环境工程专业英语教案
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环境工程专业英语教案
PART 1 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING
Unit 1Text: Environmental Engineering
环境工程
(1)专业词汇
smelter ['smelt?(r)]n.熔炉;冶金厂,冶炼者
aqueduct ['?kwid?kt]n. 渠;水管
dysentery ['dis?n?teri]n. 痢疾
cholera ['k?l?r?]n. 霍乱
typhoid ['taif?id]n. 伤寒;a.伤寒的
sulfur dioxide ['s?lf?] [dai'?ksaid]二氧化硫
nitrogen oxide ['naitr?d??n] ['?ksaid]氮氧化物
carbon dioxide ['kɑ:b?n][dai'?ksaid]二氧化碳
arable ['?r?bl] a. 可耕的n. 耕地
agrarian [?'gr??ri?n] a. 土地的;农民的;农业的
urbanization ['a:banaizeijan] n. 城市化
harmony ['hɑ:m?ni]n. 协调,一致
environmental disturbance [in?vai?r?n'mentl][dis't?:b?ns]环境破坏
aquatic life [?'kw?tik] [laif]水生物
discharge [dis't?ɑ:d?]v. 排出n.排出物
(2)专业背景知识介绍
人类的自然资源取之不竭吗?
由于人口膨胀和经济的迅速发展,人类对地球影响规模空前加大,人口、资源、环境与发展的矛盾愈来愈突出,引起了全世界的忧虑和不安。了解和
认识全球资源态势,研究与资源开发相关的全球环境问题,对于实现世界各
国共同追求的可持续发展的目标,有着十分重要的意义。
自然界的土地、水、矿物、空气、森林和草地等,是在人类出现之前就存在于地球上的自然物,在没有人类干预前,它们按照自身的规律运动、变
化着,只是在人类出现之后,被人类利用,并给人类带来效益,才被人类称
为自然资源,简称为资源。
地球表面积5.1亿平方公里,70%以上为广阔的海洋所覆盖,陆地面积仅占29%,约1.5亿平方公里。陆地本身是一个极其复杂的生态系统,除了
沙漠、冰川、冻土、不宜开垦的山地和土质极差土地外,只有约30%可以耕
种。据联合国粮农组织1989年统计,全球土地面积为1306925万公顷,约
占全球总面积的1/4,在全球土地面积中,耕地占11.29%,草地占24.58%,
森林及林地占30.98%,其它土地占33.15%。
水是地球上一切生命发生和存在的最重要的物质基础。地球上大约有14亿立方公里的水,其中不适宜人类饮用的海水占97%以上,淡水只占3%;
淡水中有77.2%和22.4%分别被储藏在冰川和地下,可以利用的地表水仅占
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0.35%,主要蕴藏在湖泊、沼泽和河流中,其中河水储藏不及0.01%。据估计,地球上有1000万个动植物物种,其中被分类和命名的物种资源约160万个。森林资源是地球上最大的陆地生态系统,全球森林面积45.01公顷,它不仅为人类提供了木材资源,而且对全球物质、能量循环起着巨大的作用,同时,还是巨大的基因库。草地作为一种可再生资源,为动物和人类的生存与发展提供了巨大的物质财富,全球草地面积占地球陆地总面积的将近一半。上述土地、森林、草原均是可以更新和重复利用的资源,被称为可再生资源。
与上述可再生资源相区别的矿产资源不能再生和重复利用,被称为非再生资源。随着生产力的发展,科学技术的进步,人类利用矿产资源的种类和数量越来越多。到目前为止,人类已发现的矿物有3300多种,其中有工业意义的1000多种,被列为矿产资源的有160多个矿种,对人类经济有重要价值的有煤、石油、天然气、铁、铜、铝、铅、锌、金、银、磷、硫,盐等40多种。此外,海洋既是一个复杂的生态系统,又是一个巨大的资源库,它包括海水、海洋生物、海底矿产等多种资源,是人类未来发展的主要空间。
全球资源有以下几个特征:
一,资源系统的整体性和各种资源的相关性。自然资源是一个相互联系、相互作用、相互依存的整体,各种资源在生物圈中相互作用、相互制约,构成完整的资源生态系统。一种资源的开发,会影响其它相关的资源,一种资源的变迁会诱发其它资源的演变。
二,资源的有限性。任何资源都不是取之不尽,用之不竭的,矿产资源是非再生资源,用一点就少一点,土地、水、生物等再生资源也是有限的,不合理利用也会引起水质污染、水土流失、森林急剧减少、草地退化等不良后果,能被人类利用的资源就会越来越少。
三,资源分布的不均衡性。无论是可再生资源,还是非再生资源,在全球的分布都是不均衡的。以森林资源为例,南美洲森林面积最大,覆盖率最高,为51.4%,其它各洲的森林覆盖率依次是北美洲36.6%、欧洲30.5%、非洲24.5%、亚洲22.0%、大洋洲18.9%。再以石油资源为例,全球石油可采储量为3113亿吨,其中中东地区占41.9%,北美地区占17.8%、独联体各国及东欧地区占13.4%、南美洲占8.6%、亚太地区占7.1%、西欧占3.2%。
四,资源系统的演变性。全球资源系统和人类社会系统存在着永恒的矛盾,由于自然界本身的演变规律和人类对资源的干预,引起资源种类、数量、质量、分布的演变,如人口增长,人类生活水平不断提高,人均资源需求量增加,引起资源消耗量的增长;由于人类活动的影响,作为资源载体的环境质量下降。造成资源再生能力的降低和部分消失,从而使资源数量和质量下降。又如人类社会进步,科学技术水平不断提高、原有类型资源数量和品种增加,同时人类发现新类型、新物种、新领域资源,资源利用新途径的出现,使资源种类增加,数量上升,质量提高。
近百年来,特别是二战后的几十年里,人类开发资源手段之先进,能力之巨大,是前所未有的。当今人类已经成为一种超越自然的巨大力量,开发利用自然资源的范围,由地表向地球深层和太空扩展,由陆地向近海和远洋扩展。现在全球每年开采各种矿产150亿吨以上,包括废石约1000亿吨;人类的农业活动每年可移动3000立方公里的物质,农业用水22901亿立方米,占总用水量的80%;人类每年从海洋中的捕鱼量约1亿吨。
由于人口的不断增加,资源消耗量的不断增大,加上交通、通信事业的飞速
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发展,宇宙空间相对缩小,人类生产活动和社会活动的范围不断扩大,因此,
资源开发利用突破了区域界限和国界,资源配置向国际化和全球性发展。由
此而引起了一系列的全球性问题:
一是全球性环境问题。由于人类活动的影响,特别是人类活动与地球各个圈
层(大气圈、水圈、生物圈)相互作用而产生的影响整个地球表层的环境问题,
如由于化石燃料的大量消耗而导致的温室效应所引起的全球变暖,会使极地
的冰盖融化,导致海平面上升,使得一些海拔较低,土地肥沃的河流三角洲
被水淹没,同时还会引起海水倒港灌,污染地下水源。与温室气体增加相关
的还有臭氧层的破坏等。
二是全球普遍存在的区域环境问题。由于资源的不合理利用所造成的土地退
化、森林滥伐、生物多样性的损失等,它们的累计效应足以影响全球。如由
于土地不合理利用而造成受沙化影响的土地总面积20亿公顷;全球受水土
流失和干旱危害的土地达26亿公顷;人类对森林的乱砍滥伐导致大量的物
种绝灭,仅在热带森林中每天至少就有一种物种正在消失。
三是点多面广的工业污染问题。由于工业“三废”(废渣、废水、废气)所造成
的土质、水质和大气污染,其累计效应也会影响全球。近几十年来,由于世
界各国排入大气中的废气愈来愈多,酸雨已成为一个世界性的环境污染问
题。
四是重大自然灾害造成的环境问题。由于地球内部和星球之间的运动所造成
的个别突发事件,如火山爆发、特大地震、山体滑坡等,其影响经过多级反
馈,逐级放大,最终也影响全球环境
课文翻译
Unit 1 Text: Environmental Engineering
环境工程
What Is This Book About?
这本书主要讲述的内容?
The objective of this book is to introduce engineering and science students to the interdisciplinary study of environmental problems:their causes,why they are of concern,and how we can control them. The book includes:
这本书的目的是向环境科学和环境工程的学生介绍各个学科对于环境问题的研究,它们的起因,为什么会引起人们的关注,以及我们如何控制它们,这本书主要包括:
?Description of what is meant by environment and by environmental systems
环境和环境系统概念的描述
?Information on the basis causes of environmental disturbances
环境遭到破坏的最根本原因
?Basis scientific knowledge necessary to understand the nature of environmental problems and to be able to quantify them
理解环境问题本质所必须具备的一些基础科学知识,而且最终你能够对这些环境问题进行定量分析
?Current state of the technology environmental control in its application to water,air and pollution problems
环境控制技术在水、大气以及其它污染问题中应用现状
?Considerable gaps in our current scientific knowledge of understanding and controlling many of the complex interactions between human activities and nature
目前的科学知识在理解和控制人类活动和自然界之间复杂的相互作用上还存在相当大的缺陷
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?Many environmental problems which could be eliminated or reduced by the application of current technology ,but which are not dealt with because of society's lack of will to do so,or in many instances because of a lack of resources to do so.
?运用目前的技术可以消除或减少许多环境问题,可是因为社会缺乏这样的意识,或者因为缺乏处理能力而一直没有得到实施
Some Important Definitions
一些重要的定义
Where they are first used in this book,definitions are introduced in block form, as shown here,or printed in bold type.
在这本书中,第一次出现的地方,定义通常以加黑的形式出现
Environment is the physical and biotic habitat which surrounds us; that which we can see,hear,touch,smell,and taste.
环境是围绕在我们周围物质和生物的栖息地,其中,我们可以看到,听到,触觉,嗅觉和品味.
System,according to Webster's dictionary0', is defined as "a set or arrangement of things so related or connected as to form a unit or organic whole; as,a solar system,irrigation
system,supply system,the world or universe" .
系统:韦氏词典上对于系统的定义是彼此有关联或有联系的物质,经过排列或者组合所形成的一个单元或有机整体,譬如太阳系、灌溉系统、供给系统、世界或宇宙都可以称为一个整体。
Pollution can be defined as an undesirable change in the physical,chemical,or biological characteristics of the air,water,or land that can harmfully affect the health,survival,or activities of humans or other living organisms.
污染:指大气、水体或者土壤的物理、化学或者生物特征发生了不良的变化,这些变化对人类或其它生物的健康、生存或活动产生了有害的影响。
When the goal of improving environmental quality is taken to be improving human well-being,the word "environment" broadens to include all kinds of social,economic,and cultural aspects. Such broadness is unworkable in many real situations and impractical in a textbook designed for a one semester course. Our examination of environmental problems is therefore limited by our definition of "environment"
为提高人类的健康水平而提出改善环境质量目标的时候,“环境”这个词也拓展到包括各种社会、经济和文化等方面,虽然得到拓展,但在实际生活中,这种拓展是难以运转的,被设计成一个学期的课也是不切实际的。关于环境问题的考试也因此被“环境”的定义所限制.
Interaction of Systems
系统的相互作用
A number of different environmental problems are associated with water, air, or land systems. Many of these problems will apply only within one of these systems,justifying the breakdown into these categories. Such a classification is also useful for easier comprehension of related problems within one system. Moreover,it is sensible because,for managerial and administrative reasons?,such subfields as air pollution, water supply, wastewater disposal, and solid waste disposal are often dealt with separately by governmental agencies.
许多环境问题都和水、大气或土壤系统有关系,可有些环境问题仅仅涉及到某一个系统,因此,需要对这些环境问题进行分类,这样分类其实是有助于理解在一个系统中相关环境问题的。此外,由于行政管理上的原因,这样做也是合乎情理的。政府机构经常把环境问题分成大气污染、给水、污水处理、固废处理等分开处理。
Unfortunately, many important environmental problems are not confined to an air, water,or land system,but involve interactions between systems. A current example is the
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acid rain problem stemming from the emission of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide gases into the atmosphere from the stacks of generating stations?,smelters,and automobile exhausts. These gases are then transported by air currents over wide regions. Rainfall "washes them out",creating acid rain which is harmful to aquatic life,forests,and agricultural crops. Two examples of interaction between systems that cause major environmental disturbances are presented-the buildup of atmospheric carbon dioxide, a global problem, and the acid rain problem,normally of regional nature.
不巧的是,许多很重要的环境问题,并不单独属于一个大气、水或土壤系统,而往往和两个系统的相互作用有关,举一个最近比较热的例子,许多发电厂、冶金厂自动废气排放口将二氧化硫、氮氧化物气体排入大气中形成的酸雨,这些废气然后被气流输送到宽阔的地方。酸雨对水生生物、森林和农作物都是有害的。目前,有两大环境破坏问题都是由系统之间的相互作用引起的,一个是二氧化碳浓度的增加,一个是酸雨问题。
Environmental Disturbances
环境破坏
Many major improvements to our standard of living can be attributed to the application of science and technology. A few examples are noted here. Can you think of others?
科学技术的发展,提高了人们的生活水平,在这举几个例子,你能想到其它例子吗??The production of more and better quality food
?生产了大量质量更好的食品
?The creation of housing as protection from extremes from climates and as living space ?建造了许多可以躲避极端气候以及可以作为生存空间的房屋
?The building of fast and reliable means of transportation
?建立了快速、可靠的交通设施
?The invention of various systems of communication
?各种通讯体系的发明
?The invention of machines to replace human or animal power
?发明了可以取代人力或物力的机器
?The supply of safe water and the disposal of wastes
?供应安全用水,能对废物进行处理
?The elimination of many infectious diseases
?消灭了许多传染性疾病
?The elimination of most water-borne diseases in the developed world through improved water technology
?在发达国家,通过提高水处理技术消灭了大部分的水传染疾病。
?The availability of leisure time through greater productivity,providing the opportunity for cultural and recreational activities
?生产力的提高提供了更多的空闲时间,这样人们可以进行文化和休闲的活动。
?The protection from the worst effects of natural disasters such as floods, droughts, earthquakes,and volcanic eruptions.
?可以免受自然灾害、诸如洪水、干旱、地震和火山爆发的恶劣影响。
With these improvements,however,have come disturbing side effects,such as lost arable land,disappearing forests,environmental pollution,and new organisms resistant to controls.Many effects originally considered to be just nuisances are now recognized as potential threats to nature and to humans. In an agrarian society, people lived essentially in harmony with mature,raising food,gathering firewood,and making clothing and tools from the land. The wastes from animals and humans were returned to the soil as fertilizer. Few, if any, problems of water,land,or air pollution occurred.
然而,随着科技的进步,也带来了一些负面的影响,诸如耕地的丧失、森林的消失、
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环境污染,出现一些新的具有抗性的生物。许多影响刚开始仅仅被人们认为是一个小
的损害行为,现在认为它对于自然对于人类都是一个潜在的威胁。在原始的农业社会,
人类和自然能够和谐相处,培育食物、收集木柴、自己做衣服、生产工具,人类和动
物排泄的废物最后作为肥料返还到土壤中,很少有土壤、水、大气污染问题发生。
The cities of ancient times, particularly those of the Roman Empire?, had systems to supply water and to dispose of wastes. The aqueducts supplying the ancient city of Rome
(population about 1 million)with safe water from the Cloaca Maxima?,the best known and
one of the earliest sewers to be built, are examples of such systems. The municipal technology
of ancient cities seems to have been forgotten for marry centuries by those who built cities
throughout Europe. Water supply and waste disposal were neglected,resulting in many
outbreaks of dysentery, cholera, typhoid, and other waterborne diseases. Until the middle of
the nineteenth century,it was not realized that improper wastes disposal polluted water
supplies with disease-carrying organisms. The industrial revolution in nineteenth-century
Britain,Europe,and North America aggravated the environmental problems since it brought
increased urbanization with the industrialization. Both phenomena,urbanization and
industrialization,were and are fundamental causes of water and air pollution which the cities
of that time were unable to handle.
古时候的城市,特别是古罗马帝国时代的一些城市,已经有供应饮用水和处理废水的系统。举一些这样的例子,有专门给古罗马城供应安全水的水渠,还建造了一些地
下污水沟,古代城市的这些市政技术已经被欧洲城市建造者们遗忘很多年了。供水和
污水处理渐渐被忽略了,于是,就导致了许多水传染疾病的爆发,例如痢疾、霍乱、
伤寒等,一直到19世纪中期,人们才意识到不正确的污水处理技术污染了供水系统。
19世纪英国、欧洲和北美的工业革命加剧了环境问题的发生,因为伴随着工业化直接
导致了城市化的加剧。城市化和工业化这两种现象是引起水和大气污染的根本原因,
这种污染当时是无法处理的。
Rapid advances in technology for the treatment of water and the partial treatment of wastewater took place in the developed countries over the next few decades. This led to a
dramatic decrease'in the incidence of waterborne diseases?. Note that all wastes discharge
into the environment,and thus pollute our water,air,and land systems.
发达国家在过去几十年,水处理技术和部分污水处理技术得到了快速发展,这就这就直接减少了水传染疾病的发生。所有排入环境中废物都会污染我们的水体、大气
和土壤系统。
S elected from "Henry,Gray W- Heinke- Environmental Science and Engineering,Prentice-Hall nternational Editions, Pretice. Hall Englewood Cliffs, N J MSA, 1989"
Unit 2 Text: Historical Overview of Hazardous
Substance Disposal in the USA
美国危险废物处理的历史综述
教学目的:使学生了解美国危险废物处理的发展历史
教学重点:美国危险废物处理的发展历史
教学难点:专业英语词汇的记忆,掌握,长难句的翻译。
讲授方法:以学生朗读、翻译、概括大意为主,老师总结、讲解相关专业知识辅助学
生理解
教学内容:
(1)专业词汇
overview ['?uv??vju:] n. 综述,概要
hazardous ['h?z?d?s] a.危险的,危害的
contaminated [k?n't?mineitid] a. 被污染的
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enactment [i'n?ktm?nt]n. 颁布,法令
manufacturing facilities [?m?nju'f?kt??ri?] [f?'silitiz]工厂,企业
by-products 副产品
impounding [im'paundi?]a. 积水的、蓄水的
resin ['rezin] n. 树脂
fouled with 被……弄脏
aquifer ['?kw?f?] n. 蓄水层
literature ['lit?r?t??]n. 文献
makeshift ['meik??ift] n.权宜之计,临时措施;a.权宜的,临时的
excavation [?eksk?'vei??n]n. 挖掘,发掘
percolation [?p?:k?'lei??n] n. 渗透,地面渗入
porous ['p?:r?s] a. 多孔的,能渗透的
sewer ['s?u?,'sju?]污水管,下水道
unregulated dumps [?n'regjuleitid] [d?mps] 乱堆放
proximity [pr?k'simiti] n. 接近,近似
skin rashes [skin][r??]皮疹
paralysis [p?'r?lisis] n. 闭塞,瘫痪
birth defects [b?:θ] ['di:fekts] 先天不足
legislation [?led?is'lei??n]n. 立法;法规
(2)课文翻译
Hazardous substance disposal practices in the United States have traveled full circle. Prior to 1978 there were few if any regulations regarding the disposal of these materials. Improper disposal of many of these chemicals resulted in health problems for many citizens, contaminated water supplies,and destruction of wildlife. With the enactment of the Resource Conversation and Recovery Act(RCRA)(i)of 1978, manufacturing facilities now have an obligation to account for all waste materials that are generated by the facility. Implementation of RCRA has been slow.
有害物质的处置做法在美国已经周而复始的进行着。在1978之前关于危险物质处理的法规几乎没有。其中的许多化学品由于不正确的处理方法造成很多市民的健康问题、污染水源,毁灭野生动物。1978年制定了资源回收保护法。规定制造业有责任和义务对自己产生的废弃物进行解决,执行这项法规一直很缓慢。
From the very early industrial period in the United States,which started about 1920, until several years after the Second World War, there was little concern for the proper methods of disposal of waste materials that were generated as by-products during manufacturing processes. Up until the 1960's it was quite common to find fresh water rivers and streams fouled with waste chemicals from manufacturing,salt water from oil production wells and waste acids from steel mill activities. Virtually every conceivable Waste oil, solvent,or resin waste could be found in the rivers. The laws of the time were either non-existent or not enforced. The literature has many examples of health problems of individuals as well as destruction of fish and wildlife habitat. Many other cases occurred that were not reported in the literature.
从1920年开始到二战结束后的几年内,这属于美国最早期的工业时代,在这一时期几乎没有人关注过废物的正确处理方法。这些废物是在制造过程中产生的副产品。直到20世纪60年代,人们普遍去寻找新鲜的淡水河流和小溪,这些河流和小溪已经被制造业中废弃的化学物质、油井中的咸水和轧钢生产中产生的废酸污染。可以想象的
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到,在这些河流中几乎都有废油、溶剂、或者废树脂。那个时候的法律要么不存在这方面的规定,要么不去执行。文献上也记载了许多这样的例子,例如关于个人健康问题的以及破坏鱼类和野生动物栖息地的等。还有许多其它案件的发生均未见文献报道。
Other waste materials were dumped haphazardly in makeshift excavations either at the factory side or throughout the country side. Because of ignorance and lack of economic incentives to do so,the factories made no attempt to prevent contamination of underground water supplies by the chemicals that were disposed of. In fact, knowledgeable scientists of the time accepted land irrigation and percolation into the porous underground formations as methods of waste treatment. Although these treatment methods may have been intended for non-hazardous materials,they were employed for hazardous materials as well. Again, there were no governmental regulations protecting the underground aquifers from these practices.
剩余的废料被随意的堆放在工厂或厂区的旁边作为权宜之计,由于无知和缺乏经济鼓励,工厂未作出任何努力来防治地下水的污染。事实上,那个时候有先见的科学家接受土地灌溉和渗到地下多孔地层的方法来处理废弃物。这个方法已经打算用于非有害物质的处理,其实倒不如用于有害物质。再次,针对这样的作法,政府也没有规章制度来保护地下含水层。
The problem of disposal of hazardous chemicals did not improve with the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)? in 1966. The first task of the new agency was to clean up rivers and streams. Unfortunately,no one in power in the government at the time had insight into the problems that were to be created by the new agency.
1966年美国环境保护局建立,危险化学物质处理的问题并没有得到改善。新成立的环保局面临的第一项任务就是清理河流和小溪。可惜,当时当权的政府官员中没有一人洞察到环保局建立的问题。
The EPA was quite successful in those early days in the enforcement of the many water pollution laws that evolved. As the practice of the dumping of hazardous materials into the rivers and streams was eliminated,those same materials created other disposal problems.
在早期阶段,环保局是很成功的,强制执行了很多水污染法规,也使这些法律得到了发展。消除了把危险物质倒入河流和小溪的行为。同样,那些在其它处理问题中产生的危险物质也得到了消除。
Many of the chemicals saved from the sewer were either worthless or of such a low value as to render recovery uneconomical. In some cases,recovery was technically impossible. As a result, the waste chemicals were disposed of by any convenient method. The makeshift dumps sites were expanded. Because there were no regulations regarding disposal,persons with no technical expertise entered into the business of waste disposal. The profits were high because these individuals did not treat the chemicals. In most cases,the waste materials were transported to impounding areas located on privately owned land.
下水道中残留的很多化学物质已经没有利用价值,或者利用价值很低,所以提供回收很不合算,而且在某些情况下,在技术上也不可能做到回收。结果,废的化学物质就以很简便的方式进行处理了。凑乎的堆放场地不断的扩大。因为没有关于废物处理的规章制度,所以一些没有受过专业技术培训的人就进入了废物处理行业。这些人获得的利润很高,因为他们根本没有处理这些废的化学物质,大多数情况下,他们只是把废弃的物质运到个人私有土地的蓄水区中。
The factories that generated the waste felt secure in the belief that the waste transporter was disposing of the materials in an acceptable manner. In most cases,this was not a correct assumption.
产生废料的工厂从信念上感到很安全,他们认为用垃圾运输车把废物处理掉是一种可以接受的方式,这其实是不正确的假设。
The unregulated dumps grew both in size and complexity. When the dumps were in close proximity to populated areas or public water supplies, a series of problems begin to
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develop. Citizens in the vicinity of some of the dumps began to experience adverse health problems such as skin rashes, paralysis, cancer, and birth defects. In some cases, these problems have been attributed to contamination from the chemicals.
随意堆放的垃圾堆在规模和复杂程度上都在日益增长。当被堆放到靠近居民区或者公共供水区时,一连串的问题开始出现,在废弃堆周围生活的居民开始出现一些不良的健康问题。诸如,皮疹、瘫痪、癌症以及出生缺陷。在某些情况下,这些问题归咎于化学物质的污染。
Because of these concerns, the United States Congress enacted a new legislation that dealt with the issues of disposal of hazardous wastes. This was the Resource Conversation and Recovery Act of 1978. The purpose of the Act was to allow regulation of hazardous substance disposal. As a result, industries that generated large quantities of these waste materials now had to ensure that the materials were disposed of in the a manner that was safe for the environment.
因为这些问题,美国国会通过了一项新的立法,是关于处理危险废物处置问题的立法。这就是1978年的资源回收保护法。该法的目的是监管有害物质的排放。结果,产生大量废物的工厂现在不得不确保废弃物以一种安全的方式投入到环境中。
Many of the improper dumps that were created prior to the RCRA legislation were created by persons with little or no financial resources. As a result,the cleanup of the old sides has been taken over by the government under legislation. As of this time,the results of these clean up efforts have been ineffective.
在资源回收保护法出台之前就有很多不当的堆放,这些人也几乎没有或根本没有财力资源去处理清理。结果,只有由政府接管清理旧的堆放堆。截止到这个时候,结果清理的努力还未能见效。
Because of the abuses and problems of the past regulations have been enacted that force American industry to be responsible for hazardous waste disposal. The problems were brought about by a lack of economic incentives to the industrial community. The problems were compounded by the inexperience and lack of insight by elected governmental officials and the governmental agencies charged with the task of regulation. Although sufficient legislation is now in place to solve the problem of hazardous waste disposal,it is unlikely that a true solution will be achieved for 20 years or longer. Only through interaction between industry, scientists,and government regulators will true solutions be finally realized?.
因为以往颁布的法规存在一些问题以及法规的滥用迫使美国工业必须负责危险废物的处理。问题是工业界缺乏处理废物的经济诱因。这个问题由于选举的政府官员没有经验和缺乏远见以及政府机构控告监管的任务而得到复杂化。虽然现在解决危险废物处理问题的法律已经到位,但是经过20年或者更久的时间才能实现真正的解决。只有通过工业界、科学家和政府部门间的共同努力,才能最终得到解决。
Selected from "Clifford E. Geroge,Proceedings of Inter. Conf. On Environ, and Chem- Eng.,1992"
Unit 3 Text: Energy Exploration and Environment
能源勘探与环境
教学目的:使学生了解石油开采、天然气、煤、水力发电以及核电对环境造成的影响教学重点:能源勘探与环境
教学难点:专业英语词汇的记忆,掌握,长难句的翻译。
讲授方法:以学生朗读、翻译、概括大意为主,老师总结、讲解相关专业知识辅助学生理解
教学内容:
(1)专业词汇
mortality [moi'taeliti] n. 致命性
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biological [baia'lodsiks] a. 生物的,生物学的
relief well 减压井
shell fisheries 大陆架渔场
fouling [faulii}] n.污物,脏东西
intertidal 潮间的
refinery [ri'fainari] n.炼油厂;精炼厂
photochemical 光化学的
hydrocarbon 烃;碳氢化合物
hydrogen sulfide 硫化氢
acidification [sesidifi'keijan] n. 变酸,酸化
effluent ['efluant] a. 流出的n. 废液、污水
phenol ['fi:nol] n. 苯酚
ammonia [Vmounia] n.氨水
methane ['mi:0ein] n.甲烷;沼气
as with 如同…..一样,正如……的情况一样
brine [brain] n. 海水;盐水
liquefied natural gas 液化天然气
cargo ['ka:gou] n货物;船货
leachate ['li:tjeit] n. 沥滤液
siltation ['silteijan] n. 淤积、淤塞
nuclear warfare 核战争
mine tailings 矿山废渣
pipeline 管路
hydroelectric ['haidroui'lekrik] a. 水电的;水力发电的
(2)背景材料
1.所谓潮间带,即是指大潮期的最高潮位和大潮期的最低潮位间的海岸,也就是海
水涨至最高时所淹没的地方开始至潮水退到最低时露出水面的范围。潮间带以上,海浪的水滴可以达到的海岸,称为潮上带。潮间带以下,向海延伸至约三十公尺深的地带,称为亚潮带。
退潮后,在低潮线以上积水的小水池称为「潮池」。潮池的生物必须具有忍受每日温差和含氧量剧烈变化的能力,此处栖地环境时而干燥时而潮湿、温度时高时低、盐度也是时时变化,可以说微环境的变化非常大。在台湾,人们利用潮间带特有的生态环境,因而呈现盐田、渔塭、蚵架、竹筏等样貌,形成台湾西部海岸常见的人文景观。
在汉宝地区,潮间带则有许多蚵架与抓鳗苗的竹架与渔网。
2大陆架是大陆向海洋的自然延伸,是陆地的一部分。又叫“陆棚”或“大陆浅滩”。它是指环绕大陆的浅海地带。它的范围自海岸线起,向海洋方面延伸,直到海底坡度显著增加的陆架坡折处为止。陆架坡折处的水深在20~550米间,平均为130米,也有把200米等深线作为陆架下限的。大陆架平均坡度为0~0.7,宽度不等,在数公里至1500公里间。全球大陆架总面积为2710万平方公里,约占海洋总面积的7.5 9/6。陆架地形一般较为平坦,但也有小的丘陵、盆地和沟谷;上面除局部基岩裸露外,大部分地区被泥砂等沉积物所覆盖。大陆架是大陆的自然延伸,原为海岸平原,后因海面上升之后,才沉溺于水下,成为浅海。
海洋渔场
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鱼类和其他水生经济动物形成集群可供捕捞的特定海域。海洋渔场的形成有两个条件:①必须是有密集的经济水生生物栖息回游的地方。②在该处能经营符合经济原则的渔业。海洋渔场按照鱼类习性分,有产卵渔场、索饵(育肥)渔场、越冬渔场。如果按照地理环境分,有大陆架(陆棚)上浅海渔场、寒暖两流潮境渔场、上升流域渔场、堆礁海岭渔场、感潮线(干满潮线)渔场。世界海洋渔场大部分集中于仅占海洋总面积7%的大陆架海域,其次是外海的海底高地、水下山脉和群岛或珊瑚礁附近海域。良好渔场既是经济水生物密集的地方,也是饵料生物大量繁殖之处,饵料生物对海洋渔场的形成最为重要。全世界有太平洋西北部、大西洋东北部、太平洋中西部、太平洋东南部、大西洋东南部等五大渔场。传统上北半球有开发较早的世界三大渔场:①欧洲西北渔场。指北海及其北部的北大西洋渔场,包括挪威、冰岛大陆架等,主要鱼类有鳕类、鲱、沙丁鱼、鲆、鲽类等。②美洲大西洋北部渔场,包括纽芬兰到新英格兰一带的海域。主要生产鳕类、鲽、鲱、沙丁鱼、鲐等。③太平洋北部渔场。自中国沿岸经朝鲜、日本、堪察加周围海域,阿留申南北海域到加拿大、美国西岸海域。主要渔获物有带鱼、鳓鱼、大黄鱼、小黄鱼、竹荚鱼、鲐、鳕、狭鳕、银鳕、大马哈鱼、鳟、鲆、鲽等。这三大渔场资源已充分开发利用,有的资源已下降,国际间已为保护渔业资源采取计划渔业政策。各渔业国已逐步转向开发南半球的澳大利亚渔场、新西兰渔场、阿根廷外海渔场和南极渔场。
Environmental Impacts of Oil
石油对环境的影响
During oil exploration ,either onshore or offshore, there is a risk of blowout should control of the well be lost. This can lead to severe and prolonged oil spills,which are harmful to the marine environment. The 1979 Ixtoc blowout in the Gulf of Mexico? is an example. Regaining control of a blowout can take considerable time and often requires drilling a relief well to interrupt the oil flow. This problem is particularly severe in northern climates,where ice formation and movement may seriously impede or even prevent drilling of relief wells.
不管是陆地上的还是海岸上的石油开采,在开采的过程中,都有油井失去控制发生井喷的风险。这可能导致严重的、长时间的漏油,这对海洋环境是有害的。举一个例子,1979年墨西哥海湾Ixtoc 油井原油泄漏。重新控制井喷需要相当长的时间,往往需要钻孔减压井来阻断石油的溢流,这个问题在北方地区的气候条件下尤其严重,在这样的气候条件下,冰的形成和冰的运动可能会严重的妨碍甚至是阻止减压井的钻探。
Oil spills may result in mortality to birds and contamination of shorelines,resulting in severe biological effects on intertidal and near-shore organisms, including valuable shell fisheries. There may also be fouling of vessels,nets,and harbor facilities,requiring expensive cleanup. The impact of oil on the open ocean environment is more difficult to assess,but it is likely that the spill will have some effect on fisheries and,in general,on organisms present in the ocean surface waters. The issue of oil pollution has been reviewed in a number of texts.
原油溢出对鸟类来说具有致命的威胁,同时也污染了海岸线,对潮间和近海岸的有机物质,包括物产丰富的大陆架渔场都会形成严重的生物影响。也可能导致管路、渔网和港口设施的堵塞结垢,这需要昂贵的清理费用。石油对开放海域造成的影响更是难以估算,它很有可能对渔业、对海洋表层的生物体造成影响。石油污染的问题在很多课本里面都已经评论过。
Exploration,production,and transmission activities may have a profound effect on life styles in remote areas. For example, in northern Canada and Alaska?, people are not well equipped to withstand the social pressures of modern industrial life.
勘探、生产和运输行为可能对偏远地区人们的生活方式有一个深远的影响。例如,在加拿大北部和阿拉斯加,人们并没有准备好承受现代工业生活的社会压力。
There is also a risk of spillage during oil production and collection on land prior to its
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transmission to petroleum refineries. At these refineries there is a potential for emission of hydrocarbons, sulfur oxides, which can cause lake acidification and human respiratory problems, hydrogen sulfide, which is highly toxic and odorous, carbon dioxide, which may lead to the "greenhouse effect"?,oxides of nitrogen,which cause photochemical smog and acidification,and some odorous substances. Refineries also generate liquid effluents which may contain hydrocarbons,phenols,ammonia,and other toxic substances.
石油运输到炼油厂之前,在生产和采集过程中也有可能发生泄漏。在这些炼油厂有可能排放碳氢化合物,硫氧化物, 这些化合物可造成湖泊酸化和人体呼吸系统问题,硫化氢是剧毒物质而且还有臭味,二氧化碳可能导致"温室效应" ,氮氧化物,造成光化学烟雾和酸化,还有一些带有气味的物质. 炼油厂产生的废液中也可能含有碳氢化合物,酚,氨,和其它有毒物质。
Oil is transported both by tanker and by pipeline in very large quantities,and neither of these is immune from causing environmental pollution. In fact, there have been several impressive oil tanker accidents resulting in widespread contamination of coastal regions. The effects are generally similar to those of blowouts discussed early. Oil releases from pipelines are usually less severe because the oil is more easily controlled,although there may be fouling of agricultural land leading to loss of productivity.
大量的石油都是通过油轮或者通过管线进行运输的,这两种运输方式都会引起环境污染,事实上,已经发生过几起令人难以忘记的油轮事故,结果导致沿海地区大范围的污染,这和我们以前讨论过的井喷产生的后果比较相似。管道中发生的漏油通常不是很严重,因为它尽管在农业用地上产生的污物会降低土壤的生产力,但还是比较容易控制。
Environmental Impacts of Natural Gas
天然气对环境的影响
It is readily apparent that these impacts are considerably less severe than those of oil. Generally, the impact of releases of natural gas (methane) into the environment is minor,provided that there is no accompanying fire or explosion. The methane tends to dissipate rapidly into the atmosphere,having little adverse environmental effect. ? 人们通常认为天然气对环境造成的影响不如石油造成的影响大。一般,天然气释放到环境中的影响较小,不会伴随着火灾和爆炸。甲烷通常会快速的消散到大气中,对环境几乎没有负面的影响。
Again,there is a risk of emission of hydrocarbons during blowouts,but probably more severe is the risk of hydrogen sulfide emissions during exploration and production. Hydrogen sulfide,which normally accompanies natural gas in petroleum reservoirs,is highly toxic. The usual procedure is to remove the hydrogen sulfide from the methane at a "gas plant" close to the well. Repeatedly,gas plant malfunctions have resulted in severe H2S emission,requiring rapid evacuation of large areas downwind. As with oil,there is an impact from the disposal of brine and drilling chemicals. Also,construction of gas pipelines can be disruptive and may be particularly difficult in the permafrost regions.
此外,在井喷的过程中,会有释放碳氢化合物的危险,可是更严重的危险是在勘探和生产的过程中硫化氢气体的释放。硫化氢气体通常与石油储层中的天然气共生,是一种剧毒气体。通常的做法是在靠近油井的“天然气处理装置”
中消除甲烷中的硫化氢气体。天然气处理装置发生故障就会导致严重的硫化氢气体释放,这样就要求大面积顺风方向的人们快速的撤退。和石油一样,海水的处置和危险的化学物质有影响。此外,在永久冻结带地区,气体管路的结构是非常易碎的。
One area of increasing concern is the possibility of severe accidents occurring as a result of transportation of liquefied natural gas. It is not economical to transport gaseous natural gas by tanker; liquefaction greatly increases the energy density of the cargo, permitting more to be carried per voyage. These cargoes must be maintained at very low
12
temperatures,i. e. , below the boiling point of natural gas,or at elevated pressures. If the containing vessel fails, there will be emission of the liquid methane, which then evaporates very rapidly, creating a highly hazardous condition in which fire and explosion are likely.
另一个引起人们广泛关注的是液化气体在运输的过程中有可能发生严重事故。通过油轮运输气态的天然气是很昂贵的,通过液化可以极大的提高货物的能量密度,也就提高了单位船只内的载货量。这些液化气货物必须在低温下保存,例如,在天然气的沸点以下保存,或者在高的气压下保存,如果运载天然气的船只发生事故,则会造成液化甲烷的泄漏,它们将很快地蒸发,引发爆炸或者火灾这样危险的状况发生。
Environmental Impact of Coal
煤对环境的影响
Normally,coal is recovered by one of two processes. In strip mining,coal which lies close to the surface is removed by earth-moving equipment,the overburden of soil being removed and stored for later replacement. The area can then be filled in and revegetated after the removal of the coal. In mining for deeper deposits with substantial quantities of sulfur and metal compounds which have remained inert in their subsurface environment throughout geological times,exposure of the mined minerals to oxygen and water initiates a series of reactions, particularly oxidation and dissolution,which were previously not achievable. The result is the formation of oxides of sulfur (and hence sulfuric acid), metal solutions, phenols, and various other compounds, many of which are environmentally harmful. Coal piles and slag heaps thus can generate considerable quantities of these substances,and the leachate must be controlled and prevented from entering surface waters or groundwaters.
通常,通过两种过程的任意一个就可以得到煤。在露天煤矿,煤位于地层表面,通过除土设备就可以将煤剥离。土壤表层的沙土
剥离并储存起来,当煤被挖掘完之后在重新进去填充和复垦。深层堆积的煤矿中具有很多的硫磺和金属化合物,通过地质运动,它们在地表以下保持惰性状态,当矿物质暴露到氧气和水中之后,便引发了一系列的以前不可能发生的反应,特别是氧化分解反应,结果就形成了硫氧化物,金属溶液,苯酚和各种各样其它的化合物,许多是对环境有害的。煤堆和矿渣堆也能产生数量巨大的这类物质,同时也要严格控制沥滤液,防止其进入水体和地下水中。
The generation of electricity from coal involves a loss of approximately two-thirds of the energy,in the form of waste heat,from the generating plant. The waste heat is dissipated through both the fuel gases and the cooling water. Discharge of the cooling water can result in "thermal pollution" of the local aquatic environment; for example,a lake or river may be subjected to an unusual temperature rise. Most serious are situations in which a river is subjected to repeated heating by several power plants. Under conditions of low flow, and especially during the summer,the temperature of the water may rise beyond limits tolerable to aquatic life and fish mortality may result. In such cases,the use of air as a cooling medium is preferable,although it is generally more expensive.
用煤来发电其实有大约三分之二的能量在发电厂中以余热的形式损失了。余热通过燃料气体和冷却水散失。流出的冷却水会导致当地水生环境的热污染。例如,湖水或者河水可能会出现异常的温度上升。最严重的情况是一条河流反复的受到几个能源工厂的热污染,特别是在夏季,河水流速很慢的情况下,水的温度可能升高到超出水生生物的忍受极限,因此会导致鱼类的死亡。虽然利用空气作为一种冷却介质很昂贵,但是这种方法是更可取的。
Environmental Impacts of Hydroelectric Development
水力发电发展对环境的影响
Of all the forms of energy production, hydroelectric power is probably the least environmentally disruptive,in the sense that there are rarely any chemical effects- The major
13
effects result from changes to the local region arising from submergence of land, loss of animal habitat,and changes in local hydrology,for example,alteration of flow characteristics of rivers and groundwater. In some cases, there may be severe siltation problems. Increasingly, remote hydroelectric sites are being sought, often in wilderness areas with a sparse population of individuals who rely on trapping and a simple life style. To them,the loss of their land or the disruption of their life style can be devastating.
在所有的能源中,水电可能是对环境破坏最小的一种能源。几乎没有化学方面的影响。主要会导致土地的淹没,动物栖息地的丧失,当地水文地质的变化,例如,河流和地下水流动特征的改变。在某些情况下,可能会有严重的泥沙淤积问题. 现在人们越来越多的去寻找偏僻遥远的水力发电地点,常常是在人烟稀少的,主要依赖诱捕和以一种简朴的生活方式生存的地区。对他们来说,失去土地或打乱了他们的生活方式可能是毁灭性的.
Environmental Impacts of Nuclear Power
核电对环境的影响
Paramount is the question of environmental contamination by radionuclides as a result of mining, accidents involving discharge of fuel, failure of the nuclear reactor system, or contamination from spent fuel. In the minds of many,the nuclear power issue is intimately, but irrationally, linked with the horrors of Hiroshima?, Nagasaki?, and nuclear warfare in general. No other environmental issue has developed such widespread concern.
最重要的环境污染问题是放射性核。主要来自采矿、燃料排放事故、失败的核反应体系、废弃燃料的污染。在许多人的脑海里,核电问题是息息相关的,但如果与广岛、长崎恐怖事件以及一般的核战争联系在一起就不合清理了。没有其它的环境问题引起广泛的关注。
Except for the 1986 explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear station in the Ukraine?, the remaining few nuclear power plant accidents,like the Three Mile Island reactor? breakdown in Pennsylvania? in 1979,have all resulted in very minor releases of radioactive material and no recorded deaths.
1986年在乌克兰共和国切尔诺贝利的一个核电站发生的爆炸除外。其余几个核电厂发生事故时均导致很少的放射性物质的释放而且没有死亡记录,比如1979年宾夕法尼亚州三英里岛反应堆事故。
There have been cases of undesirably high exposure of miners to radioactive materials, both in the mine and in mineral processing. Also,mine tailings may contain residual but low-level radioactivity, and in some cases these tailings have not been disposed of in the proper manner.
在采矿和矿产加工的过程中,不适宜把矿工高度暴露在放射性物质中。此外,矿山尾矿可能含有残余的但属于低水平的辐射,在某些情况下,这些尾矿没有以适当的方式得到妥善处理。
There is much concern about the issue of disposing of or reprocessing spent fuel. This fuel is highly radioactive and will remain so for centuries. Processing the fuel to ensure that this and future generations are secure from exposure is a considerable technological challenge, but possibly an even greater sociopolitical challenge. A worrisome aspect is the possibility of terrorism resulting from a small group of individuals obtaining quantities of radioactive material.
还有一个令人关注的问题是废弃燃料的回收或者处置问题。这种燃料是具有高放射性的,这种放射性仍然会保留几个世纪。燃料的处理要想确保这一代和未来几代人的安全接触是一个不小的技术挑战。但可能是一个更大的社会政治挑战。一个令人担忧的方面是一小部分人保留有一定数量的放射性物质,这可能导致恐怖主义。
As with the generation of electricity from coal, there may be a thermal effect on local
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water used for cooling purposes.
和用煤发电一样,也可能对当地用于冷却的水造成热污染。
Selected from J. Glynn
Henry,Gray W. Ileinke. Environmental Science and Engineering, Prentice-Hall International Editions,Pretice. Hall Englezvood Cliffs,NJ,USA, 7989"
Unit 4 Text: Environmental Analysis
环境分析
教学目的:使学生了解环境分析的目的、方法以及主要的指标体系。
教学重点:环境分析的指标体系
教学难点:专业英语词汇的记忆,掌握,长难句的翻译。
讲授方法:以学生朗读、翻译、概括大意为主,老师总结、讲解相关专业知识辅助学生理解
教学内容:
(1)专业词汇
qualitative [kwoli'teitiv] a.定性的
quantitative ['kwontiteitiv] a. 定量的
speciation ['spii/i'eijan] n. 物种形式
characterization [kgeriktarai'zei/an] n. 表征,性能描写
toxicological [toksi'kolad3ik] a.毒物学的,毒理学的
defacing [di'feisir)] n. 磨损;损伤外观
esthetic depreciation 美感下降
unpleasant odors 难闻气味
in question 上述的,所讨论的
methodology [jmeOa'doladsi] n. 方法论
impact analysis 影响分析
philosophical [fib'sofikal] a. 哲学的,理性的;自然科学研究的
discernible [di'sanibl] a. 可鉴别的,可识别的
authenticity [o:0an'tisiti] n. 可靠性
heterogeneity ['hetaroud3ini:ti] n. 不均匀性,多相性
trace levels 痕量
airborne ['eaboin] a. 生物鉴定,活体鉴定
time-consuming 耗时的
bioassay [baiou'assei] n. 生物鉴定,活体鉴定
compliance [kam'plaians] n. 符合,一致
dose-response 用量(剂量)响应
(2)课文翻译
Environmental analysis involves the performance of chemical,physical,and biological measurements in an environmental system. This system may involve either the natural or the polluted environment,although the term "environmental analysis"is increasingly used to refer only to situations in which measurements are made of pollutants.
在一个环境系统中,环境分析涉及化学、物理和生物的测定性能。虽然“环境分析”
这个词正越来越多的仅仅指污染物质测定这种情形,但是环境系统既可能涉及自然环境也可能涉及污染环境。
Normally, four types of measurements are made: qualitative analysis to identify the species present; quantitative analysis to determine how much of the species is present; speciation or characterization to establish details of chemical form and the manner in which the pollutant is actually present (such as being adsorbed onto the surface of a
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particle); and impact analysis in which measurements are made for t he specific purpose of determining the extent to which an environmental impact is produced by the pollutants in question.
一般而言,有四种测定,分别是:定性分析来鉴别现有物种;定量分析,以确定目前存在多少物种;对目前实际存在污染物质的发生方式和化学组成的物种形成和特征描述建立详细的资料(诸如正在被吸附到一个粒子的表面);影响分析中测定的具体目的是确定刚才讨论的污染物质产生的环境影响的程度。
The overall objective of environmental analysis is to obtain information about both natural and pollutant species present in the environment so as to make a realistic assessment of their probable behavior. In the case of pollutants,this involves assessment of their actual or potential environmental impact,which may be manifest in several ways. Thus,a pollutant species may present a toxicological hazard to plants or animals. It may also cause contamination of resources (such as air, water, and soil)so that they cannot be utilized for other purposes. The effects of pollutants on materials,especially building materials,may be another area of concern and one which is often very visible and displeasing (for example, the defacing of ancient statues by sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere) . A further area of environmental impact involves esthetic depreciation such as reduced visibility,dirty skies,and unpleasant odors. Finally,it is important to recognize that an environmental impact may not always be discernible by normal human perception so that detection may require sophisticated chemical or physical analysis?.
进行环境分析的整体目标是获得关于环境中存在的自然和污染物质的信息,这样就可以对他们的行为作出符合实际的评价。污染物的评价涉及它们实际的或者潜在的环境影响,这可以体现在几个方面。因此,一种污染物质可能使植物或者动物遭受毒害,也可能引起自然资源的污染(如空气、水和土壤),使得这些资源就不能用于其它用途了。污染物对材料尤其是建筑材料的影响经常可以见到,也是很令人恼火的,这可能是另一个令人关注的领域。(例如,大气中的二氧化硫造成古代雕塑的腐蚀)。更进一步的环境影响涉及美感下降,如空气能见度的降低、肮脏的天空和难闻的气味。最终,我们要意识到环境影响不可能总是可以通过正常的人类感知所能察觉的,它需要高级的化学或物理分析进行检测。
In order to provide a meaningful description of the general field of environmental analysis,this field may be considered from three points of view;the basic concepts underlying the reasons for and choice of the analyses which are normally performed; the available techniques and methodology commonly used; and the curre nt status of capabilities in environmental analysis.
为了对环境分析的整体领域提供一个有意义的描述,可以分成三个观点来考虑:基本概念和现在通常使用的分析方法的选择,目前常用的技术和方法,以及目前环境分析的状况。
Some of the philosophical concepts which form the bases for environmental analyses are as follows.
有些哲学概念形成了环境分析的基础,具体如下:
Purpose. Collection and analysis of an environmental sample may be undertaken for the purpose of research or monitoring,or as a spot check. A spot check analysis is used to obtain rapid information about the approximate extent or nature of an environmental problem.
目的。为了科研或者监测或者抽样调查的目的,对一个环境样品进行采集和分析。抽样调查通常是为了获得快速的信息,这个信息近似接近于环境问题的本质和程度。
Authenticity. Whatever the information being sought,it is vitally important to obtain an authentic sample which represents the particular system being investigated. In fact, the ability to obtain an authentic sample is probably one of the most difficult aspects of
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any environmental analysis due to the considerable complexity and heterogeneity of most environmental systems.
可靠性。无论搜集的信息如何,获得一个能代表正在调查系统的真实试样是至关重要的。但事实上,在环境分析中,获得一个真实试样的能力可能是最棘手的一个方面。,这是由于大部分环境系统具有相当大的复杂性和不均匀性。
Detection limits.A statement of the detection limits which can be attained by the analytical method being employed must always be included in providing the results of any environmental analysis. This is because considerable confusion exists about the meaning of a "zero" level of concentration. In fact,it is probably never possible to state that none of the atoms or molecules of the species in question are present so that no true zero exists.
检测限度。通过正在使用的必须始终能够提供任何环境分析的结果的分析方法才可以知道检测的限度。这是因为关于“零”浓度水平的含义相当的混乱。事实上,刚才讨论物种中的原子或者分子中不可能没有一个存在,这是完全有可能的,所以没有真正的零极限存在。
Precision and accuracy. In reporting an environmental analysis it is also necessary to specify the precision and accuracy associated with the measurements. Thus, many environmental measurements involve comparison of results obtained in different systems or under different conditions (of temperature, time, pollutant concentration, and so on)in the same system so that it is necessary to establish whether two numbers which are different are in fact indicative of different conditions.
精确度和准确度。在进行环境分析报道时,有必要详细说明与之相关的测定的精度和准度。因此,许多环境测定中要对不同系统中获得的结果或者在相同体系不同条件下(不同的温度、时间、污染等浓度)获得的结果进行比较。因此,有必要确定在不同条件下取得的两个结果是否是不同的。
State of matter. In making an environmental analysis it is necessary to designate the physical form of the species being analyzed. Most simply,this involves the actual state of matter in which the species exists (whether it is solid, liquid, or gas) since many species (both inorganic and organic)may exist concurrently in different states. For example,certain organic gases can exist either as gases or adsorbed onto the surface of solid particles, and the analytical procedures employed for determination of each form are quite different.
物态。在作环境分析时有必要指出所要分析物质的实物形态。最简单的说,因为许多有机或者无机物质可能同时以不同形态存在,所以必须指出物质存在的实际物态(不论它是固态、液态还是气态)。例如,某些有机气体既可以以气态形式存在也可以吸附到固体粒子的表面,因此每一种形态物质的检测所用的分析程序也是不同的。
Element/compound distinction. One of the most strongly emphasized aspects of environmental analysis involves the distinction between a chemical element and the chemical compound in which that element exists. It is appropriate to establish the chemical form in which a given element exists in an environmental sample rather than simply to specify the fact that the element is present at a given concentration. While such a concept is philosophically acceptable, analytical methodology has not reached the stage where specification of inorganic compounds present at trace levels can readily be achieved.
元素和化合物的区别。环境分析最应该强调的方面之一是一个化学元素和由这个化学元素组成的化合物之间的区别。最好是在一个包含某一特定元素的环境样品中建立它的化学组成,而非简单的说明这个元素存在于以一定浓度存在这一事实。尽管理论上可以接受这样的观念,但在实际分析方法上还没有达到迅速获得痕量中存在无机化合物的规格的高度。
Particle surfaces. Where pollutant species are present in or associated with a condensed phase,it is sometimes necessary to establish whether the pollutant is part of the bulk system or present on its surface. Such a consideration is particularly meaningful since material
17
present on the surface of an airborne particle,for example,comes into immediate contact with the external environment, whereas that which is distributed uniformly throughout the particle is effectively present at a much lower concentration and can exert a much lower chemical intensity at the particle surface. Since airborne particles can be inhaled, surface predominance can result in high localized concentrations of chemical species at the points of particle deposition in the lung?.
粒子表面。在污染物质存在的地方或者与浓缩相有关联的地方,有时候需要确定污染物质是大系统中的一部分还是仅仅在表面存在。这种考虑是有特别意义的,例如,因为空气中颗粒表面存在的物质,直接和外部环境接触,然而,均匀分布在整个颗粒上的物质以较低的浓度存在,并且在颗粒的表面,它的化学强度也发挥的低一些。由于空气中的颗粒可被吸入,表面控制可导致肺部颗粒沉积点化学物质局部浓度的升高。
Availability. While not one of the analyses normally performed by analytical chemists, determination of the availability of a chemical species is often necessary? . To exert a meaningful environmental effect,a pollutant species must almost always enter solution. For instance,toxic compounds associated with airborne particles must be dissolved by lung fluids before either a local or systemic effect can be produced. Thus,laboratory-scale simulation? of the availability characteristics of a chemical species can provide a necessary link between its presence and its eventual impact.
有效性。确定化学品的有效性是必要的,虽然这种分析通常不是由化学分析家进行的。为了做一个有意义的环境效应,几乎总是得让一种污染物质进入溶液中。例如,和空气中颗粒有关的有毒化合物在产生局部或全身效应之前必定已经被肺液所溶解了。这样,通过在实验室范围模拟一种化学物质有效性特征,可以知道它目前影响和最终影响之间的必然联系。
Environmental effect. The final link in the analytical/environmental effects chain involves determination of the actual environmental effect produced. In most cases, this involves some form of biological measurement or bioassay which determines the toxicological effect upon a biological organism. Due to the expense, complexity, and time-consuming nature of bioassays, it is usual to substitute a chemical analysis for purposes of monitoring toxicological effects, and in setting standards for compliance. In doing so, however, it is necessary to establish a socalled dose response relationship between the level of one or more pollutant species and the degree of toxic impact.
环境效应。分析和环境共同最终产生的效果涉及到实际产生的环境效应的确定。在大多数情况下,包括生物测量和生物鉴定的某些形式决定对生物体的毒性效应。由于费用、复杂性和生物鉴定耗时的特性使得在监测毒性效应的时候通常取消化学分析。然而,这样做就有必要在一个或更多污染物与毒性效应程度之间建立用量响应关系。Selected from "McGraw-Hill,Encyclopedia of Environmental Science,2"1 Edition,
McGraw-Hill Boo. Company,N.J. USA,198ff' PART 2 AIR POLLUTION AND CONTROL
大气污染和控制
Unit 5 Text:Type and Sources of Air Pollutants [ 1 ]
大气污染物的来源和类型
教学目的:使学生了解大气污染的概念,主要污染物类型及其来源。
教学重点:大气污染物的来源和类型
教学难点:专业英语词汇的记忆,掌握,长难句的翻译。
讲授方法:以学生朗读、翻译、概括大意为主,老师总结、讲解相关专业知识辅助学生理解
教学内容:
(1)专业词汇
18
aldehyde ['geldihaid] n. 醛,乙醛asbestos [zez'bestos]] n. 石棉
beryllium [be'riljam] n. 铍
cadmium ['kasdmiam] n. 镉
herbicide ['haibisaid] n. 除草剂
peroxyacylnitrates 硝酸过氧化乙酰类
pesticide ['pestisaid] n. 杀虫剂,农药
primary air pollutant 一次大气污染物
secondary air pollutant 二次大气污染物
stagnation [stasg'neifan] n. 停滞,迟钝,萧条
tritium ['triti?m]n. 氚,超重氢
【背景材料】
1.
除火山爆发、煤田、油田放出的有害气体及腐烂的动植物等自然因素造成大气污染外,工业生产、农业生产、交通运输、居民日常生活活动等均可造成大气污染。
大气中主要的污染物,概括起来可分为两类,即颗粒状污染物和有害气体。
一、悬浮颗粒物污染与人体健康
空气中可自然沉降的颗粒物称降尘,而悬浮在空气中的粒径小于100微米的颗粒物通称总悬浮颗粒物(tsp),其中粒径小于10微米的称可吸入颗粒物(pm10)。可吸入颗粒物因粒小体轻,能在大气中长期飘浮,飘浮范围从几公里到几十公里,可在大气中造成不断蓄积,使污染程度逐渐加重。可吸入颗粒物成份很复杂,并具有较强的吸附能力。例如可吸附各种金属粉尘和强致癌物苯并(a)芘、吸附病原微生物等。
可吸入颗粒物随人们呼吸空气而进入肺部,以碰撞、扩散、沉积等方式滞留在呼吸道不同的部位,粒径小于5微米的多滞留在上呼吸道。滞留在鼻咽部和气管的颗粒物,与进入人体的二氧化硫(so2)等有害气体产生刺激和腐蚀粘膜的联合作用,损伤粘膜、纤毛,引起炎症和增加气道阻力。持续不断的作用会导致慢性鼻咽炎、慢性气管炎。滞留在细支气管与肺泡的颗粒物也会与二氧化氮等产生联合作用,损伤肺泡和粘膜,引起支气管和肺部产生炎症。长期持续作用,还会诱发慢性阻塞性肺部疾患并出现继发感染,最终导致肺心病死亡率增高。
当大气处于逆温状态时,污染物便不易扩散,悬浮颗粒物浓度会迅速上升。1952年12月英国伦敦发生烟雾事件时,大气中悬浮颗粒物的含量比平时高5倍,引起居民死亡率激增,4天内较同期死亡人数增加4000余人。由此可见大气中可吸入颗粒物浓度突然增高,对人类健康能造成急性危害,对患有心肺疾病的老人和儿童威胁更大。
悬浮颗粒物还能直接接触皮肤和眼睛,阻塞皮肤的毛囊和汗腺,引起皮肤炎和眼结膜炎或造成角膜损伤。此外,悬浮颗粒物还能降低大气透明度,减少地面紫外线的照射强度;紫外线照射不足,会间接影响儿童骨骼的发育。北京市的天总是灰蒙蒙的便与我市悬浮颗粒物污染严重有着紧密关系。悬浮颗粒物污染对健康的危害是多方面的,复杂的,应引市民们的足够重视。
我市悬浮颗粒物污染的主要原因有两方面:一是地面扬尘,二是燃煤排放的烟尘。因此,在紧急措施当中,关于控制扬尘的有四条措施。一是加强对施工工地和拆迁工地的扬尘的管理,市区所有工地必须做到围档、路面硬化、洒水、密闭运输、防治料堆扬尘等措施。同时,要加大道路遗洒的检查力度。二是扩大道路的喷水清洁措施。三是加强市区料堆、煤堆、灰堆的防治措施。四是完成三环路以内道路,及规划四环路内已建成道路、裸露地面的绿化和铺装(已经完成)。
当然除了上述紧急措施提出几点方法外,发展区域集中供暖,减少分散烟囱,也可以减低烟尘对大气的污染;改造锅炉、改进燃料的燃烧方法,安装净化除尘设备,
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可达到消烟除尘的目的;利用一切空地种植花草树木使城市绿化等均可达到防治尘污染的效果。
二、氮氧化物污染与人体健康
一氧化氮、二氧化氮等氮氧化物是常见的大气污染物质,能刺激呼吸器官,引起急性和慢性中毒,影响和危害人体健康。
氮氧化物中的二氧化氮毒性最大,它比一氧化氮毒性高4-5倍。大气中氮氧化物主要来自汽车废气以及煤和石油燃烧的废气。
氮氧化物主要是对呼吸器官有刺激作用。由于氮氧化物较难溶于水,因而能侵入呼吸道深部细支气管及肺泡,并缓慢地溶于肺泡表面的水分中,形成亚硝酸、硝酸,对肺组织产生强烈的刺激及腐蚀作用,引起肺水肿。亚硝酸盐进入血液后,与血红蛋白结合生成高铁血红蛋白,引起组织缺氧。在一般情况,当污染物以二氧化氮为主时,对肺的损害比较明显,二氧化氮与支气管哮喘的发病也有一定的关系;当污染物以一氧化氮为主时,高铁血红蛋白症和中枢神经系统损害比较明显。
汽车排出的氮氧化物(nox)有95%以上是一氧化氮,一氧化氮进入大气后逐渐氧化成二氧化氮。二氧化氮是一种毒性很强的棕色气体,有刺激性。当二氧化氮的量达到一定程度时,在遇上静风、逆温和强烈阳光等条件,便参与光化学烟雾的形成。
空气中二氧化氮浓度与人体健康密切相关,曾发生过因短时期暴露在高浓度二氧化氮中引起疾病和死亡的情况。如1929年5月15日,在克里夫兰的克里尔医院发生的一次火灾中,有124人死亡,死亡的直接原因就是由于含有硝化纤维的感光胶片着火而产生大量的二氧化氮所致。
北京市城区氮氧化物的47 %来自汽车尾气,因此治理汽车尾气刻不容缓。
三、二氧化硫污染与人体健康
二氧化硫是一种常见的和重要的大气污染物,是一种无色有刺激性的气体。二氧化硫主要来源于含硫燃料(如煤和石油)的燃烧;含硫矿石(特别是含硫较多的有色金属矿石)的冶炼;化工、炼油和硫酸厂等的生产过程。
二氧化硫对人体的危害是:
1、刺激呼吸道。二氧化硫易溶于水,当其通过鼻腔、气管、支气管时,多被管腔内膜水分吸收阻留,变成亚硫酸、硫酸和硫酸盐,使刺激作用增强。
2、二氧化硫和悬浮颗粒物的联合毒性作用。二氧化硫和悬浮颗粒物一起进入人体,气溶胶微粒能把二氧化硫带到肺深部,使毒性增加3-4倍。此外,当悬浮颗粒物中含有三氧化二铁等金属成分时,可以催化二氧化硫氧化成酸雾,吸附在微粒的表面,被代入呼吸道深部。硫酸雾的刺激作用比二氧化硫约强10倍。
3、二氧化硫的促癌作用。动物实验证明10毫克/米3的二氧化硫可加强致癌物苯并
(a)芘的致癌作用。在二氧化硫和苯并(a)芘的联合作用下,动物肺癌的发病率高于单个致癌因子的发病率。
此外,二氧化硫进入人体时,血中的维生素便会与之结合,使体内维生素c的平衡失调,从而影响新陈代谢。二氧化硫还能抑制和破坏或激活某些酶的活性,使糖和蛋白质的代谢发生紊乱,从而影响机体生长发育。
北京市大气中的二氧化硫90%来自于燃煤。燃煤多是造成北京市大气污染的主要原因之一。因此在治理大气污染紧急措施中,北京市采取了推广使用低硫低灰份优质煤、大力推广和强制使用清洁燃料等措施。
四、一氧化碳污染与人体健康
一氧化碳是一种无色、无味、无臭、无刺激性的有毒气体,几乎不溶于水,在空气中不容易与其它物质产生化学反应,故可在大气中停留很长时间。如局部污染严重,可对健康产生一定危害。一氧化碳属于内窒息性毒物。空气中一氧化碳浓度到达一定高度,就会引起种种中毒症状,甚至死亡。
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一氧化碳是煤、石油等含碳物质不完全燃烧的产物。一些自然灾害如火山爆发、森林火灾、矿坑爆炸和地震等灾害事件,也能造成局部地区一氧化碳的浓度增高。吸烟也被认为是一氧化碳污染来源之一。
随空气进入人体的一氧化碳,在经肺泡进入血液循环后,能与血液中的血红蛋白(hb)等结合。一氧化碳与血红蛋白的亲和力比氧与血红蛋白的亲和力大200-300倍,因此,当一氧化碳侵入机体后,便会很快与血红蛋白合成碳氧血红蛋白(cohb),阻碍氧与血红蛋白结合成氧合血红蛋白(hbo2),造成缺氧形成一氧化碳中毒。当吸入浓度为0.5%的一氧化碳,只要20-30分钟,中毒者就会出现脉弱,呼吸变慢,最后衰竭致死。这种急性一氧化碳中毒,常发生在车间事故和家庭取暖不慎时。
长时间接触低浓度的一氧化碳对人体心血管系统、神经系统乃至对后代均有一定影响。
五、光化学烟雾污染与健康
光化学烟雾是排入大气的氮氧化物和碳氢化物受太阳紫外线作用产生的一种具有刺激性的浅蓝色的烟雾。它包含有臭氧(o3)、醛类、硝酸酯类(pan)等多种复杂化合物。这些化合物都是光化学反应生成的二次污染物,主要是光化学氧化剂。当遇逆温或不利于扩散的气象条件时,烟雾会积聚不散,造成大气污染事件,使人眼和呼吸道受刺激或诱发各种呼吸道炎症,危机人体健康。这种污染事件最早出现在美国洛杉矶,所以又称洛杉矶光化学烟雾。近年来,光化学烟雾不仅在美国出现,而且在日本的东京、大板、川崎市,澳大利亚的悉尼、意大利的热那亚和印度的孟买等许多汽车众多的城市都先后出现过。
大气中的氮氧化物和碳氢化物主要来自汽车尾气、石油和煤燃烧的废气、及大量使用挥发性有机溶剂等。在太阳紫外线的作用下,产生化学反应,生成臭氧和醛类等二次污染物。在光化学反应中,臭氧约占85%以上。日光辐射强度是形成光化学烟雾的重要条件,因此在一年中,夏季是发生光化学烟雾的季节;而在一日中,下午2时前后是光化学烟雾达到峰值的时刻。光化学氧化剂可由城市污染区扩散到100公里甚至700公里以外。在汽车排气污染严重的城市,大气中臭氧浓度的增高,可视为光化学烟雾形成的信号。
光化学烟雾对人体最突出的危害是刺激眼睛和上呼吸道粘膜,引起眼睛红肿和喉炎,这可能与产生的醛类等二次污染物的刺激有关。光化学烟雾对人体的另一些危害则与臭氧浓度有关。当大气中臭氧的浓度达到200-1000微克/米3时,会引起哮喘发作,导致上呼吸道疾患恶化,同时也刺激眼睛,使视觉敏感度和视力降低;浓度在400--1600微克/米3时,只要接触两小时就会出现气管刺激症状,引起胸骨下疼痛和肺通透性降低,使机体缺氧;浓度再高,就会出现头痛,并使肺部气道变窄,出现肺气肿。接触时间过长,还会损害中枢神经,导致思维紊乱或引起肺水肿等。臭氧还可引起潜在性的全身影响,如诱发淋巴细胞染色体畸变、损害酶的活性和溶血反应,影响甲状腺功能、使骨骼早期钙化等。长期吸入氧化剂会影响体内细胞的新陈代谢,加速衰老。
预防光化学烟雾要采取一系列综合性的措施,其中包括制定法规,监测废气排放,改良汽车排气系统和提高汽油质量及减少挥发性有机物如油漆、涂料的使用等。
以上,我们介绍了大气污染对人体健康的危害,希望读者在了解上述知识的同时,学会自我保护,并从日常生活和工作中的小事做起,积极参与到保护环境的队伍中来,为自己、为家人、为大家创造一个空气清新、清洁优美的环境,为子孙后代留下蓝天碧水。
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