Does Happiness Lead to Success幸福的人更容易成功吗

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积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家：积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧

PsychologicalBulletin

TheBenefitsofFrequentPositiveAffect:

DoesHappinessLeadtoSuccess?

UniversityofCalifornia,Riverside

SonjaLyubomirsky

UniversityofMissouri—Columbia

LauraKing

UniversityofIllinoisatUrbana–ChampaignandTheGallupOrganization

Numerousstudiesshowthathappyindividualsaresuccessfulacrossmultiplelifedomains,includingmarriage,friendship,income,workperformance,andhealth.Theauthorssuggestaconceptualmodeltoaccountforthesefindings,arguingthatthehappiness–successlinkexistsnotonlybecausesuccessmakespeoplehappy,butalsobecausepositiveaffectengenderssuccess.Threeclassesofevidence—cross-sectional,longitudinal,andexperimental—aredocumentedtotesttheirmodel.Relevantstudiesaredescribedandtheireffectsizescombinedmeta-analytically.Theresultsrevealthathappinessisassoci-atedwithandprecedesnumeroussuccessfuloutcomes,aswellasbehaviorsparallelingsuccess.Furthermore,theevidencesuggeststhatpositiveaffect—thehallmarkofwell-being—maybethecauseofmanyofthedesirablecharacteristics,resources,andsuccessescorrelatedwithhappiness.Limitations,empiricalissues,andimportantfutureresearchquestionsarediscussed.

Keywords:happiness,subjectivewell-being,positiveaffect,positiveemotions,meta-analysis

EdDiener

“Amerryheartgoesalltheday,Yoursadtiresinamile-a.”

—WilliamShakespeare“Thejoyfulnessofamanprolongethhisdays.”

—Sirach30:22

“Thedaysthatmakeushappymakeuswise.”

—JohnMasefield

Researchonwell-beingconsistentlyrevealsthatthecharacter-isticsandresourcesvaluedbysocietycorrelatewithhappiness.Forexample,marriage(Mastekaasa,1994),acomfortableincome(Diener&Biswas-Diener,2002),superiormentalhealth(Koivumaa-Honkanenetal.,2004),andalonglife(Danner,Snow-don,&Friesen,2001)allcovarywithreportsofhighhappinesslevels.Suchassociationsbetweendesirablelifeoutcomesandhappinesshaveledmostinvestigatorstoassumethatsuccessmakespeoplehappy.Thisassumptioncanbefoundthroughouttheliteratureinthisarea.Forexample,Diener,Suh,Lucas,andSmith

SonjaLyubomirsky,DepartmentofPsychology,UniversityofCalifor-nia,Riverside;LauraKing,DepartmentofPsychologicalSciences,Uni-versityofMissouri—Columbia;EdDiener,DepartmentofPsychology,UniversityofIllinoisatUrbana–ChampaignandTheGallupOrganization,Omaha,Nebraska.

ThisworkwassupportedinpartbygrantsfromthePositivePsychologyNetwork.WearegratefultoFaziletKasri,ReneDickerhoof,ColleenHowell,AngelaZamora,StephenSchueller,IreneChung,KathleenJamir,TonyAngelo,andChristieScollonforconductinglibraryresearchandespeciallytoRyanHowellforstatisticalconsulting.

CorrespondenceconcerningthisarticleshouldbeaddressedtoSonjaLyubomirsky,DepartmentofPsychology,UniversityofCalifornia,River-side,CA92521.E-mail:sonja@citrus.ucr.edu

803

(1999)reviewedthecorrelationsbetweenhappinessandavarietyofresources,desirablecharacteristics,andfavorablelifecircum-stances.Althoughtheauthorsrecognizedthatthecausalitycanbebidirectional,theyfrequentlyusedwordingimplyingthatcauseflowsfromtheresourcetohappiness.Forexample,theysuggestedthatmarriagemighthave“greaterbenefitsformenthanforwomen”(p.290),apparentlyoverlookingthepossibilitythatsexdifferencesinmaritalpatternscouldbeduetodifferentialselectionintomarriagebasedonwell-being.Similarly,afterreviewinglinksbetweenmoneyandwell-being,Dienerandhiscolleaguespointedoutthat“evenwhenextremelywealthyindividualsareexamined,theeffects[italicsadded]ofincomearesmall”(p.287),againassumingacausaldirectionfromincometohappiness.Weusequotesfromoneofustoavoidpointingfingersatothers,butsuchexamplescouldbegarneredfromthemajorityofscientificpubli-cationsinthisarea.Thequotesunderscorethepervasivenessoftheassumptionamongwell-beinginvestigatorsthatsuccessfulout-comesfosterhappiness.Thepurposeofourreviewisnottodisconfirmthatresourcesandsuccessleadtowell-being—anotionthatislikelyvalidtosomedegree.Ouraimistoshowthatthealternativecausalpathway—thathappypeoplearelikelytoac-quirefavorablelifecircumstances—isatleastpartlyresponsiblefortheassociationsfoundintheliterature.

APRELIMINARYCONCEPTUALMODEL

Inthisarticle,wereviewevidencesuggestingthathappypeo-ple—thosewhoexperienceapreponderanceofpositiveemo-tions—tendtobesuccessfulandaccomplishedacrossmultiplelifedomains.Whyishappinesslinkedtosuccessfuloutcomes?Weproposethatthisisnotmerelybecausesuccessleadstohappiness,butbecausepositiveaffect(PA)engenderssuccess.Positively

积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家：积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧

804

LYUBOMIRSKY,KING,ANDDIENER

valencedmoodsandemotionsleadpeopletothink,feel,andactinwaysthatpromotebothresourcebuildingandinvolvementwithapproachgoals(Elliot&Thrash,2002;Lyubomirsky,2001).Anindividualexperiencingapositivemoodoremotionisencounter-ingcircumstancesthatheorsheinterpretsasdesirable.Positiveemotionssignifythatlifeisgoingwell,theperson’sgoalsarebeingmet,andresourcesareadequate(e.g.,Cantoretal.,1991;Carver&Scheier,1998;Clore,Wyer,Dienes,Gasper,&Isbell,2001).Inthesecircumstances,asFredrickson(1998,2001)hassolucidlydescribed,peopleareideallysituatedto“broadenandbuild.”Inotherwords,becauseallisgoingwell,individualscanexpandtheirresourcesandfriendships;theycantaketheoppor-tunitytobuildtheirrepertoireofskillsforfutureuse;ortheycanrestandrelaxtorebuildtheirenergyafterexpendinghighlevelsofeffort.Fredrickson’smodel(Fredrickson,2001)suggeststhatacriticaladaptivepurposeofpositiveemotionsistohelppreparetheorganismforfuturechallenges.FollowingFredrickson,wesuggestthatpeopleexperiencingpositiveemotionstakeadvantageoftheirtimeinthisstate—freefromimmediatedangerandunmarkedbyrecentloss—toseeknewgoalsthattheyhavenotyetattained(seeCarver,2003,forarelatedreview).

Thecharacteristicsrelatedtopositiveaffectincludeconfidence,optimism,andself-efficacy;likabilityandpositiveconstrualsofothers;sociability,activity,andenergy;prosocialbehavior;immu-nityandphysicalwell-being;effectivecopingwithchallengeandstress;andoriginalityandflexibility.Whattheseattributesshareisthattheyallencourageactiveinvolvementwithgoalpursuitsandwiththeenvironment.Whenallisgoingwell,apersonisnotwellservedbywithdrawingintoaself-protectivestanceinwhichtheprimaryaimistoprotecthisorherexistingresourcesandtoavoidharm—aprocessmarkingtheexperienceofnegativeemotions.Positiveemotionsproducethetendencytoapproachratherthantoavoidandtopreparetheindividualtoseekoutandundertakenewgoals.Thus,weproposethatthesuccessofhappypeoplerestsontwomainfactors.First,becausehappypeopleexperiencefrequentpositivemoods,theyhaveagreaterlikelihoodofworkingactivelytowardnewgoalswhileexperiencingthosemoods.Second,happypeopleareinpossessionofpastskillsandresources,whichtheyhavebuiltovertimeduringpreviouspleasantmoods.

Thisunifyingframeworkbuildsonseveralearlierbodiesofwork—thebroaden-and-buildmodelofpositiveemotions(Fredrickson,1998,2001),thenotionthatpositiveemotionscon-veyspecificinformationtotheperson(Ortony,Clore,&Collins,1988),theideaofpositivityoffset(Ito&Cacioppo,1999),workontheapproach-relatedaspectsofPA(Watson,2000),and,fi-nally,Isen’s(e.g.,2000)groundbreakingresearchonthebehaviorsthatfollowpositivemoodinductions.Weextendtheearlierworkinpredictingthatchronicallyhappypeopleareingeneralmoresuccessful,andthattheirsuccessisinlargepartaconsequenceoftheirhappinessandfrequentexperienceofPA.Althoughthevastmajorityofresearchonemotionshasbeenonnegativestates,abodyofliteraturehasnowaccumulatedthathighlightstheimpor-tanceofpositiveemotionsinpeople’slong-termflourishing.

ClassesofEvidence

Figure1displaysourgeneralconceptualmodel,whichproposesthatsuccessfuloutcomesarecausedbyhappinessanddonotmerelycorrelatewithitorfollowfromit.Specifically,belowthe

conceptualmodel,wedisplayfourclassesofevidencethatcanbeusedtotestit.Thefirsttypeofevidence(TypeA)representspositivecorrelationsderivedfromcross-sectionalstudies.Al-thoughitisatruismthatcorrelationdoesnotimplycausation,correlationsmustgenerallybepositivetobeconsistentwithprop-ositionsaboutcausality.Exceptintherarecaseinwhichstrongthird-variablesuppressoreffectsexistacrossstudies,anabsenceofcorrelationbetweentwovariablesindicatesanabsenceofcausalityineitherdirection.Thus,correlationalevidenceisgermanetoourargumentbecausetheabsenceofpositivecorrelationssuggeststhathappinessdoesnotcausesuccess.

Thesecondclassofevidence(TypeB)isbasedonlongitudinalresearch,andissomewhatmoreinformativeaboutcausaldirectionthancross-sectionalcorrelations.Ifonevariableprecedesanotherintimeandotherpotentialcausalvariablesarestatisticallycon-trolled,theresultingcausalmodelcanbeusedtorejectacausalhypothesis.IncasesinwhichchangesinvariableXareshowntoprecedechangesinvariableY,thisformofevidenceisevenmorestronglysupportiveofacausalconnection,althoughtheinfluenceofthirdvariablesmightstillcontaminatetheconclusionsandleavethedirectionofcauseindoubt.EvidenceofTypeC,theclassiclaboratoryexperiment,iscommonlybelievedtorepresentthestrongestevidenceforcausality,althougheveninthiscaseitcanbedifficulttodetermineexactlywhataspectoftheexperimentalmanipulationledtochangesinthedependentvariable.Finally,long-termexperimentalinterventionstudies(TypeDevidence)wouldofferthestrongesttestofourcausalmodel,althoughagaintheactiveingredientsinthecausalchainareusuallynotknownwithcertainty.

EmpiricalTestsofModelandOrganizationalStrategy

Becausenosinglestudyortypeofevidenceisdefinitive,anargumentforcausalitycanbestbemadewhenvariousclassesofevidenceallconvergeonthesameconclusion.Therefore,wedocumentseveraltypesofevidenceinourarticleinordertomostrigorouslytesttheideathathappinessleadstosuccess.Ourreviewcoversthefirstthreeclassesofevidence(TypesA,B,andC)andisorganizedaroundfivefocalquestionsarisingfromthesethreecategories:

Cross-sectionalstudies(TypeA)

Question1:Arehappypeoplesuccessfulpeople?Question2:Arelong-termhappinessandshort-termPAassociatedwithbehaviorsparallelingsuccess—thatis,withadaptivecharacteristicsandskills?2.

Longitudinalstudies(TypeB)

Question3:Doeshappinessprecedesuccess?

Question4:Dohappinessandpositiveaffectprecedebehaviorsparallelingsuccess?3.

Experimentalstudies(TypeC)

Question5:Doespositiveaffectleadtobehaviorsparallelingsuccess?

First,wedocumenttheextensivecross-sectionalcorrelationalevidence(TypeA),asshowninFigure1.Thefirstquestionaddressedbythisevidenceistheonethatformsthebasisofourcausalhypothesis—thatis,arehappypeoplemorelikelytosuc-

积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家：积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧

BENEFITSOFFREQUENTPOSITIVEAFFECT

805

Figure1.Empiricallytestingtheconceptualmodel.PA positiveaffect;Grp. group.

ceedatculturallyvaluedgoals(e.g.,concerningwork,love,andhealth)thantheirlesshappypeers?However,thelargenumberofavailablecorrelationalstudiesinthiscategoryalsoincludesrele-vantresearchexaminingbehaviorandcognitionthatparallelsuc-cessfullifeoutcomes—thatis,thecharacteristics,resources,andskillsthathelppeoplesucceed(e.g.,attributessuchasself-efficacy,creativity,sociability,altruism,immunity,andcoping).Accordingly,thesecondquestionaddressedbythisevidenceex-plorestherelationsofbehaviorparallelingsuccesstolong-termhappinessandshort-termPA.Becausewedefinehappinessas

the

积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家：积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧

806

LYUBOMIRSKY,KING,ANDDIENER

frequentexperienceofpositiveemotionsovertime(seebelow),ourmodelassumesthatthecorrelationsinvolvinglong-termhap-pinessareparalleltothoseofshort-termpositivemoods.Incon-clusion,onlyifthecorrelationsgeneratedbyQuestions1and2aregenerallypositivewillweconsiderourcausalhypothesisfurther.Second,weconsiderlongitudinalstudies,whichaddresstwofurtherquestions.IshappinessatTime1associatedwithsuccess-fuloutcomesatTime2(Question3)?IshappinessandPAatTime1correlatedwithbehaviorsparallelingsuccessatTime2(Ques-tion4)?Insummary,priorlevelsofhappinessandpositiveaffectmustcorrelatewithlaterlevelsofsuccessfuloutcomesandbehav-iorforourcausalhypothesisnottoberejected.

Inlaboratoryexperimentation,thethirdtypeofevidence,cau-salityisputtoastrongertest.Inthiscase,however,becauseofthelimitsofthelaboratory,onlyshort-termchangesinbehaviorandcognitionsthatparallelsuccessfullifeoutcomesareassessed.Thus,thefifthandfinalquestionweaddressiswhetherPAcausesthecognitiveandbehavioralcharacteristicsparallelingsuccess.Again,becausepositiveaffectisdefinedhereasthebasicconstit-uentofhappiness,ourmodelrequiresthattheoutcomesofshort-termpositivemoodsareparalleltothesuccessfuloutcomesinourconceptualmodel.Furthermore,thisquestioniscritical,asitspeakstowhetherPAmaybeamediatorunderlyingtherelation-shipbetweenhappinessandflourishing—thatis,whetherPAcausestheadaptivecharacteristicsthathelphappypeoplesucceed.AlthoughthefourthtypeofevidenceshowninFigure1(TypeD)wouldprovidethestrongesttypeofdataforourmodel,unfor-tunately,toourknowledgenostudiesofthistypeexist.Neverthe-less,supportforourconceptualmodelfromallthreeofthepreviouslydescribedtypesofevidence,whilenotdefinitive,willsuggestalikelihoodthatourcausalmodeliscorrect.Furthermore,combiningthethreetypesofevidencerepresentsanadvancebeyondlaboratoryexperimentationalone,becausetherelativelygreaterrigorandcontrolprovidedbyexperimentationaresupple-mentedbytherelativelygreaterecologicalvalidityprovidedbytheothertypesofstudies.Thus,thefirsttwoclassesofevidence(TypesAandB)speaktotheplausibilityofgeneralizingthecausallaboratoryfindingstothecontextofsuccessandthrivinginev-erydaylife.Meanwhile,byrevealingtheprocessesuncoveredinthelaboratory,theexperimentalevidence(TypeC)illuminatesthepossiblecausalsequencesuspectedinthecorrelationaldata.Takentogether,consistentfindingsfromallthreetypesofdataofferastrongertestthananysingletypeofdatatakenalone.

Afterdescribingourmethodologyanddefiningourterms,weaddresseachofthefivefocalquestionsinorder,documentingthethreeclasses(A,B,andC)ofrelevantempiricalevidence.Then,weturntoadiscussionofseveralintriguingissuesandquestionsarisingoutofthisreview,caveatsandlimitations,andimportantfurtherresearchquestions.

MethodologicalApproach

Toidentifythewidestrangeofpublishedpapersanddisserta-tions,weusedseveralsearchstrategies(Cooper,1998).First,wesearchedthePsycINFOonlinedatabase,usingavarietyofkeywords(e.g.,happiness,satisfaction,affect,emotion,andmood).Next,usingtheancestrymethod,thereferencelistofeveryem-pirical,theoretical,andreviewpaperandchapterwasfurthercombedforadditionalrelevantarticles.Toobtainanypapersthat

mighthavebeenoverlookedbyoursearchcriteria,aswellastolocateworkthatisunpublishedorinpress,wecontactedtwolargeelectroniclistserves,manyofwhosemembersconductresearchintheareaofwell-beingandemotion—theSocietyofPersonalityandSocialPsychologylistservandtheQualityofLifeStudieslistserv.Twenty-fouradditionalrelevantarticleswereidentifiedwiththismethod.

Thefinalbodyofliteraturewascomposedof225papers,ofwhich11areunpublishedordissertations.Fromthese225papers,weexamined293samples,comprisingover275,000participants,andcomputed313independenteffectsizes.Astudywasincludedinourtablesifitsatisfiedthefollowingcriteria.First,measuresofhappiness,PA,oracloselyrelatedconstructhadtobeincluded,inadditiontoassessmentofatleastoneoutcome,characteristic,resource,skill,orbehavior.Second,thedatahadtoincludeeitherazero-ordercorrelationcoefficientorinformationthatcouldbeconvertedtoanreffectsize(e.g.,ttests,Ftests,meansandstandarddeviations,andchi-squares).Ifastudydidnotreportanreffectsize,wecomputedonefromdescriptivestatistics,tstatis-tics,Fratios,andtablesofcounts(seeRosenthal,1991).Ifnorelevantconvertiblestatisticswerepresented,otherthanapvalue,wecalculatedthetstatisticfromthepvalueandanr-sub(equivalent)(Rosenthal&Rubin,2003).Whenapaperre-portedp .05,p .01,orns,wecomputedrsub(equivalent)withpvaluesof.0245,.005,and.50(one-tailed),respectively,whichlikelyyieldedahighlyconservativeestimateoftheeffectsize.Finally,thesamplesizehadtobeavailable.Whenpossible,wealsocontactedauthorsforfurtherinformation.

Descriptionsofthecriticalelementsofeachstudy(i.e.,authors,year,samplesize,happiness/PAmeasureorinduction,relatedconstruct,andeffectsize[r])areincludedinTables1,2,and3,whichpresentcross-sectional,longitudinal,andexperimentalwork,respectively.Table2additionallypresentsthelengthoftimebetweenassessments,andTable3includesthecomparisongroupsusedinthestudies.Studieswithsubscriptsaftertheirnamearethosethatappearinmorethanasinglesectionortable,usuallybecausemultipleoutcomevariablesareincluded.

Furthermore,mirroringourdocumentationoftheliteraturepre-sentedinthispaper,Tables1–3aresubdividedintosubstantivecategories(orpanels).Forexample,Table1issubdividedintoninecategories—worklife,socialrelationships,health,percep-tionsofselfandothers,sociabilityandactivity,likabilityandcooperation,prosocialbehavior,physicalwell-beingandcoping,and,finally,problemsolvingandcreativity.Themeanandmedianeffectsize(r),weightedandunweightedbysamplesize,aswellasatestofheterogeneity,isprovidedforeachcategoryforthethreeclassesofdata(cross-sectional,longitudinal,andexperimental)inTable4.

Tables1,2,and3reportalleffectsizesofinteresttoreaders—includinginstancesoftwoormoreeffectsizesgeneratedfromthesamesampleordataset.Forexample,therelationofhappinesswithincomeandmaritalstatusderivedfromasinglestudymayappearintwodifferentpanelsofatable(i.e.,worklifeandsocialrelationships).Alternatively,thecorrelationbetweenhappinessandcopingderivedfromasinglelongitudinalstudymayappearintwodifferenttables(e.g.,thecross-sectionaltableandthelongi-tudinaltable).However,inordertometa-analyticallycombinethe464effectsizeslistedinTables1–3,wehadtoensureadegreeof

(textcontinuesonpage816)

积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家：积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧

BENEFITSOFFREQUENTPOSITIVEAFFECT

807

Table1

StudyInformationandEffectSizesforNineCategoriesofCross-SectionalResearch

Study

Happiness/PAmeasure

Worklife

Crede´etal.,2005Crede´etal.,2005Crede´etal.,2005

Cropanzano&Wright,1999a

(firstassessment)

Cropanzano&Wright,1999a

(secondassessment)DeLuga&Mason,2000Donovan,2000Donovan,2000Donovan,2000Donovan,2000Donovan,2000Fosteretal.,2004Fosteretal.,2004Frischetal.,2004George,1989George,1995George,1995

Grahametal.,inpressa(1995assessment)Grahametal.,inpressa(2000assessment)Howelletal.,inpressJundt&Hinsz,2001Kruegeretal.,2001aLucasetal.,2004

Magen&Aharoni,1991aMagen&Aharoni,1991aMilesetal.,2002

Seligman&Schulman,1986a(Study1)Staw&Barsade,1993aStawetal.,1994aStawetal.,1994aStawetal.,1994aThoits&Hewitt,2001aTotterdell,2000*

VanKatwyketal.,2000a(Study3)VanKatwyketal.,2000a(Study3)Weissetal.,1999a

Wright&Cropanzano,1998Wright&Cropanzano,2000(Study1)

Wright&Cropanzano,2000(Study2)Wright&Staw,1999a(Study1,secondassessment)

Wright&Staw,1999a(Study2,firstassessment)

Wright&Staw,1999a(Study2,secondassessment)

95995995960609218818818818818841413,63825453534,5245,13430716439724,000260260203

94832722722723,6171711111124524737456264

PANASPANASPANAS

IndexofPsychologicalWell-BeingIndexofPsychologicalWell-BeingAffectometer2

CurrentMoodReportCurrentMoodReportCurrentMoodReportCurrentMoodReportCurrentMoodReportJobAffectScaleJobAffectScale

QualityofLifeInventoryJobAffectScalePANAS(leader)

PANAS(aggregatedgroup)One-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessSWLS

Seven-pointsemanticdifferentialsMPQpositiveemotionalityOne-itemhappiness

Four-itempositiveaffectFour-itempositiveaffect

Job-RelatedAffectiveWell-BeingScale

AttributionalStyleQuestionnaireThree-measurecompositeofpositiveaffectivity

ExperienceandexpressionofpositiveemotiononthejobExperienceandexpressionofpositiveemotiononthejobExperienceandexpressionofpositiveemotiononthejobOne-itemhappiness

One-itemhappiness(12timesover4days)PANASPANAS

FordyceHMScalePANAS

IndexofPsychologicalWell-BeingIndexofPsychologicalWell-BeingIndexofPsychologicalWell-BeingIndexofPsychologicalWell-BeingIndexofPsychologicalWell-Being

Socialrelationships

Baldassareetal.,1984Baldassareetal.,1984Baldassareetal.,1984Berry&Willingham,1997

Cooperetal.,1992a(Study1&Study2)Cooperetal.,1992a(Study2)

202202202127118118

Four-itemhappinessFour-itemhappinessFour-itemhappinessPANASSWLSSWLS

InstrumentalsupportEmotionalsupportCompanionship

CommitmenttocurrentrelationshipSatisfactionwithfriends

Satisfactionwithsocialactivities

.17.15.30.27.31.37

(tablecontinues)

OrganizationalcitizenshipbehaviorCounterproductiveworkbehaviorJobwithdrawal

SupervisoryevaluationsSupervisoryevaluations

Jobperformance

OrganizationalcitizenshipbehaviorTurnoverintentionsWorkwithdrawal

OrganizationalretaliatorybehaviorSatisfactionwithwork

OrganizationalclimateforperformanceEmployeehealthandwell-beingAcademicretentionabsenteeismJudgedcustomerserviceJudgedcustomerserviceIncomeIncome

MaterialwealthTaskperformanceSelf-reportedaltruismIncome

Transpersonalcommitment

InvolvementincommunityserviceOrganizationalcitizenshipbehaviorQuarterlyinsurancecommissionsJudgedmanagerialperformanceJobautonomy,meaning,andvarietyGrossannualsalary

Supervisoryevaluations(creativity)TimespentvolunteeringCricketbattingaverageInterpersonalconflictIntentiontoquitJobsatisfaction

EmotionalexhaustionJobperformanceSupervisoryevaluationsSupervisoryevaluationsSupervisoryevaluationsSupervisoryevaluations

.37 .25 .25.29.34.22.20 .38 .20 .22.50.32.29.18 .28.41.35.20b.16b.23.19.44.20.21.36.23.18.20.22.12.30.09.36 .12 .33.29 .39.32.34.33.25.43

Correlatedconstruct

Effectsize

(r)

积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家：积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧

808

Table1(continued)

Study

LYUBOMIRSKY,KING,ANDDIENER

Happiness/PAmeasureSocialrelationships(continued)

Correlatedconstruct

Effectsize

(r)

Diener&Seligman,2002a

Dieneretal.,2000Gladow&Ray,1986aGladow&Ray,1986a

Glenn&Weaver,1981a(Blackfemalesample)

Glenn&Weaver,1981a(Blackmalesample)

Glenn&Weaver,1981a(Whitefemalesample)

Glenn&Weaver,1981a(Whitemalesample)

Grahametal.,inpressa(1995assessment)Grahametal.,inpressa(2000assessment)Headeyetal.,1991a(1981assessment)Headeyetal.,1991a(1983assessment)Headeyetal.,1991a(1985assessment)Headeyetal.,1991a(1987assessment)Kozma&Stones,1983

Lee&Ishii-Kuntz,1987(malesample)Lee&Ishii-Kuntz,1987(malesample)Lee&Ishii-Kuntz,1987(femalesample)Lee&Ishii-Kuntz,1987(femalesample)Lyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressaMastekaasa,1994Mishra,1992a

Mroczek&Spiro,2005aPfeiffer&Wong,1989a

Phillips,1967*(healthysample)Requena,1995(Spanishsample)Requena,1995(U.S.sample)Ruvolo,1998a(husbandssample)Ruvolo,1998a(husbandssample)Ruvolo,1998a(wivessample)Ruvolo,1998a(wivessample)

Stack&Eshleman,1998(malesample)Stack&Eshleman,1998(femalesample)Stawetal.,1994aStrayer,1980aWilli,1997

10659,169

6363891678201,8724,5245,1346496496496496001,3211,3211,5511,55162162125,8107201,927594301,0841,5343173173173179,23710,127272

14383

SWLS,affectbalance,memoryrecall

One-itemlifesatisfactionOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappiness

One-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessLife-as-a-WholeIndexLife-as-a-WholeIndexLife-as-a-WholeIndexLife-as-a-WholeIndexMUNSH

Seven-itemmoraleSeven-itemmoraleSeven-itemmoraleSeven-itemmoraleSHSSHS

Bradburn’sScales,one-itemlifesatisfaction,one-itemhappinessIndexofLifeSatisfaction

LifeSatisfactionInventoryMUNSH

One-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappiness

Experienceandexpressionofpositiveemotiononthejob

ObservationalcountofhappyaffectRelationship-relevanthappiness

Health

RelationshipswithclosefriendsMaritalstatus

SupportfromfriendsSupportfromneighborsMaritalhappinessMaritalhappinessMaritalhappinessMaritalhappinessMaritalstatusMaritalstatus

SatisfactionwithmarriageSatisfactionwithmarriageSatisfactionwithmarriageSatisfactionwithmarriageMaritalstatus

No.ofclosefriendsLoneliness

SatisfactionwithfriendsSatisfactionwithrecreationMaritalstatus

SocialinteractionswithnonfamilymembersMaritalstatus

JealousyinspecificrelationshipSocialparticipationNo.offriendsNo.offriendsMaritalwell-being

Spouse’smaritalwell-beingMaritalwell-being

Spouse’smaritalwell-beingMaritalstatusMaritalstatus

Emotionalandtangiblesupportfromsupervisors

Observationalcountofempathicresponsestoothers

Extentinlovewithpartner

.48.07b.35.31.18.22.53.37.03b.02b.47.55.49.47.20.23 .50.19 .51.50.51.29.41.23 .03.17.13.08.12.16.41.34.15b.16b.33.59.19

Achatetal.,2000aBogneretal.,2001Chang&Farrehi,2001Chang&Farrehi,2001Collinsetal.,1992

Diener&Seligman,2002aDiener&Seligman,2002aDiener&Seligman,2002aGilGilGilGilGilGil

etetetetetetal.,al.,al.,al.,al.,al.,

2004a2004a2004a2004a2004a2004a

65916840240273106106106414141414141LOTSWLS

LOT-RevisedSWLS

MAACL-Revised

SWLS,affectbalance,memoryrecall

DailyMoodScaleDailyMoodScaleDailyMoodScaleDailyMoodScaleDailyMoodScaleDailyMoodScale

Vitality

HistoryofsubstanceabuseDepressivesymptomsDepressivesymptomsQualityoflifeDepressionHypochondriasisSchizophreniaPainERvisits

HospitalvisitsDoctorcallsMedicationuseWorkabsences

.14b .27 .36 .57.32 .61 .24 .53 .42 .06b .06b .08b .08b .09b

积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家：积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧

BENEFITSOFFREQUENTPOSITIVEAFFECT

809

Table1(continued)

Study

Happiness/PAmeasureHealth(continued)

Grahametal.,inpressa(1995assessment)Grahametal.,inpressa(2000assessment)Kashdan&Roberts,2004aKehn,1995a

Laidlawetal.,1996Lobeletal.,2000Lu&Shih,1997

Lyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressa

Mroczek&Spiro,2005a(1978-1980sample)

Mroczek&Spiro,2005a(1981-1983sample)

Mroczek&Spiro,2005a(1984-1986sample)

Mroczek&Spiro,2005a(1987-1989sample)

Mroczek&Spiro,2005a(1990-1992sample)

Mroczek&Spiro,2005a(1993-1995sample)

Mroczek&Spiro,2005a(1996-1998sample)

Mroczek&Spiro,2005a(1999-2000sample)Phillips,1967a

Røysambetal.,2003aRøysambetal.,2003aWindle,2000a

4,5245,13410498381291916216216211,2541,2671,2831,6419659749193895936,5766,5761,016

One-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessPANAS

LifeSatisfactionIndexOne-itempeacefulnessLOT

ChineseHappinessInventorySHSSHSSHS

LifeSatisfactionInventoryLifeSatisfactionInventoryLifeSatisfactionInventoryLifeSatisfactionInventoryLifeSatisfactionInventoryLifeSatisfactionInventoryLifeSatisfactionInventoryLifeSatisfactionInventory

One-itemhappinessSWBIndexSWBIndex

RevisedDimensionofTemperamentSurvey

Positiveperceptionsofselfandothers

Berry&Hansen,1996a(Study1)

Cooperetal.,1992a(Study1&Study2)Cooperetal.,1992a(Study1&Study2)Cooperetal.,1992a(Study1&Study2)Cooperetal.,1992a(Study1&Study2)Cowanetal,1998Gladow&Ray,1986aGladow&Ray,1986a

Glenn&Weaver,1981a(Whitemalesample)

Glenn&Weaver,1981a(Blackmalesample)

Glenn&Weaver,1981a(Whitefemalesample)

Glenn&Weaver,1981a(Blackfemalesample)

Glenn&Weaver,1981a(Whitemalesample)

Glenn&Weaver,1981a(Blackmalesample)

Glenn&Weaver,1981a(Whitefemalesample)

Glenn&Weaver,1981a(Blackfemalesample)

Judge&Higgins,1998(Study1)Judge&Higgins,1998(Study2)Lucasetal.,1996(Study1)Lucasetal.,1996(Study1)

1121181181181189063631,872167820891,8721678208911095212212

PANASSWLSPANASSWLSPANAS

InventoryofPersonalHappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessNeutralObjectsSatisfactionQuestionnaire

NeutralObjectsSatisfactionQuestionnaireSWLSSWLS

QualityofconversationSatisfactionwithrelativesSatisfactionwithrelativesSatisfactionwithfriendsSatisfactionwithfriends

HostilitytowardotherwomenSupportreceivedfromfriendsSupportreceivedfromrelativesSatisfactionwithfriendshipsSatisfactionwithfriendshipsSatisfactionwithfriendshipsSatisfactionwithfriendshipsSatisfactionwithfamilylifeSatisfactionwithfamilylifeSatisfactionwithfamilylifeSatisfactionwithfamilylifeJudgedfavorabilityofreferenceletter(hypothetical)

Judgedfavorabilityofreferenceletter(actual)Self-esteemOptimism

.27.22.12.31.23 .21.35.14.22.23.29.13.25.15.39.17.29.17

.59.60

(tablecontinues)

HealthproblemsHealthproblems

Socialphobia/anxietyGlobalhealth

Sizeofallergicreaction

Deliveryoflow-birth-weightinfantsPoormentalhealthSatisfactionwithhealthPhysicalsymptomsDepressedaffectGlobalhealthGlobalhealthGlobalhealthGlobalhealthGlobalhealthGlobalhealthGlobalhealthGlobalhealthOverallmentalhealthGlobalhealth

MusculoskeletalpainDelinquentactivity

.03b .05b .34.43 .33 .20 .36.43 .29 .49.23.31.31.24.26.29.29.34.22.50 .25 .22

Correlatedconstruct

Effectsize

(r)

积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家：积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧

810

Table1(continued)

Study

LYUBOMIRSKY,KING,ANDDIENER

Happiness/PAmeasureCorrelatedconstruct

Effectsize

(r)

Positiveperceptionsofselfandothers(continued)

Lucasetal.,1996(Study2)Lucasetal.,1996(Study2)Lucasetal.,1996(Study3)Lucasetal.,1996(Study3)Lyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressa

Lyubomirsky&Tucker,1998a(Study1)Lyubomirsky&Tucker,1998a(Study3)Lyubomirsky&Tucker,1998a(Study3)Mayeretal.,1988(preliminarystudy)Mayeretal.,1988(Study2)Mongrain&Zuroff,1995Pfeiffer&Wong,1989aPfeiffer&Wong,1989aPfeiffer&Wong,1989aRyff,1989

Schimmacketal.,2004a(Study1)Schimmacketal.,2004a(Study2)Schimmacketal.,2004a(Study1)Tarlow&Haaga,1996Totterdell,2000aWeissetal.,1999a

10910917217262162162162162162162162162162162110547382061931521231231233211361241361241824

SWLSSWLSSWLSSWLSSHSSHSSHSSHSSHSSHSSHSSHSSHSSHSSHSSHSSHSSHS

Mood-StateIntrospectionScaleMood-StateIntrospectionScaleFourpositiveadjectivesMUNSHMUNSHMUNSH

LifeSatisfactionIndexSWLSSWLSSWLSPANAS

One-itemhappiness(12timesover4days)

FordyceHMScale

Sociabilityandactivity

Bahr&Harvey,1980Berry&Hansen,1996aBerry&Hansen,1996aBerry&Hansen,1996aBerry&Hansen,1996aBerry&Hansen,1996aBrebneretal.,1995Brebneretal.,1995

(Study(Study(Study(Study(Study

1)1)1)1)2)

44112112112112105959595134134753554186106106176631071,05149114649649281257

One-itemhappinessPANASPANASPANASPANASPANAS

OxfordHappinessInventoryPersonalStateQuestionnaire,Version5LOTPANASPANAS

Bradburn’sScalesBradburn’sScalesSWLS

SWLS,affectbalance,memoryrecall

GeneralTemperamentSurveyOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappiness

PANAS

FACSDuchennesmileFACSDuchennesmileLifeSatisfactionIndexBradburn’sScalesOne-itemhappymood

Fifteenitemsfromthe22-itemscreeningscore

AttendanceatclubmeetingsQualityofconversation

DegreeofdisclosureinconversationDegreeofengagementinconversationIntimacyofconversationNo.ofdailyinteractionsExtraversionExtraversion

ExtraversionExtraversionSocialactivitiesExtraversionExtraversion

Informant-ratedenergyExtraversion

Peerratingsoftarget’srelationshipsPerformance-approachgoalsPersonalconversationsIntrinsicallymotivatingexperiences(%)Extraversion

Self-ratedaffiliation

Observer-ratedaffiliationExtraversionExtraversionFlow

Satisfactionwithactivities

.31.27.06.10.09.34.31.43.21.54.40.16.16.39.49.65.15.35.28.32.33.69.20.18.27.38

Self-esteemOptimismSelf-esteemOptimismSelf-esteemOptimism

SenseofmasteryPerceivedcontrol

SatisfactionwithfamilyrelationsSatisfactionwithfriendsSatisfactionwithhealthSatisfactionwitheducationSatisfactionwithrecreationSatisfactionwithhousing

SatisfactionwithtransportationEvaluationsofpastlifeeventsLikingofvideotapedtargetEvaluationsofreal-lifetargetInferencesaboutpeopleInferencesaboutpeopleSelf-criticism

CognitivejealousyEmotionaljealousyBehavioraljealousyPersonalgrowth

Self-ratedassertivenessSelf-ratedassertivenessSelf-ratedwarmthSelf-esteem

Self-ratedperformanceSatisfactionwithjob

.65.59.54.57.62.60.55.47.41.50.43.27.51.43.34.41.29.36.29.29 .39 .08 .24 .17.38.21.36.27.57.50.29

Brebneretal.,1995

Burger&Caldwell,2000aBurger&Caldwell,2000aCosta&McCrae,1980aCosta&McCrae,1980aDiener&Fujita,1995a

Diener&Seligman,2002aDiener&Seligman,2002aElliot&Thrash,2002Gladow&Ray,1986aGraefetal.,1983Griffinetal.,inpressHarker&Keltner,2001aHarker&Keltner,2001aHeadey&Wearing,1989Headey&Wearing,1989Hektner,1997a

Kahanaetal.,1995

积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家：积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧

BENEFITSOFFREQUENTPOSITIVEAFFECT

811

Table1(continued)

Study

Happiness/PAmeasureSociabilityandactivity(continued)

Kashdan&Roberts,2004aKashdan&Roberts,2004aLu&Argyle,1991Lu&Argyle,1991Lucasetal.,2000Lucasetal.,2000Lucasetal.,2000

Lucas,2001a(dailystudy)Lucas,2001a(dailystudy)Lucas,2001a(dailystudy)Lucas,2001a(momentstudy)Lucas,2001a(momentstudy)Lyubomirskyetal.,inpressaLyubomirskyetal.,inpressaMatikka&Ojanen,inpressMatikka&Ojanen,inpressMishra,1992aMishra,1992a

Mishra,1992a

Schimmacketal.,2004a(StudySchimmacketal.,2004a(StudySchimmacketal.,2004a(StudySchimmacketal.,2004a(StudySchimmacketal.,2004a(StudyStones&Kozma,1986aWatson,1988a

Watsonetal.,1992a(Study1)Watsonetal.,1992a(Study2)Watsonetal.,1992a(Study1)Watsonetal.,1992a(Study2)Watsonetal.,1992a(Study2)

1)1)1)2)2)

1041041141145,8425,8425,84214414414412412462162137637672072072013613613612412440871851277996120

PANASPANAS

OxfordHappinessInventoryOxfordHappinessInventoryPANASPANASPANASPANASPANASPANAS

Timefelthappyandpleasant(%)Timefelthappyandpleasant(%)SHSSHS

Three-itemhappinessThree-itemhappinessIndexofLifeSatisfactionIndexofLifeSatisfactionIndexofLifeSatisfactionSWLSSWLSSWLSSWLSSWLSMUNSH

PositiveEmotionalityScale

PANAS(weekly,over13weeks)PANAS(daily,over6–7weeks)PANAS,extraversion,positivetemperamentPANAS,joviality

PANAS,extraversion,positivetemperament

Likeabilityandcooperation

Barsadeetal.,2000Barsadeetal.,2000Bell,1978

Berry&Hansen,1996a(Study1)Berry&Hansen,1996a(Study1)Diener&Fujita,1995aDiener&Fujita,1995aDiener&Fujita,1995aDiener&Fujita,1995aDiener&Fujita,1995aDiener&Fujita,1995aDiener&Fujita,1995aDiener&Fujita,1995aDiener&Fujita,1995aHarkerHarkerHarkerHarker

&&&&Keltner,Keltner,Keltner,Keltner,

2001a2001a2001a2001a

6220120112112186186186186186186186186186114114114114

MPQwell-beingMPQwell-being

PersonalFeelingsScalePANASPANAS

Delighted-TerribleScale,one-itemhappinessDelighted-TerribleScale,one-itemhappinessDelighted-TerribleScale,one-itemhappinessDelighted-TerribleScale,one-itemhappinessDelighted-TerribleScale,one-itemhappinessDelighted-TerribleScale,one-itemhappinessDelighted-TerribleScale,one-itemhappinessDelighted-TerribleScale,one-itemhappinessDelighted-TerribleScale,one-itemhappinessFACSDuchennesmileFACSDuchennesmileFACSDuchennesmileFACSDuchennesmile

Taskconflict

GroupcooperativenessLikeabilityasworkpartnerIntimacyofconversation

DegreeofdisclosureinconversationJudgedphysicalattractivenessJudgedintelligence/competenceJudgedsocialskills

JudgedpublicspeakingabilityJudgedself-confidenceJudgedassertiveness

JudgednumberofclosefriendsJudgedlikelihoodofhavingastrongromanticrelationship

Judgedlikelihoodofhavingfamilysupport

Observer-ratedaffiliation

Observer-ratednegativeemotionalityJudgedpositiveemotionalityJudgedcompetence

.30.38.43.09.06.33.30.41.28.36.25.35.33.34

.69 .57.71.21

(tablecontinues)

AttractiontopartnerClosenesstopartner

AttitudetowardjointactivitiesAttitudetowardgroupactivitiesExtraversionAscendanceAffiliation

ExperienceofAffiliation/warmthTimespentwithfriendsTimespentleadingTimespentleading

TimespentwithfriendsandfamilyExtraversion

SatisfactionwithrecreationSocialparticipationSocialinclusion

Engaginginhobbiesandspecialinterests

Interactionwithmembersofvoluntaryorganizations

EngaginginoccupationalactivitiesExtraversionGregariousness

InformantratingsofhowactiveFriendlinessGregariousnessActivitylevelSocialactivity

WeeklysocialactivityWeeklysocialactivityWeeklysocialactivityWeeklysocialactivityWeeklysocialactivity

.50.30.25.22.62.30.27.48.22.20.24.19.36.51.22.21.63.50.64.33.26.24.43.21.13b.34.36.39.35.31.28

Correlatedconstruct

Effectsize

(r)

FordyceFordyceFordyceFordyceFordyceFordyceFordyceFordyceFordyce

积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家：积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧

812

Table1(continued)

Study

LYUBOMIRSKY,KING,ANDDIENER

Happiness/PAmeasure

Likeabilityandcooperation(continued)

Correlatedconstruct

Effectsize

(r)

Kashdan&Roberts,2004aKashdan&Roberts,2004a

King&Napa,1998(Study1)King&Napa,1998(Study1)King&Napa,1998(Study2)King&Napa,1998(Study2)

Mathes&Kahn,1975(femalesample)Mathes&Kahn,1975(malesample)Perryetal.,1986(eighthgradesample)Rimland,1982

Scheufele&Shah,2000

Schimmacketal.,2004a(Study1)Schimmacketal.,2004a(Study2)Schimmacketal.,2004a(Study1)Schimmacketal.,2004a(Study2)Staw&Barsade,1993aTayloretal.,2003

VanKatwyketal.,2000a(Study3)

104104104104264264101110321,9913,46213612413612411155111PANASPANAS

Three-itemhappinessThree-itemhappinessThree-itemhappinessThree-itemhappinessHappinessHappiness

Dichotomous“Whoishappier?‘Dichotomous“Happyornot?‘

Four-itemIndexofLifeSatisfactionSWLSSWLSSWLSSWLS

Three-measurecompositeTen-measurecompositePANAS

Prosocialbehavior

Partner-ratedattractionPartner-ratedclosenessJudgedmoralgoodness

JudgedlikelihoodofgoingtoheavenJudgedmoralgoodness

JudgedlikelihoodofgoingtoheavenJudgedphysicalattractivenessJudgedphysicalattractivenessHelpfulnessSelfishness

PersonalitystrengthInformant-ratedwarmthInformant-ratedfriendlinessInformant-ratedassertivenessInformant-ratedassertivenessJudgedmanagerialpotential

JudgedpositivepersonalqualitiesInterpersonalconflict.34.30.29.25.26.26.37.09.44 .60.21.28.33.20.25.20.28 .12

Feingold,1983(malesample)Feingold,1983(femalesample)George,1991George,1991

Kruegeretal.,2001a

Lucas,2001a(dailystudy)Lucas,2001a(momentstudy)Magen&Aharoni,1991aMagen&Aharoni,1991aRigby&Slee,1993Strayer,1980a

Williams&Shiaw,1999

878822122139714412426026086914139

One-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessJobAffectScaleJobAffectScale

MPQpositiveemotionalityPANAS

Timefelthappyandpleasant(%)Four-itemintensityofpositiveexperience

Four-itemintensityofpositiveexperience

Life-as-a-WholeIndex

ObservationalcountofhappyaffectWatson10-itempositiveaffectivityscale

Physicalwell-beingandcoping

UnselfishnessUnselfishness

ExtraroleprosocialbehaviorCustomerservice

Self-reportedaltruisticactsTimespenthelpingTimespenthelping

TranspersonalcommitmentInvolvementincommunityserviceTendencytoactinaprosocialorcooperativemanner

Observationalcountofempatheticresponses

Anticipatedorganizationalcitizenshipbehavior

.27.09.24.26.44.36.27.21.36.36.59.42

Achatetal.,2000aAchatetal.,2000aAudrainetal.,2001

Bardwelletal.,1999(healthysample)Bardwelletal.,1999(healthysample)Benyaminietal.,2000a

Carveretal.,1993a(presurgeryassessment)Carveretal.,1993a(presurgeryassessment)Carveretal.,1993a(presurgeryassessment)Carveretal.,1993a(presurgeryassessment)C.C.Chenetal.,1996Dillon&Totten,1989Goldmanetal.,1996

Irvingetal.,1998Kehn,1995a

Keltner&Bonanno,1997Loxetal.,1999

Lutgendorfetal.,1999(moverssample)Lyons&Chamberlain,1994Lyons&Chamberlain,1994Lyubomirskyetal.,inpressa

Lyubomirsky&Tucker,1998a(Study1)

65965922740408515959595912116134115983912126158158621105LOTLOTPANAS

One-itemvigorOne-itemvigor

12-itempositiveaffectLOTLOTLOTLOT

GeneralHealthQuestionnaireCopingHumorScale

RepairSubscaleoftheTraitMeta-MoodScaleHopeScale

LifeSatisfactionIndexFACSDuchennelaughterAffectiveReactionsMeasureSenseofCoherenceScaleUpliftsScaleLOTSHSSHS

GeneralhealthPain

PhysicalactivitySleepquantitySleepquality

Self-reportedhealthActivecoping

CopingbypositivereframingCopingbyhumorCopingbydenialEngagementcoping

PresenceofupperrespiratoryinfectionReportedillnesses

Hope-relatedcopingresponsesGlobalhealth

Perceivedadjustment

AmountofphysicalexerciseNKcellactivity

UpperrespiratoryinfectionsymptomsUpperrespiratoryinfectionsymptomsSatisfactionwithhealthPerceptionoflifeevents

.23b .09b.19.32.36.49.33.41.40 .39.31 .58 .21.35.43.31.19.49 .03 .23.43.41

积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家：积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧

BENEFITSOFFREQUENTPOSITIVEAFFECT

813

Table1(continued)

Study

Happiness/PAmeasure

Physicalwell-beingandcoping(continued)

McCrae&Costa,1986(Study1)McCrae&Costa,1986(Study1)Mishra,1992a

Pettitetal.,2001a

Pettitetal.,2001aPettitetal.,2001a

Riddick,1985(malesample)Riddick,1985(femalesample)Røysambetal.,2003aRøysambetal.,2003aStoneetal.,1987Stoneetal.,1994

Stones&Kozma,1986aSullivanetal.,2001

Valdimarsdottir&Bovbjerg,1997(withdailyNA)

Valdimarsdottir&Bovbjerg,1997(nodailyNA)

Vitalianoetal.,1998aWatson,1988a

Watson,1988aWatson,1988aWatson,2000Watson,2000

Watsonetal.,1992a(Study1)Watsonetal.,1992a(Study2)Weinglert&Rosen,1995Zinseretal.,1992

2542547201401401408067536,5766,5763096408105262242808080354354851277122

Bradburn’sScalesBradburn’sScales

IndexofLifeSatisfactionPANAS

PANASPANAS

LifeSatisfactionIndexLifeSatisfactionIndexSWBIndexSWBIndex

NowlisMoodAdjectiveChecklistPANASMUNSHPANAS

ProfileofMoodStates

ProfileofMoodStatesUplifts-Hassles

10-itemPAScale(daily,over6–8weeks)

PositiveEmotionalityScale(daily)PositivetemperamentPositivetemperament

PANAS(weekly,over13weeks)PANAS(daily,over6–7weeks)PositivemoodchecklistMoodAdjectiveCheckListCreativityandproblemsolving

Kashdanetal.,2004(Study2)Kashdanetal.,2004(Study2)Richards&Kinney,1990Schuldberg,1990

Schwartzetal.,2002(Sample1)Schwartzetal.,2002(Sample2)Schwartzetal.,2002(Sample3)Schwartzetal.,2002(Sample4)Schwartzetal.,2002(Sample5)Schwartzetal.,2002(Sample6)Shapiro&Weisberg,1999Staw&Barsade,1993aStawetal.,1994a

2142144833482721004017522205283272

PANASactivatedPANASactivated

DiagnosisofmanicperiodsHypomanictraitsSHSSHSSHSSHSSHSSHS

GeneralBehaviorInventory(hypomanicplusbiphasic)Three-measurecompositeofpositiveaffectivity

Experienceandexpressionofpositiveemotiononthejob

ExplorationstrivingsAbsorptioninactivitiesCreativeepisodesCreativity

MaximizingtendenciesMaximizingtendenciesMaximizingtendenciesMaximizingtendenciesMaximizingtendenciesMaximizingtendenciesTraitcreativity

JudgedmanagerialperformanceJudgedcreativity

.44.33.41.25 .21 .34 .17 .10 .28 .17.33.20.30

CopingeffectivenessMaturecoping

Overallactivitylevel

PresenceandseverityofmedicalconditionsCigaretteuseAlcoholintakeLeisureactivitiesLeisureactivitiesGlobalhealth

Musculoskeletalpain

SecretoryIgAantibodyactivityAntibodyactivityGlobalhealth

Self-reportedphysicalhealthNKcellactivityNKcellactivityNKcellactivity

DailyphysicalcomplaintsDailyphysicalexercisePhysicalexercise

InjuryvisitstohealthcenterIllnessvisitstohealthcenterWeeklysocialactivityWeeklysocialactivitySomaticsymptomsUrgestosmoke

.27.26.61 .26 .24 .22.37.44.50 .25.44.05.19b.230.64.05.26 .18.12.12.12.15.36.39 .10 .38

Correlatedconstruct

Effectsize

(r)

Note.PA positive;PANAS PositiveandNegativeAffectSchedule;MPQ MultidimensionalPersonalityQuestionnaire;SWLS SatisfactionWithLifeScale;HM HappinessMeasure;MUNSH MemorialUniversityofNewfoundlandScaleofHappiness;SHS SubjectiveHappinessScale;LOT LifeOrientationTest;MAACL MultipleAdjectiveAffectChecklist;SWB SubjectiveWell-Being;FACS FacialActionCodingSystem;NEO Neuroticism/Extraversion/OpennessScale;ER emergencyroom.

Subscriptaindicatesthatthestudyappearsinmorethanonesectionortable.Subscriptbindicatesthattheeffectsizewascalculatedcontrollingforoneormoreothervariables.

积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家：积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧

814

LYUBOMIRSKY,KING,ANDDIENER

Table2

StudyInformationandEffectSizesforSevenCategoriesofLongitudinalResearch

Study

Happiness/PAmeasure

Worklife

Burger&Caldwell,2000a

Cropanzano&Wright,1999aCropanzano&Wright,1999aCropanzano&Wright,1999aCropanzano&Wright,1999aDieneretal.,2002Grahametal.,inpressaGrahametal.,inpressaMarks&Fleming,1999Pelled&Xin,1999Robertsetal.,2003Robertsetal.,2003Robertsetal.,2003Robertsetal.,2003Robertsetal.,2003

Robertsetal.,2003

Seligman&Schulman,1986a

(Study2)

Stawetal.,1994aStawetal.,1994aStawetal.,1994aWright&Staw,1999a

(Study1)

Wright&Staw,1999a

(Study2)

99606060607,8824,4554,4891,32299859859859859859859681291911914463

PANAS

IndexofPsychologicalWell-BeingIndexofPsychologicalWell-BeingIndexofPsychologicalWell-BeingIndexofPsychologicalWell-BeingOn-itemcheerfulness

One-itemresidualhappinessOne-itemresidualhappinessNine-itemSWBindexPANAS

MPQcommunalpositiveemotionality

MPQagencypositiveemotionalityMPQcommunalpositiveemotionality

MPQagencypositiveemotionalityAttributionalStyleQuestionnaireExperienceandexpressionofpositiveemotiononthejobExperienceandexpressionofpositiveemotiononthejobExperienceandexpressionofpositiveemotiononthejob

IndexofPsychologicalWell-BeingIndexofPsychologicalWell-Being

ProportionofsecondinterviewsSupervisoryevaluationsSupervisoryevaluationsSupervisoryevaluationsSupervisoryevaluationsIncomeIncome

UnemploymentIncome

Absenteeism

FinancialsecurityFinancialsecurity

OccupationalattainmentOccupationalattainmentWorkautonomy

Workautonomy

QuarterlyinsurancecommissionsJobautonomy,meaning,andvarietyGrossannualsalaryJudgedcreativitySupervisoryevaluationsSupervisoryevaluations

3months1year4years4.5years5years19years5years5years1–15years5months8years8years8years8years8years8years6monthsto1year1.5years1.5years1.5years3.5years1year

.35.36.27.17.18.03b.04b .02b.03 .36.13.06.19.16.06.13.27.23.24.16.47.46

Correlatedconstruct

Timeperiod

Effectsize

(r)

Socialrelationships

Harker&Keltner,2001aHarker&Keltner,2001aHarker&Keltner,2001aHeadeyetal.,1991aLucasetal.,2003

Marks&Fleming,1999aNeyer&Asendorpf,2001Ruvolo,1998a

(wivessample)Ruvolo,1998a

(husbandssample)Ruvolo,1998a

(husbandssample)

Spanier&Furstenberg,1982Stawetal.,1994a

711111126491,7611,322489317317317317180251

FACSDuchennesmileFACSDuchennesmileFACSDuchennesmileLife-as-a-WholeIndexOne-itemhappinessNine-itemSWBindexGeneralSelf-EsteemOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappinessOne-itemhappiness

Cantril’sLadderScale

Experienceandexpressionofpositiveemotiononthejob

Health

Danneretal.,2001

Deeg&vanZonneveld,1989Devinsetal.,1990Fitzgeraldetal.,2000Friedmanetal.,1993Giletal.,2004aGiletal.,2004aGiletal.,2004a

Grahametal.,inpressa

1802,64597421,1783,5653,5463,5464,455

No.ofpositiveemotionalwordsOne-itemlifesatisfactionLifeHappinessRatingScaleLOT

Cheerfulness-HumorDailyMoodScaleDailyMoodScaleDailyMoodScale

Two-itemresidualhappiness

Mortalityrate

ProbabilityofdyingrelativetopeersSurvival

CHDriskreductionAgeatdeathPain

Hospitalvisits

Emergencyroomvisits

Healthproblemslast30days

Lifetime26–28years4years9monthslifetime2days1day1day5years

.31 .11.15.30b .09 .06b .04b .06b .06b

MaritalsatisfactionMaritalstatusSinglestatus

SatisfactionwithmarriageMaritalstatusMaritalstatus

ClosenesswithallrelationshipsMaritalwell-beingSpouse’smaritalwell-beingMaritalwell-beingSpouse’smaritalwell-beingRemarriageafterdivorce

Emotionalandtangiblesupportformsupervisors

31years6years22years6years4 years1–15years4years1year1year1year1year2.5years1.5years

.20.19 .20.30.20.09.19b.30.15.28.40.16.25b

积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家：积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧

BENEFITSOFFREQUENTPOSITIVEAFFECT

815

Table2(continued)

Study

Happiness/PAmeasure

Health(continued)

Kirkcaldy&Furnham,2000Koivumaa-Honkanenetal.,2001

Koivumaa-Honkanenetal.,2002(malesample)

Koivumaa-Honkanenetal.,2002(femalesample)Koivumaa-Honkanenetal.,2004(malesample)Koivumaa-Honkanenetal.,2004(femalesample)Krauseetal.,1997Kubzanskyetal.,2001Kubzanskyetal.,2001Kubzanskyetal.,2001Levyetal.,1988

Levyetal.,2002(Study2)Maier&Smith,1999Ostiretal.,2000Ostiretal.,2001(malesample)Ostiretal.,2001(femalesample)Palmore,1969Petersonetal.,1998Petersonetal.,1998(malesample)Petersonetal.,1998(malesample)Petersonetal.,1998(malesample)Pitkalaetal.,2004

Reynolds&Nelson,1981Scheieretal.,1989aScheieretal.,1989aScheieretal.,1989aScheieretal.,1989aScheieretal.,1989aSmithetal.,1997Windle,2000aWindle,2000aWindle,2000a

Zuckermanetal.,1984(healthysample)Zuckermanetal.,1984(unhealthysample)

Fourdata-bases29,13714,34814,78911,03711,0993301,3061,3061,306366605132,2767721,7062651,0976226226224911544646454544861,0161,0161,016182168

SWB

Four-itemlifesatisfactionFour-itemlifesatisfactionFour-itemlifesatisfactionFour-itemlifesatisfactionFour-itemlifesatisfactionEight-itemlifesatisfactionRevisedOptimism-PessimismScale

RevisedOptimism-PessimismScale

AffectBalanceScale-JoyAttitudesTowardOwnAgingSubscalePANAS

CESDPositiveAffectScaleCESDPositiveAffectScaleCESDPositiveAffectScaleOne-iteminterviewer-ratedhappiness

Optimistic(global)attributionalstyle

Optimistic(global)attributionalstyleS

LifesatisfactionscaleLOTLOTLOTLOTLOT

One-itemvigor

RevisedDimensionofTemperamentSurveyRevisedDimensionofTemperamentSurveyRevisedDimensionofTemperamentSurveyOne-iteminterviewer-ratedhappiness

One-iteminterviewer-ratedhappiness

AutomobilefatalitiesSuicides

Fatalintentionalandunintentionalinjuries

Workdisabilitypensionfor

psychiatricandnonpsychiatriccauses

Workdisabilitypensionfor

psychiatricandnonpsychiatriccauses

Survivalfatalandnonfatalcoronaryheartdisease

FatalcoronaryheartdiseaseNonfatalanginaandheartattacksSurvival

DayssurvivalMortalityrateSurvival

StrokeincidenceStrokeincidenceMortalityrateMortalityrate

MentalhealthproblemsPooradjustmentHighlevelsofdrinkingSurvivalSurvival

No.ofdaystobeginwalkingPhysicalrecovery

PostsurgicalqualityoflifeResumevigorousexerciseReturntonormalactivitiesHockeyinjuryDelinquentactivityDelinquentactivityDelinquentactivityMortalityrateMortalityrate

8yearsUpto20yearsUpto20yearsUpto20yearsUpto11yearsUpto11years11years12years12years12years7years22.6years3–6years2years6years6years15yearsLifetime10years10years10years10years1year1week1week6months6months6months6months6months12months18months2years2years

.56 .03 .06 .02 .11 .12.18 .14 .07 .12.36.25 .06.08 .13b .05b .26 .11 .14 .11 .07.13.13 .36.35.67.33.38 .32 .25 .15 .12 .07 .14

Correlatedconstruct

Timeperiod

Effectsize

(r)

Positiveperceptionsofselfandothers

Harker&Keltner,2000aHarker&Keltner,2001a

104100

FACSDuchennesmileFACSDuchennesmile

Self-ratedcompetenceSelf-ratedcompetence

22years31years

.20.29

(tablecontinues)

积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家：积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧

816

Table2(continued)

Study

LYUBOMIRSKY,KING,ANDDIENER

Happiness/PAmeasure

Sociabilityandactivity

CorrelatedconstructTimeperiod

Effectsize

(r)

Costaetal.,1981Costaetal.,1981

Costa&McCrae,1980aHarker&Keltner,2001aHarker&Keltner,2001aStones&Kozma,1986a

396114234104100408ChicagoAttitudeInventoryChicagoAttitudeInventoryBradburn’sScales

FACSDuchennesmileFACSDuchennesmileMUNSHExtraversionExtraversionExtraversion

Self-ratedaffiliationSelf-ratedaffiliationActivitylevel2–10years10–17years10years22years31years1.5years

.20.24.23.23.16.29b

Creativityandprosocialbehavior

Stawetal.,1994aThoits&Hewitt,2001a

1912,681

ExperienceandexpressionofpositiveemotiononthejobOne-itemhappiness

Judgedcreativity

Timespentengagedinvolunteerwork

1.5years3years

.31b.04b

Physicalwell-beingandcoping

Benyaminietal.,2000aBenyaminietal.,2000aBenyaminietal.,2000aCarveretal.,1993aCarveretal.,1993aCarveretal.,1993aCarveretal.,1993aCohenetal.,2003

Epping-Jordanetal.,1999Epping-Jordanetal.,1999Fredrickson&Joiner,2002Grahametal.,inpressaGrahametal.,inpressaPettitetal.,2001a

Scheieretal.,1989aScheieretal.,1989a

Stones&Kozma,1986aVitalianoetal.,1998a

7916785255959595933480801381,6831,2521,33474740823

12-itempositiveaffect12-itempositiveaffect12-itempositiveaffectLOTLOTLOTLOT

PositiveemotionalstyleLOTLOTPANAS

One-itemresidualhappinessOne-itemresidualhappinessPANASLOTLOTMUNSH

Uplifts-Hassles

GlobalhealthGlobalhealthGlobalhealthActivecoping

CopingbypositivereframingCopingbyhumorCopingbydenial

PresenceofclinicalinfectionSymptomsofanxiety/depressionSymptomsofanxiety/depressionBroad-mindedcopingAlcoholintakeSmoking

Presenceandseverityofmedicalconditions

CopingbyinformationseekingCopingbysuppressionGlobalhealthNKcellactivity

13533331365555yearyearsyearsmonthsmonthsmonthsmonthsmonthmonthsmonthsweeksyearsyearsweeks

.13b.11b.17b.16.26.38 .37 .14 .40 .55.19 .04b .06b .31.43 .30.28b.48

1week1week1.5years1.5years

Note.PA positiveaffect;PANAS PositiveandNegativeAffectSchedule;MPQ MultidimensionalPersonalityQuestionnaire;FACS FacialActionCodingSystem;CES-D CenterforEpidemiologicDepressionScale;SWLS SatisfactionWithLifeScale;LOT LifeOrientationTest;MUNSH MemorialUniversityofNewfoundlandScaleofHappiness;HM HappinessMeasure;SWB SubjectiveWell-Being;NK naturalkiller.Subcriptaindicatesthatthestudyappearsinmorethanonepanelortable.Subscriptbindicatesthattheeffectsizewascalculatedcontrollingforoneormoreothervariables

independenceamongthem.Tothisend,severalguidelineswerefollowed.

First,whenmorethanoneeffectsizewasgeneratedfromthesamesample,andtheseeffectsizesinvolvedmoderatelytohighlycorrelatedconstructs(e.g.,judgmentsoffriendliness,gregarious-ness,andassertiveness),theywerenottreatedindependently.Asaresult,theunweightedaverageofeachsetofcorrelatedeffectsizeswasusedinouranalyses.Thisprocedurewasusedforeffectsizesgeneratedfromthesamesampleandreportedwithinaparticularpanelofatable(e.g.,thoseinvolvingworklifeinTable1).

Second,asmentionedpreviously,werecognizedthatsometimesthesamesamplewasusedtogenerateeffectsizesinmorethanonepanelofatable(e.g.,sociability/activityandhealth)orevenacrosstables(e.g.,supervisoryevaluationsassessedatasinglepointintime[inTable1]aswellastwopointsintime[inTable2]).Insuchinstances,weselectedonlyonespecificeffectsizeforouranaly-ses.Iftherscamefromthesametable,theeffectsizetappingthebestfittingconstructwaschosen.IfthersspannedTables1and2,

theeffectsizereflectingalongitudinalcorrelationwasselected,aslongitudinaldataspeakrelativelymorestronglytocausation.Third,evenwhengeneratedfromthesamesampleordataset,effectsizeswereconsideredindependentiftheyinvolvedvariablesthatarenothighlycorrelatedwithoneanother(e.g.,incomeandalcoholconsumption;seeMeng,Rosenthal,&Rubin,1992).

DefiningOurTerms

WhatIstheHallmarkofHappiness?

Ourfocusinthisarticleisonhappyindividuals—thatis,thosewhoexperiencefrequentpositiveemotions,suchasjoy,interest,andpride,andinfrequent(thoughnotabsent)negativeemotions,suchassadness,anxiety,andanger.Althoughmanydefinitionsofhappinesshavebeenusedintheliterature,rangingfromlifesatisfactionandanappreciationoflifetomomentaryfeelingsofpleasure,wedefinehappinesshereasashorthandwayofreferring

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BENEFITSOFFREQUENTPOSITIVEAFFECT

817

Table3

StudyInformationandEffectSizesforSixCategoriesofExperimentalResearch

Study

Affectinduction

Comparisongroups

Dependentvariable

Effectsize

(r)

Positiveperceptionsofselfandothers

Baron,1987Baron,1987Baron,1990aBaron,1990aBaron,1993

Baronetal.,1992(Study1)Baronetal.,1992(Study1)Baronetal.,1992(Study3)aBaronetal.,1992(Study3)aBarsade,2002aBrown,1984Brown,1984

Clark&Waddell,1983Griffitt,1970

Hom&Arbuckle,1988Samson&Rachman,1989Sarasonetal.,1986(Study2)Schuettler&Kiviniemi,inpressaWright&Mischel,1982Wright&Mischel,1982

7171808092919180809361614540318460507272

FalsefeedbackFalsefeedbackFragranceFragrance

Recallevent(s)LightingLightingGiftGift

ConfederateroleplayingVeltenVeltenFalsefeedbackTemperatureRecallevent(s)MusicandthoughtSelf-descriptiontaskVelten

Recallevent(s)Recallevent(s)

Positivevs.negativeandcontrol

Positivevs.controlPositivevs.controlPositivevs.negativeHighilluminancevs.lowilluminanceHighilluminancevs.lowilluminancePositivevs.controlPositivevs.controlPositivevs.negativePositivevs.negativePositivevs.negativePositivevs.controlExtremeheatvs.normaltemperatureHappyvs.sadHappyvs.sad

Positivevs.negativeself-feelings

Positivevs.negativePositivevs.negativePositivevs.negative

LikeabilityofaccompliceJudgmentofwhetheremployeematchesjobrequirementsSelf-efficacySelf-setgoals

Overallevaluationofaccompliceforjob

OverallratingofemployeeHiringdecision

JudgmentofwhetherhypotheticalemployeedeservesmeritraiseJudgmentofwhetherhypotheticalemployeedeservespromotionPerceivedtaskperformanceCertaintyoffuturesuccess

Attributionofsuccessestostablecauses

Recallofpositiveaspectsofpastexperiences

InterpersonalattractionGoalsettingSelf-efficacy

Positiveself-referencesSelf-efficacyregardinghealthSatisfactionwithperformanceRecallofpastsuccesses

.44.43.16.22.17.53.34.23.21.21.73.26.36.33.48.28.39.43.64.75

Sociabilityandactivity

Cunningham,1988a(Study1)aCunningham,1988a(Study1)aCunningham,1988a(Study1)aCunningham,1988bCunningham,1988bHirtetal.,1996

McMillenetal.,1977(Study1)Murrayetal.,1990(Study3)Waugh&Fredrickson,2003

1021021027777194278594

VeltenVeltenVelten

Falsefeedbackandvideotape

FalsefeedbackandvideotapeVelten

Falsefeedback

Veltenandfilmclip(s)Filmclip(s)

Elatedvs.neutralanddepressed

Positivevs.negativePositivevs.negativePositivevs.negativeandcontrol

Positivevs.negativePositivevs.neutralAmusedvs.neutral

InterestinbeingwithfriendsInterestinsocialactivitiesInterestinleisureactivitiesHighself-disclosureTotalcommunication

Interestincategory-sortingtaskAttentive

Intrinsicinterest

Perceivedrelationshipcloseness

.20.31.33.44.53.56.71.74.27

Negotiationandconflictresolution

Baron,1990aBaron,1990aBaron,1990a

Baronetal.,1990(Study2)aBaronetal.,1990(Study2)aBaronetal.,1990(Study2)aBaronetal.,1992(Study2)*

80808016161672

FragranceFragranceFragranceHumorFlatteryFlatteryLighting

Positivevs.controlPositivevs.controlPositivevs.controlHumorvs.controlFlatteryvs.controlFlatteryvs.controlWarmvs.coollighting

MoremonetaryconcessionsResolvinginterpersonalconflictthroughavoidance

Resolvinginterpersonalconflictthroughcompetition

Preferencetoresolveconflictthroughavoidance

Preferencetoresolveconflictthroughcollaboration

Resolvinginterpersonalconflictthroughcollaboration

.23 .23 .23 .50 .50.50.29

(tablecontinues)

积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家：积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧

818

Table3(continued)

Study

LYUBOMIRSKY,KING,ANDDIENER

AffectinductionComparisongroupsDependentvariable

Effectsize

(r)

Negotiationandconflictresolution(continued)

Baronetal.,1992(Study2)aBarsade,2002aBarsade,2002a

Carnevale&Isen,1986aForgas,1998(Study1)Forgas,1998(Study1)Forgas,1998(Study2)Forgas,1998(Study2)Forgas,1998(Study3)Forgas,1998(Study3)

7226268072721321329696

Lighting

ConfederateroleplayingConfederateroleplayingCartoon(s)andgiftFalsefeedbackFalsefeedbackFalsefeedbackFalsefeedbackFalsefeedbackFalsefeedback

Warmvs.coollightingPositivePositivePositivePositive

vs.vs.vs.vs.negativenegativecontrolcontrol

Resolvinginterpersonalconflictthroughavoidance

JudgedgroupcooperativenessJudgedgroupconflictPersistatnegotiation

Planneduseofcooperationasbargainingstrategy

Planneduseofcompetitionasbargainingstrategy

Planneduseofcooperationasbargainingstrategy

Planneduseofcompetitionasbargainingstrategy

Planneduseofcooperationasbargainingstrategy

Planneduseofcompetitionasbargainingstrategy

.30.44 .42.41.32 .32.21 .21.30 .24

Positivevs.controlPositivevs.negativePositivevs.negativePositivevs.negativePositivevs.negative

Prosocialbehavior

Aderman,1972

Baron&Bronfen,1994(Study2)Baronetal.,1992(Study3)aBerkowitz,1987(Study1)Berkowitz,1987(Study2)Carnevale&Isen,1986a

Cunningham,1988a(Study1)aCunninghametal.,1980(StudyCunninghametal.,1980(StudyCunninghametal.,1990(StudyCunninghametal.,1990(StudyIsen,1970(Study1)Isen,1970(Study2)Isen,1970(Study2)Isen,1970(Study3)Isen,1970(Study3)

Isen&Levin,1972(Study1)O’Malley&Andrews,1983Rosenhanetal.,1974Rosenhanetal.,1981

1)2)1)2)

12072801086080102901608078141210202052903620

VeltenFragrance

LightingandgiftVeltenVelten

Cartoon(s)andgiftVeltenFinddimeFinddimeVeltenVelten

FalsefeedbackFalsefeedbackFalsefeedbackFalsefeedbackFalsefeedbackGift

Recallevent(s)Recallevent(s)StoriesElatedvs.depressedPositivevs.control

Positive/highilluminancevs.control/lowilluminance

Positivevs.negativePositivevs.negativePositivevs.controlElatedvs.neutralanddepressed

Positivevs.neutralPositivevs.neutralPositivevs.neutralPositivevs.neutralPositivevs.negativePositivevs.controlPositivevs.controlPositivevs.controlPositivevs.negativePositive/helpvs.control/distraction

Happyvs.neutralPositivevs.controlPositivevs.neutral

Volunteering

TimespenthelpingTimewillingtohelpHelpingHelpingHelping

InterestinprosocialactivitiesHelping

DonatingtocharityHelpingHelping

AmountofdonationHelping

AttentivenessHelping

InitiationofconversationWillingnesstohelp

Donatingblood

ContributingtoneedychildrenHelpingexperimenter

.45.28.25.34.68.62.27.28.21.33.34.58.57.58.58.61.36.26.52.59

Physicalwell-beingandcoping

Aldenetal.,2001

Coganetal.,1987(Study1)Dillonetal.,1985

Fredrickson&Levenson,1998(Study2)

Fredricksonetal.,2000(Study1,Sample1)

Fredricksonetal.,2000(Study1,Sample2)

Futtermanetal.,1994Lefcourtetal.,1990(Study1)Lefcourtetal.,1990(Study2)Lefcourtetal.,1990(Study3)McClelland&Cheriff,1997(Study1)McClelland&Cheriff,1997(Study3)Schuettler&Kiviniemi,inpressaSchuettler&Kiviniemi,inpressa

3840107295752545344157855050

MentalimageryAudiotape

HumorousvideotapeVideoclip(s)Videoclip(s)Videoclip(s)Reflectonscenario(s)Humorousaudioclip(s)Humorousvideoclip(s)HumorousAudioclip(s)Videoclip(s)Videoclip(s)VeltenVelten

Positivevs.negativePositivevs.controlHappyvs.control

Smilingvs.notsmilingContentvs.sadContentvs.neutralPositiveandnegativevs.control

Pre-vs.postaudioclipPre-vs.postvideoclipPre-vs.postaudioclipPositivevs.negativePositivevs.controlPositivevs.negativePositivevs.negative

PainratingsPainthresholdImmunefunction

Durationofcardiovascularreactivity

ImmunefunctionImmunefunctionImmunefunction

Self-efficacyregardinghealthHealthperceptions

.51.45.38 .26 .27 .28.76.47.46.50.33.05.43.53

积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家：积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧

BENEFITSOFFREQUENTPOSITIVEAFFECT

819

Table3(continued)

Study

Affectinduction

Comparisongroups

Dependentvariable

Effectsize

(r)

Physicalwell-beingandcoping(continued)

Schuettler&Kiviniemi,inpressaSmithetal.,2004

5082

VeltenRecallevent(s)

Positivevs.negativeRecallofclosevs.casualrelationship

Treatment-relatedbehavioralintentions

Bloodpressurereactivitytostressfultask

.31 .23

Creativityandproblemsolving

Adaman&Blaney,1995

Ambady&Gray,2002(Study1)Ambady&Gray,2002(Study2)Baron,1990a

Blessetal.,1996(Study1)Blessetal.,1996(Study2)Blessetal.,1996(Study3)Bodenhausenetal.,1994(Study4)

Bodenhausenetal.,2000(Study1)Bodenhausenetal.,2000(Study2)Dovidioetal.,1995Elsbach&Barr,1999Erez&Isen,2002(Study1)Erez&Isen,2002(Study1)Erez&Isen,2002(Study1)Estradaetal.,1994Estradaetal.,1997Estradaetal.,1997Forgas,1989Forgas,1989

Isenetal.,1985(Study1)Isen&Daubman,1984(Study1)Isen&Daubman,1984(Study2)Isen&Daubman,1984(Study3)Isen&Means,1983Isen&Means,1983

Isen&Means,1983

Kahn&Isen,1993(Study1)Kahn&Isen,1993(Study2)Kahn&Isen,1993(Study3)Kavanagh,1987Kavanagh,1987

Mackie&Worth,1989(Study1)Mackie&Worth,1989(Study2)

71Music

35Videoclip(s)47Videoclip(s)80Fragrance

82Writeaboutevent(s)61Videoclip(s)80Videoclip(s)131

Recallevent(s)

70Recallevent(s)51Recallevent(s)43Candy

120Candyvs.difficultanagramproblems97Candy97Candy97Candy44Candy29Candy29Candy

72Falsefeedback72

Falsefeedback

29Wordassociationstoaffectivelyvalencedwords162Gift162Videoclip(s)74Gift

22Falsefeedback22Falsefeedback22Falsefeedback69Gift54Gift45Gift

85Recallevent(s)85Recallevent(s)215Falsefeedback260

Videoclip(s)

Sadvs.neutral

Originality

.31Happyandcontrolvs.sadJudgmentaccuracy.83Happyandcontrolvs.sadJudgmentaccuracy

.63Positivevs.controlUseofefficientstrategyoncoding.22task

Happyvs.sadRelianceonpreexistinggeneral.26knowledgestructures

Happyvs.sadRelianceonpreexistinggeneral.31knowledgestructures

Happyvs.sad

Relianceonpreexistinggeneral.31knowledgestructures

Happy/accountable/noAvoidingstereotypicjudgments

.21

stereotypeactivatedvs.neutral/not

accountable/stereotypeactivatedNeutralvs.sadAnchoringbias .24Neutralvs.sadAnchoringbias

.27Positivevs.neutralMakingmoreinclusivegroup.39representations

Positivevs.negativeCarefulexecutionofstepsinhighlystructuredtask

.33Positivevs.neutralPerformanceonanagramtask.21Positivevs.neutralMotivation

.30Positivevs.neutralTimespentonanagramtask.33Positivevs.controlCreativity

.33Positivevs.controlTimebeforediagnosisconsidered .48Positivevs.controlAnchoringbias

.40Positive

vs.negative

Speedandefficiencyinreaching.32decision

Positive/personalDecision-makingefficiency

.43

relevancevs.

negative/impersonalrelevance

Positivevs.neutralNo.ofunusualwordassociations.48Positivevs.controlTendencytogroupitemsas.23belongingtogether

Positivevs.controlTendencytogroupitemsas.29belongingtogether

Positivevs.controlTendencytogroupitemsas.40belongingtogether

Positivevs.controlPropensitytoreturntoalready-reviewedinformation

.51Positivevs.controlPiecesofinformationconsideredduringdecisionmaking .26Positivevs.controlTimetocompletementaltask .43Positivevs.controlVarietyseeking.31Positivevs.controlVarietyseeking.31Positivevs.controlVarietyseeking

.23Positivevs.negativePerformanceonanagramtask.32Positivevs.negativeTimespentonanagramtask

.34Positive/limitedviewingDifferentiationofstrongvs.weakofArgumentvs.arguments

.18

remainingconditionsPositivevs.neutral

Differentiationofstrongvs.weakarguments

.15(tablecontinues)

积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家：积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧

820

Table3(continued)

Study

LYUBOMIRSKY,KING,ANDDIENER

AffectinductionComparisongroupsDependentvariable

Effectsize

(r)

Creativitityandproblemsolving(continued)

Melton,1995

Reed&Aspinwall,1998Reed&Aspinwall,1998Sinclair&Mark,1995(Study1)Sinclair&Mark,1995(Study2)Trope&Pomerantz,1998(Study3)Urada&Miller,2000(Study1)Urada&Miller,2000(Study4)Note.

5766663983684361

Cartoon(s)SurveySurveyVeltenVeltenFalsefeedbackRecallevent(s)Recallevent(s),music,candy

Humorvs.controlPositivevs.controlPositivevs.controlPositivevs.negativeandneutral

Positivevs.negativePositivevs.negativePositivevs.neutralPositivevs.neutral

Performanceonsyllogisms

No.offactsignoredaboutcaffeineandfibrocysticbreastdiseaseRecallofdisconfirming

informationaboutcaffeineandfibrocysticbreastdiseaseAccuracyofcorrelationaljudgments

Accuracyofcorrelationaljudgments

Interestinreceivingfeedbackregardingliabilitiesvs.assetsUsingbroaddefinitionofgroupmembership

Usingbroaddefinitionofgroupmembership

.43 .22.28.43.25.35.30.25

Subscriptaindicatesthatthestudyappearsinmorethanonesectionortable.

tothefrequentexperienceofpositiveemotions.Inourtheoreticalframework,itistheexperienceofpositiveemotionsthatleadstothebehavioraloutcomeswereview,and“happiness”describespeoplewhoexperiencesuchemotionsalargepercentageofthetime(Diener,Sandvik,&Pavot,1991).Althoughmoreinclusivedefinitionsofhappinesshavebeenofferedbyothers(e.g.,Veen-hoven,1984),werestrictourdefinitiontotheexperienceoffrequentpositiveaffectbecausethatdefinitionencompassesthefindingswereview.

Thenotionthatfrequentpositiveaffectisthehallmarkofhappinesshasstrongempiricalsupport.Dienerandhiscol-leagues(1991)foundthattherelativeproportionoftimethatpeoplefeltpositiverelativetonegativeemotionswasagoodpredictorofself-reportsofhappiness,whereastheintensityofemotionswasaweakerpredictor.Thatis,happypeoplefeelmildormoderatepositiveaffectthemajorityofthetime;theydonotappeartoexperiencefrequentintensepositivestates.Inseveralstudiesandusingavarietyofhappinessmeasures,Dienerandhiscolleaguesfoundthathappypeopleexperiencedpositivemoodsandemotionsmostofthetime(seealsoDiener,Larsen,Levine,&Emmons,1985).Indeed,peoplewhoreporthighlevelsofhappinessappeartohavepredominantlypositiveaffect—thatis,strongerpositivefeelingsthannegativeones—80%ormoreofthetime.Forexample,inalargeinternationalsampleofmorethan7,000collegestudentsin41diversenationscollectedbyDiener’slaboratory,individualswhore-portedthattheywerepleasedwiththeirlivesexpressedfeelingsofjoyoverhalfofthetime.

IntheWorldValueSurveyI,whichcomprisesprobabilitysamplesofalmost60,000adultsin41nations,64%oftherespon-dentsreportedmorepositivethannegativeaffect,withonly18%reportingmorenegativethanpositiveaffect(WorldValueSurveyGroup,1994).Notably,ofthosereportingabove-neutralhappinessonthissurvey,nearlyeveryonereportedmorepositivethanneg-ativeaffect,promptingDieneretal.(1991)toconcludethathappinessisbestregardedasastateinwhichpeoplefeela

preponderanceofpositiveemotionsmostofthetime.Onereasonforthetendencyofhappypeopletofeelpositiveemotionsmorefrequentlymaybethatthechronicallyhappyarerelativelymoresensitivetorewardsintheirenvironment—thatis,theyhaveamorereactivebehavioralapproachsystem(Gray,1994)—andaremorelikelytoapproach,ratherthanavoid,rewardingsituations(Watson,1988).Inaddition,Larsenandcolleaguesdemonstratedthatdispositionalpositiveaffectivityinvolvesasusceptibilitytoexperiencepositivemoods(Larsen&Ketelaar,1991;Rusting&Larsen,1997).

CharacterizingandMeasuringHighAveragePositiveAffect

Inshort,theresearchevidencesupportsthenotionthatitistheamountoftimethatpeopleexperiencepositiveaffectthatdefineshappiness,notnecessarilytheintensityofthataffect.Furthermore,happypeoplehavebeenfoundtoexperiencepositiveemotionsthemajorityofthetime.Thus,inthisarticle,weidentifyhappyindivid-ualsasthosewhoexperiencehighaveragelevelsofpositiveaffect.Thesehighaveragelevelsofpositiveaffect,whichwevariouslyrefertoaschronichappiness,traitPA,orsubjectivewell-being,mayberootedinpersonalitypredispositions(e.g.,ageneticallydetermined“setpoint”;Lyubomirsky,Sheldon,&Schkade,2005),theperson’scurrentlifecircumstances,theperson’sintentionalactivities,orallofthese.Becausetheexistingliteraturedoesnotdiscriminatewhicheffectsoflong-termPAcomefromwhichofthesedifferentsources,wereferinourarticletoindividualswhoshowhighaveragelevelofPA,withoutreferencetothesourceofthisstate.However,thefindingsfromtheexperimentalstudiessuggestthatpositiveemotionscanproducedesirableoutcomesevenintheabsenceofaveryhappydisposition,althoughahappydispositionislikelytobeacauseofpositiveemotions.

Theresearchweciteusesavarietyofmeasuresoflong-termPA,happiness,andwell-being.ThevastmajorityofassessmentofchronicPAisbyself-reportmeasures,whichhavebeenvalidated

积极心理学的实证研究告诉大家：积极情感的多方面作用,社交,婚姻,健康等。做一个积极向上的人吧

BENEFITSOFFREQUENTPOSITIVEAFFECT

821

Table4

MeasuresofCentralTendencyandDispersionforEffectSizesbyCategory

Meanofeffectsizes