means its possible targets largely comprise non-nuclear weapon states.For example,the DF-21’s basing and ranges suggest targets in Japan,Korea,Okinawa,the Philippines,or Vietnam,in addition to targets in the Russian Far East and India.If it is true,as asserted by Lewis and Xue,that China’s target sets for the DF-3included U.S.bases in the Philippines and Japan,this also runs contrary to Chinese NSAs.The fact that the DF-3and-4series missiles are already capable of reaching Russian and Indian targets raises further questions as to the purpose of the DF-21series in the context of Chinese NSAs.

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1157Johnston,“China’s New‘Old Thinking’,”pp.21-23.

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We draw a number of points from this discussion of Chinese declaratory principles. First,these traditional principles are generally consistent with a“defensive”posture and a qualitatively and quantitatively limited nuclear arsenal.Given the reality of Chinese nuclear forces,therefore,these pledges come at little to no real“cost”in terms of reductions,disarmament,or dramatic alterations to Chinese nuclear posture overall. Second,with the possible exception of some deployments,such as the DF-21series ballistic missile,the nuclear principles noted here are consistent with a posture largely concerned with the other major nuclear weapon states(especially the United States and the Soviet Union/Russia),as well as India.Third,nothing in these principles necessarily precludes China’s nuclear weapons modernization program,but might place political limits on targeting and use options.Finally,while these principles may give us an overall understanding about China’s formally stated views about when it would not use nuclear weapons,they provide no details about when they would.

In the end,we recognize that not only do these principles raise several unanswered questions,but China’s ongoing strategic force modernization introduces pressures to possibly alter and refine them consistent with new strategic realities.Only through an empirical examination of the history,organization,and force structure of the Second Artillery can we address these unanswered questions and better grasp the Second Artillery’s future posture.

HISTORY OF THE SECOND ARTILLERY CORPS

There is little open source information on institutional history of the Second Artillery.Official accounts relate that the service was formally created on1July1966in Beijing.1158Premier Zhou Enlai reportedly chose the name“Second Artillery Corps”(Dierpaobing)for the new force,which he sought to distinguish from the PLA’s traditional artillery corps(paobing).1159Zhou also reportedly allocated the national People’s Armed Police headquarters to the force in1969,when the former was disbanded.1160By1986,the Second Artillery built its own headquarters in Xishan, ___________

1158Song Shilun,ed.,Zhongguo junshi baike quanshu:junzhi fence(shang) [Chinese Encyclopedia of Military Affairs:Volume1],Beijing:Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1995,p.280.

1159“The Casting of China’s Shield of Peace–A Record of Actual Events in the Development of the Second Artillery,”Xinhua,7July1996,in FBIS-CHI-96-137,7July 1996.

1160This explains the sometimes-heard misconception that the Second Artillery shielded the PAP from the excesses of the Cultural Revolution.In fact,the national-level PAP was abolished,and its political commissars stayed in place to perform the same role for the new tenant.The authors are grateful to Michael Schoenhals for this insight.

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which can be seen from the road to the Badaling section of the Great Wall,northwest of Beijing.1161

The overall institutional development of the Second Artillery can be pided into four critical phases.1162Phase one was the“implementation of the plan of building strategic weapons in1962.Phase two,which lasted from1964to1977,centered on was research and development.Phase three,beginning in1986and ending in1993,focused primarily on the replacement of the older generation of weapons.Phase four,which spans 1994to the present,is principally concerned with the upgrading,development,and preparatory research.

Though the Second Artillery itself was created in1966,the construction of China’s missile capability and corresponding infrastructure assets began a number of years earlier. In1956,the Central Committee Secretariat and the Politburo reportedly made the decision to develop guided missiles.1163In October1956,the Defense Ministry’s Fifth Academy,China’s first guided missile technology research institute,was established.1164 On9December1957,more than6000cadres and soldiers from various military units and scientific research institutes reportedly established a ground-to-ground guided missile (didi daodan)training brigade.1165In June1959,the Central Military Commission decided to dissolve the training group and establish two strategic guided missile combat battalions.1166On18March1960,the first of the two proposed battalions was formally established at an artillery school in northwest China,with the hope that it would serve as a“seed unit”(zhongzi budui)of officers for the units to follow.1167On10September 1960,China successfully launched its first R-2guided missile,with help from the Soviet ___________

1161From“Revealing Secret of China’s Procedure for Pressing Nuclear Button”, in Tai yang pao[Hong Kong],31January2000,in FBIS,FTS20000206000049.

1162These demarcations can be found in“Jiang Zemin Defines Position of China’s Strategic Rocket Forces”,Tai yang pao[Hong Kong],17July,2000,in FBIS, CPP20000717000021.

1163Liu Jingzhi,“Proudly Smiling at the Vast Sky–On the50Years of China’s Missile Family,”Guangming ribao,14September1999,in FBIS,17September1999.

1164Ibid.

1165Zhang Jiajun and Zao Zhi,“The Strong Contingent of Secret Rockets–The Historical Course of China’s Strategic Guided Missile Units,”Xinhua,7July1996,in FBIS-CHI-96-135,7July1996.The brigade designation of the unit can be found in Zhang Jiajun and Sun Jinhan,“Casting the Shield of Peace–Second Artillery Commander Yang Guoliang and Political Commissar Sui Yongju Talk About Building of Strategic Missile Force,”Liaowang,No.29,21July1997,pp.4-7,in FBIS,28August 1997.

1166Zhang Jiajun and Zao Zhi,“The Strong Contingent of Secret Rockets”.

1167Ibid.The term“seed unit”and the brigade designation of the unit can be found in Zhang Jiajun and Sun Jinhan,“Casting the Shield of Peace.”

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Union.1168In1963,the CMC made a decision to establish a strategic guided missile training battleground.1169Then deputy chief of staff Zhang Aiping led an inspection team to find a suitable site.On28September1963(another account claims autumn 1964),“tens of thousands”of officers and men from88army units assembled to construct the first strategic guided missile base.1170In October1963,the missile battalion launched its first missile.1171China’s first atomic bomb was successfully detonated on 16October1964,paving the way for the mating of weapon to delivery vehicle.

Other developmental milestones followed the formal establishment of the unit. According to official sources,the missile force in the“mid-seventies”organized a“long-range firing exercise with live warheads,”involving“moving,camouflaging,and launching.”1172The same source reports that this was the first time that the force operated“independently”as well as the first time that it employed“mechanized features,”suggesting mobility.The soldiers fired four missiles in a“very short time”that hit their targets,leading Chinese experts to conclude that China’s missile inventory was moving toward“maturity.”On18May1980,China successfully launched its first intercontinental ballistic missile.1173In the early1980s,the missile force reportedly conducted its first “large-scale combined battle exercise”(hecheng xunlian zhanyi yanxi).These trends were conducted in parallel with the testing and deployment of an increasingly capable inventory of missiles,explored in much greater detail in the force structure section below. On National Day in1984,a Chinese strategic missile formation paraded through Tiananmen Square,marking the first public appearance of Second Artillery units.1174A similar appearance was made at the50th anniversary celebration in October1999.In the early winter of1994,the Second Artillery reportedly conducted its first“position survival exercise,”involving emergency nuclear and chemical pollution monitoring and clean-up after being subjected to a surprise nuclear attack and launching a nuclear counterattack.1175

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1168Liu Jingzhi,“Proudly Smiling at the Vast Sky.”

1169Zhang Jiajun and Zao Zhi,“The Strong Contingent of Secret Rockets.”

1170“The Casting of China’s Shield of Peace–A Record of Actual Events in the Development of the Second Artillery,”Xinhua,7July1996,in FBIS-CHI-96-137,7July 1996.

1171Xu Zuzhi,“China’s Strategic Missile Unit Now Possesses Fighting Capability Under High-Tech Conditions,”Zhongguo xinwen she,1October1999,in FBIS-CHI-1999-1002,1October1999.

1172“The Casting of China’s Shield of Peace.”

1173Liu Jingzhi,“Proudly Smiling at the Vast Sky”.

1174Xu Zuzhi,“China’s Strategic Missile Unit.”

1175Ibid.

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One of the most significant recent developments for the Second Artillery has been the introduction of conventionally-tipped missiles into its inventory,particularly short-range ballistic missiles aimed at Taiwan such as the Dongfeng-15(DF-15)missile,known more commonly in the West by its export designation,M-9,or the Pentagon as the CSS-6;and the shorter-range Dongfeng-11(DF-11),also known as the M-11or CSS-7.Other systems discussed in the context of a Taiwan scenario are the DF-21(CSS-5)and other longer-range systems.

From open sources,the DF-15is judged to have a range of roughly600km,with a payload of500kg.It is capable of delivering both conventional and nuclear payloads,as well as chemical,biological,and cluster munition warheads.Estimates of CEP were initially pegged at600m.This assessment was based on an algorithm that calculated CEP as1%of range.Since1996,there have been frequent reports that the Chinese are attempting to improve the guidance of these missiles utilizing the U.S.-built Global Positioning System(GPS)satellite cluster.1176In their1996RAND report on GPS-aided guidance for ballistic and cruise missiles,Irving Lachow and Gerald Frost concluded that a hypothetical missile with the DF-15’s parameters,aided by GPS correction in the boost phase,could achieve significant improvements in accuracy.1177The M-11SRBM,also known as the DF-11or CSS-7,is a mobile,solid-fueled missile with a300km missile and a500kg payload.A recent Department of Defense report asserted that the M-11"has not yet entered the PLA's inventory,"though"an improved,longer-range version may be under development."1178

ORGANIZATION OF THE SECOND ARTILLERY CORPS

The Second Artillery is China’s Strategic Rocket Force,commanding its conventional-and nuclear-tipped missile arsenal.Unlike the Soviet Strategic Rocket Forces,the Second Artillery is not a service branch(junzhong),on par with the Ground Forces,Navy,and Air Force(known collectively in Chinese as luhaikong).Instead,the Second Artillery is only a service arm(bingzhong),which is one-half notch lower in bureaucratic rank.1179This,rather than attempts at deception,probably explains why Chinese discussions of the service branches never includes the Second Artillery.

The Second Artillery,with an estimated90,000personnel,consists of headquarters elements,six launch bases(jidi),one engineering design academy,four research ___________

1176This analysis can be found in Irving Lachow and G.Frost,“Satellite Navigation-Aiding for Ballistic and Cruise Missiles,”Santa Monica,Calif:RAND,RP-543,1996.

1177Ibid.

1178Secretary of Defense,"The Security Situation in the Taiwan Strait,"Report to Congress Pursuant to the FY99Appropriations Bill,1February1999.

1179For a discussion of service branches versus service arms,see Song Shilun, ed.,Zhongguo junshi baike quanshu,pp.141-143.Other service arms include tank, artillery,air defense,engineering,communication,and chemical defense units.

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institutes,two command academies,and possibly an early warning unit.1180As key operational strike units,brigades are likely only assigned one type of missile to facilitate command and logistics.The Second Artillery headquarters and subordinate bases oversee warhead and missile storage facilities;maintenance units;and special warhead/missile transportation services.1181

As a strategic-level asset,the Second Artillery is subject to strict command and control from the center.By necessity,it is therefore a very stove-piped institution, perhaps the most vertically integrated of all units within the People’s Liberation Army.At the top of the structure sits the Second Artillery Headquarters,followed by the missiles bases and their subordinate launch brigades and companies.

Headquarters(Silingbu)

The headquarters of the Second Artillery shares many of the same organizational features as other headquarters units within the PLA’s service branches.The national-level HQ is theoretically the highest command authority,and bears particular responsibility for policy,training and equipping the Rocket Forces.The HQ likely enjoys functional(yewu) control over planning,requirements,and budgeting,while the bases exercise administrative(xingzheng)control over the units in the field.During peacetime,the HQ likely maintains operational control of the forces,but wartime situations most likely would necessitate ad hoc arrangements.For the conventional forces,Chinese sources suggest a“skip echelon”command structure would be established,with the national command authority in Beijing dealing directly with a temporary“war front”(zhanqu) command.1182During a wartime situation,multiple conventional brigades would be subsumed into a conventional theater missile corps(juntuan)consisting of a corps command post,a corps logistics command post,and a number of subordinate theater missile brigades each with different types of theater missiles(see Figure11.1).The corps command post would largely consist of command authorities from Beijing and Huangshan.1183The theater command center(zhanyi zuozhan zhongxin)would direct ___________

1180Bases are located at Shenyang(80301Unit);Huangshan(80302Unit); Kunming(80303Unit);Luoyang(80304Unit);Huaihua(80305Unit);and Xining (80306Unit).

1181“The Strategic Nuclear Force Organization,”in Guojia junzhixue[The Science of the State Military System],undated,p.3.

1182See Liu Zhenwu,ed.,Xiandai jundui zhihui[Modern Military Command and Control],2nd ed.,Beijing:National Defense University Press,1994,pp.393-394.

1183Lianhe zhanyi di erpaobing zuozhan,p.4.Another article supports the assertion that conventional Second Artillery units would be subsumed into the theater command structure,but notes that Beijing may direct operations though the Second Artillery chain-of-command.See Li Junsheng,“Lianhe zhanyi didi changgui daodan budui zuozhan zhihui wenti tantao”[Inquiry Into Joint Conventional Theater Surface-to-Surface Missile Unit Operational Command Problems],in Lianhe zhanyi yu

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the missile campaign as one component of a joint strike force that also would include air forces,ground force artillery and tactical missiles,electronic attack assets,and special operations.1184Coordination will be carried out via a firepower coordination cell(huoli xietiaozu)within the theater command center.1185

For the nuclear forces,the evidence strongly suggests that the national command authority in Beijing would always retain strict control.1186Reportedly,the authority to use nuclear weapons rests collectively with the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau and the Central Military Commission(both groups now headed by Jiang Zemin).1187

In peacetime,the Second Artillery HQ staff is led by a primary echelon of comprised of four“first-level”(yijibu)departments(see Figure11.2):headquarters department(silingbu),political(zhengzhibu),logistics(houqinbu),and technical and equipment department(jizhuangbu)/armament department(zhuangbeibu).These departments have a vertical(tiao)relationship with the four general departments in Beijing.1188Other top-level units include the discipline inspection commission(jilu jiancha weiyuanhui),which is probably subordinate to the Second Artillery Party Committee and the Central Military Commission’s Discipline Inspection Commission.1189

Key personnel at Second Artillery HQ include the commander(silingyuan), political commissar(zhengwei),deputy commanders(fusilingyuan),deputy political commissars(fuzhengwei),and department directors.The principal leadership body within junbingzhong zuozhan,pp.228-231.Li is from an unidentified(probably Second Artillery)Third Research Institute.

1184Guan Lingen,“Brief Analysis of Combined Fire Assault,”Jiefangjun bao, 21April1998,p.6,in FBIS-CHI-0519-98.

1185See Sun Xiaohe,“Jiaqiang huoli xietiao,fahui zhengti weili”[Strengthen Firepower Coordination,Give Play to Comprehensive Power],in Lianhe zhanyi yu junbingzhong zuozhan[Joint Theater and Service Operations],Beijing:National Defense University Press,1998,pp.281-285.Senior Colonel Sun is Deputy Director of the Guangzhou Military Region Service Arms Department.

1186See Michael Swaine,The Military and Political Succession in China: Leadership,Institutions,Beliefs,Santa Monica,Calif.:RAND,R-4254-AF,1992,

pp.122-27.

1187See“Revealing Secret of China’s Procedure for Pressing Nuclear Button.”

1188Kenneth Lieberthal and Michel Oksenberg,Policy Making in China: Leaders,Structures,and Processes,Princeton,New Jersey:Princeton University Press, pp.141-142.

1189Wang Shiyou,“Qufen dangji zhengji,shixing kou ban’an[Differentiate Party Discipline and Government Discipline and Implement with Appropriate Agencies],”Jiefangjun bao,9December1987.

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the forces is the HQ party committee.Extrapolating from other similar units in the PLA, the political commissar is likely the secretary of the party committee,with the commander serving as deputy secretary.The other leadership personnel listed above would likely form the standing committee(changwei)of the party committee.

Headquarters Department(Silingbu)

The Headquarters Department manages the organizational structure,plans, deployment,transfer,and battlefield development of the Second Artillery operational and support troops.It is headed by a chief of staff and three deputy chiefs of staff.During a crisis,the apex of the HQ department is likely the Second Artillery Command and Control Center(Erpao zhihui kongzhi zhongxin).1190According to reports,a centralized crisis command center was established at Xishan in1986,with two subordinate command centers set up in Wuwei in the Lanzhou Military Region and in Mianyang,in the Chengdu Military Region.At the time these subordinate centers were under the direction of Yang Dezhi and Yu Qiuli;command for the regional centers was transferred to Hong Xuezhi and Chi Haotian with the ascent of Jiang Zemin to chair the Central Military Commission in1989.In1995,three more regional command centers were reportedly established at Taiyuan,Shanxi province,Lushan,Henan province,and Weining,Guizhou province.1191

Some second-level departments(erjibu)can be identified(see Figure11.3):

? The Political department(zhengzhibu)is charged with overseeing political work within the headquarters department.Probably has vertical relationship with the General Political Department and a horizontal relationship with the Second Artillery HQ Political Department.Division likely contains subordinate cadre affairs,party affairs,and propaganda pisions.

? The Communications department(tongxinbu)is responsible for the construction and transmission of communications between the Second Artillery headquarters and superordinate and subordinate units.It is known to have an Electronic Countermeasures(ECM)Regiment and a Communications Regiment,as well as a number of communications main stations(tongxin zongzhan).

? The training department(junxunbu)is probably responsible for developing training policies for subordinate bases and launch brigades.

? The military affairs department(junwubu)is probably responsible for general Second Artillery HW affairs,organizational issues,and recruiting.

Two additional likely second-level departments(erjibu)are an intelligence department(qingbaobu),charged with intelligence analysis,and a schools department (junxiaobu),responsible for planning,budget,regulations,facilities,administration, ___________

1190Lu Chunming,“Zhichu zuozhan zhihui zonghe kongzhitai[Integrate Operational Command And Control Platforms],Jiefangjun bao,13August1988.

1191See“Revealing Secret of China’s Procedure for Pressing Nuclear Button.”

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curricula,students,and staff at the Second Artillery’s various professional military education institutions.Other incidental units include a mapping unit(ditu dadui?), computer center,weather center,and scientific research pision(keyanchu).The scientific research pision reportedly has a technology pision(jishuchu).1192The mapping unit combines more than10types of specialized mapping sub-units,including a terrain squadron(dizing zhongdui).

Political Department(Zhengzhibu)

The Political Department is charged with political work within the Second Artillery.It is led by a director,four deputy directors,and the directors of the pisions. Along with the party committees(dang weiyuanhui,or dangwei for short)and the political commissar system(zhengwei),the political department(zhengzhibu)manages personnel,propaganda,and morale affairs.Known second-level departments(erjibu)of the political department itself include(see Figure11.4):

? The general office(bangongshi)is responsible for staff and paperwork within the Second Artillery political department.It likely contains subordinate units

responsible for secretaries(mishuchu),documents(guan dang’an chu),and a

confidential bureau(jiyao)for couriers and encrypted communications.

? The organization department(zuzhibu)is responsible for party affairs, overseeing the party committees throughout the Second Artillery HQ and at

lower levels.

? The propaganda department(xuanchuanbu)is responsible for the dissemination of propaganda to lower levels,including internal Second

Artillery publications like2nd Artillery’s internal newspaper and the neibu

journal Changying[Flying Eagle].

? The security department(baoweibu)is responsible for all security affairs, ranging from physical security to counterintelligence.

? The culture department(wenhuabu)is in charge of cultural education and recreational affairs,and likely sponsors programs of activities for the rank-

and-file.

Other likely second-level departments(erjibu)include:

? The cadre department(ganbubu)is responsible for personnel matters, including appointments,promotions,demotions.It likely includes a retired

cadre bureau(laoganbuju).

? The liaison department(lianluobu)

___________

1192Zhang Jiajun,“Chuangzao lianghao keyan huangjing,jiasu guofang keji fazhan[Building a Quality Research Environment,Enhancing National Defense Development],”Jiefangjun bao,10April1989.

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? The mass work department(qungongbu)is responsible for relations between the Second Artillery headquarters and the local government and population.

? The procurate(jianchayuan)investigates disciplinary matters.It likely works closely with the Second Artillery Discipline Inspection Commission.

? The court(fayuan)tries personnel accused of crimes.It likely interacts with both the procurate and the Discipline Inspection Commission.

Logistics Department(Houqinbu)

The Logistics Department is responsible for all logistics affairs within the Second Artillery,including budgeting,transportation,fuel,equipment,health,armaments, housing,and logistics training and research.Five main second-level departments can be confirmed(see Figure11.5):

? The General office(bangongshi)is responsible for staff and paperwork within the headquarters department.It likely contains subordinate units responsible

for secretaries(mishuchu),documents(guan dang’an chu),and a confidential

bureau(jiyaoju)for couriers and encrypted communications.

? The transportation department(yunshubu)is responsible for the procurement and maintenance of all Second Artillery transportation.It has a materials

pision(qicaichu)

? The materials and petroleum,oils and lubricants department(wuzibu)is mainly responsible for supply of all materials,as well as the procurement,

storage,distribution of fuel and fuel-related equipment.The sub-units beneath

the materials pision are pided between those that deal with“common”

(tongyong)and“special-use”(zhuanyong)materials,the latter of which may

involve nuclear materials.1193

? The armament department(junxiebu)

? The capital construction and barracks department(yingfangbu)is responsible for the design,construction,and maintenance of all Second Artillery facilities.

? The health department(weishengbu)is responsible for health affairs within the Second Artillery,including medical aid and family planning.It is also likely

responsible for the management of all subordinate medical facilities,including

hospitals,sanitoriums,and research institutes.

Based on extrapolation from similar units,other likely Logistics Department second-level departments include:

___________

1193Zhang Jiajun,“Linghuo,duobian,kexue[Agile,Varied,Scientific],”Jiefangjun bao,28September1988.

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? The general office(bangongshi)is responsible for staff and paperwork within the Second Artillery logistics department.It likely contains

subordinate units responsible for secretaries(mishuchu),documents(guan

dang’an chu),and a confidential bureau(jiyaoju)for couriers and

encrypted communications.

? The political department(zhengzhibu)is charged with overseeing political work within the logistics department.Probably has vertical relationship

with the General Political Department and a horizontal relationship with

the Second Artillery HQ Political Department.Division likely contains

subordinate cadre affairs,party affairs,and propaganda pisions.

? The finance department(caiwubu)likely formulates the Second Artillery budget,requests funding from the center,dispenses funds to lower levels,

and supervises accounting for units at all levels of the system.It likely

contains an audit hureau(shenjiju).

? The quartermaster department(junxubu)is reponsible for the planning, procurement,storage,and distribution of provisions and clothing.

Other ancillary offices likely include the research office(yanjiushi),equipment research office(zhuangbei yanjiushi),and production management office(shengchan jingying bangongshi),which controls farms and other economic units.

Technical and Equipment Department(Jizhuangbu)

The Technical and Equipment Department is charged with engineering support, equipment maintenance,repair and overhaul of equipment,procurement,R&D,and storage.Units formerly relied on local factories,but in1984began working on“self-reliance.”In1987,intermediate and depot-level maintenance on120items was achieved. One second-level department,the procurement department(dinggoubu),has been identified(see Figure11.6).Three other sub-units can be identified:a science and technology committee,science and technology information center1194,and repair and spare parts factories/shops(xiupeichang/suo).Other likely second-level departments are a general office(bangongshi),which manages staff and paper work within the technical and equipment department,and political department(zhengzhibu),which oversees political work within the technical and equipment department.

Base Units(Jidi)

Beneath the headquarters,the next important organizational unit is the“base,”or jidi.It shares the same four“first-level”departments as the headquarters(HQ,political, logistics,and technical/equipment),as well as most of the second-level departments(see Figure11.7).These departments,which perform the same roles as their counterparts though at a lower-level,report horizontally to the base leadership,as well as vertically to their superior units at the national headquarters level.Other corps/base support elements ___________

1194Directory of Military Personalities,October1999,p.56.

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include a reconnaissance unit(jizhen dadui);a surveying/mapping unit(cehui dadui);a computer center(jisuan zhongxin);a weather center(qixiang zhongxin);a communications regiment(tongxintuan);an ECM regiment(dianzi duikangtuan);and an engineering regiment(gongchengtuan).Additional engineering,air defense,and anti-chemical units can be assigned as needed.1195Among the units unique to the base level are a set of“equipment assurance units”(zhuangbei baozhang budui)which includes a missile/warhead storage unit(zhuangbei jishu qinwu budui),a transfer station (zhuanyunzhan),and a repair depot(tezhuang xiulicang).

Brigade Units(Nuclear)

Replicating most of the higher levels of command,a typical nuclear missile brigade contains four first-level departments,including headquarters,political,logistics,and equipment technology(jizhuangbu)departments,as well as most of the second-level departments.These offices,which perform the same roles as their counterparts though at a lower-level,report horizontally to the brigade leadership,as well as vertically to their superior units at the base and national headquarters level during non-crisis situations. During crisis and wartime situations,the nuclear brigades likely report directly to the national command center in the Western Hills(Xishan)in Beijing.

Very little is known from open sources about the structure of units for the silo-based nuclear brigades.Extrapolating from our understanding of the structure of mobile conventional theater missile brigades,the unique nuclear brigade elements for mobile forces,such as the DF-21and DF-31,likely include a mobile brigade command post,a central depot(known as a“technical position”or jishu zhendi),a transfer point(zhuanzai changping),and an assigned set of pre-surveyed launch sites(fashe zhendi),as well as a set of reserve(daiji)launch sites.A mobile nuclear missile brigade also likely has a set of“equipment assurance sub-units”(zhuangbei baozhang fendui).1196Brigades probably have multiple firing battalions(fasheying),with each battalion assigned multiple companies.1197Companies subordinate to the launch battalion likely would be assigned at least one launcher,an electric power generation vehicle(fadianche),a surveying vehicle(cekongche),a communications command vehicle(tongxun zhihuiche),and a ___________

1195Ibid,p.5.During peacetime,these units are subordinate to the base headquarters.

1196Ibid,p.4.The equipment assurance sub-units,the transfer point,and the transport may be the responsibility of a battalion-level“technical unit”(jishu ying).A nuclear brigade’s technical battalion manages a warhead station(dantizhan),an inspection station(zhuangjianzhan),and a technical service station(jishu qinwuzhan). See“Guangrong bang[Glorious Honor Roll],”Chang ying[Flying Eagle],undated2 November1993,p.11(hereafter“Glorious Honor Roll”).

1197For reference to a fourth battalion within a Second Artillery brigade structure,see“Glorious Honor Roll,”p.10.

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missile transport vehicle(daodan yunshuche).Battalions and companies would be assigned a zone within which to operate.1198

Brigade Units(Conventional)

Replicating most of the higher levels of command,a typical conventional theater missile brigade contains four first-level departments,including headquarters,political, logistics,and equipment technology(jizhuangbu)departments,as well as most of the second-level departments.These offices,which perform the same roles as their counterparts though at a lower-level,report horizontally to the brigade leadership,as well as vertically to their superior units at the base and national headquarters level during non-crisis situations.During crisis and wartime situations,the brigade likely reports to the war front command,as discussed earlier in the chapter.

The unique brigade elements include a mobile brigade command post,a central depot(known as a“technical position”or jishu zhendi),a transfer point(zhuanzai changping),and an assigned set of pre-surveyed launch sites(fashe zhendi),as well as a set of reserve(daiji)launch sites.A conventional missile brigade also has a set of “equipment assurance sub-units”(zhuangbei baozhang fendui).1199Brigades have at least four firing battalions(fasheying),with each battalion assigned at least three-four companies.1200Companies subordinate to the launch battalion likely would be assigned at least one launcher,an electric power generation vehicle(fadianche),a surveying vehicle(cekongche),a communications command vehicle(tongxun zhihuiche),and a

___________

1198Senior Colonel Wang Benzhi,“Didi changui daodan huoli yunyong de jige wenti[Some Questions Related to the Use of Conventional Surface-to-Surface Missile Firepower],”in Lianhe zhanyi yu junbingzhong zuozhan[Joint Theater and Service Operations],Beijing:National Defense University Press,1998,pp.236-241.Senior Colonel Wang is the Chief of Staff of the Second Artillery Huaihua Base(80305Unit). One source states that an operational zone could be20-40square kilometers.It is unclear what echelon would operate in this size zone.See Lu Xiaohong,“Daodan jidong fashe zhuangbei ji dimian shebei weizhuang yu yinshen jishu fenxi[Analysis of Mobile Missile Launch and Ground Equipment Camouflage and Stealth Technology],”in Xu Dazhe, Guowai dandao daodan jishu yanjiu yu fazhan[Study and Development of Foreign Ballistic Missile Technology],Beijing:Astronautics Press,October1998,pp.193-202.

1199Ibid,p.4.The equipment assurance sub-units,the transfer point,and the transport may be the responsibility of a battalion-level“technical unit”(jishu ying).A nuclear brigade’s technical battalion manages a warhead station(dantizhan),an inspection station(zhuangjianzhan),and a technical service station(jishu qinwuzhan). See“Glorious Honor Roll,”p.11.

1200For reference to a fourth battalion within a Second Artillery brigade structure,p.10.

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missile transport vehicle(daodan yunshuche).Battalions and companies would be assigned a zone within which to operate.1201

Academies and Schools(xueyuan/xuexiao)

Within the Second Artillery,three senior professional military education institutions can be identified.The Second Artillery Command College(Erpao zhihui xueyuan)in Wuhan prepares officers for leadership positions within headquarters elements and launch brigades.The Second Artillery Engineering College(Erpao gongcheng xueyuan)-Xi’an1202educates technicians associated with equipment and technology departments at various headquarters and field units.

The Artillery Missile School(Paobing daodan xueyuan)brings together ground force and missile force officers,facilitating the deployment of ground-to-ground missiles such as the DF-11Mod1with group armies.

Research Institutes(yanjiusuo)

The Second Artillery has one engineering design academy and four research institutes.The First Institute(Dierpao diyisuo)addresses problems associated with operations,TELs,and logistics,while the Second Institute(Dierpao diersuo)appears to have some interest in telecommunications.1203The Third Institute(Dierpao disansuo) conducts research on command automation,targeting,and mapping,and at least two researchers at the institute have written on deception issues in an internal volume.1204 The precise focus of the Fourth Institute is unknown(Dierpao disisuo).The Engineering Design Research Institute(Gongcheng sheji yanjiusuo)1205was established in1977,and performs engineering work on emplacements,command structures,barracks,and other ___________

1201Wang Benzhi,“Some Questions Related to the Use of Conventional Surface-to-Surface Missile Firepower,”pp.236-241;and Lu Xiaohong,“Analysis of Mobile Missile Launch and Ground Equipment Camouflage and Stealth Technology,”pp.193-202.

1202Zhang Jiajun,“Zunshi zhongjiao xingcheng zhidu[Respecting Teachers and Effective Teaching Forms a System],”Jiefangjun bao,9September1988.

1203Shi Qing,“Erpao yanzhi chu xinxing chengkong dianhua jiaohuanji [Second Artillery Corps’Research Has Produced a New Type of Computerized Switchboard],”Jiefangjun bao,14August1988.

1204Yuan Zaijiang and Deng Mihui,Second Artillery3rd Institute,“Junshi qipian jiqi dui zhanju de yingxiang[The Influence of War Conditions Upon Military Deception],”in Wojun xinxizhan wenti yanjiu[Our Military’s Information Warfare Studies],Beijing:Guofang daxue chubanshe,1999,pp.155-157.

1205Zhang Jiajun,“Baochi zhiliang zuofeng,reqing wei budui fuwu[Maintain a Good Work Ethic and Enthusiastically Support the Army],”Jiefangjun bao,20February 1989.

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support infrastructure.1206There is also some evidence that the institute,also known as the Academy of Engineering Design,is involved in missile and warhead engineering design.

SECOND ARTILLERY FORCE STRUCTURE

In the next two sections we take a careful look at China’s nuclear force structure and hardware,draw inferences from this empirical data to clarify questions about China’s doctrine and capabilities,and reach understandings about the Second Artillery’s future strategic posture from the vantage point that means most for strategic policy:how does the posture of the Second Artillery actually affect the security balance in strategic,theater and conventional terms?

History

According to Chinese sources,the Chinese Missile Research Academy(also known as the Fifth Research Academy)was established in October1956under the direction of Qian Xuesen.1207Ten research institutions were set up under the Fifth Academy to focus on the development of China’s ballistic missiles.China began“copy production”of its first ballistic missile–a Chinese copy of a Soviet R-2missile–in October1958,and the missile was first tested three times in November and December1960.Since that time the exact number of missile tests is difficult to discern through open sources,but by the end of the1960s,China had conducted at least30MRBM(the DF-2and–2A missiles) tests at ranges of up to1500kilometers.Major milestones in China’s nuclear force modernization are noted over the following pages.

DF-2and–2A.After a failed flight test on21March1962–in which shortly after take off,the missile erratically flew with its engine on fire before crashing near the launch pad--the Chinese successfully tested the DF-2numerous times in June and July 1964following the first success on29June1964.Following a February1965decision to increase the range of the DF-2,an increase of20percent in the range was achieved for the DF-2A,beginning with its first successful tests in November1965.On27October1966, the Chinese launched a DF-2with an armed,live nuclear warhead from the Shuangchengzi to an impact area in the Lop Nur testing area.1208The DF-2series,with ranges of1000and1250km respectively and a yield of20Kt,was“sited in Northeast

___________

1206Chen Dechun,“Erpao gongcheng sheji yanjiusuo10nian we budui[The Second Artillery Corps Engineering and Design Research Institute have Defrayed Engineering Costs by50Million Yuan in10Years],”Jiefangjun bao,14June1987.

1207Unless otherwise noted,this section draws from Xie Guang,et al.,eds., Dangdai Zhongguo de guofang keji shiye[Contemporary China’s Defense Science and Technology Undertakings],vol.1,Beijing:Dangdai Zhongguo chubanshe,1992,chaps8, 9,and10.

1208Robert Norris,et al,Nuclear Weapons Databook,pp.377-78.

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