Developing regional tourism in China

中国区域旅游发展

TourismManagement27(2006)695–706

/locate/tourman

DevelopingregionaltourisminChina:Thepotentialforactivating

businessclustersinasocialistmarketeconomy

JulieJacksonÃ

Of ceoftheVice-Chancellor,LaTrobeUniversity,Melbourne3086,Australia

Received22October2004;accepted4February2005

Abstract

InChina,therearesigni cantinequalitiesinincomedistributionbetweeninlandandcoastalregions.Tourismisregardedasonemeansoffosteringregionaleconomicdevelopmentandamelioratingtheseinequalities.Manyinlanddestinationspossessnaturaladvantagesthatcouldformthebasisforregionalcompetitiveadvantageinthepresenceofnecessaryotherconditions,buthaveexperienceddif cultyindrawingbothdomesticandinternationalvisitorsawayfromthepopularcoastalgateways.ThispaperconsidersthenatureofcompetitiveadvantageandtheapplicabilityofPorter’s(1990.Thecompetitiveadvantageofnations.London:MacmillanPress)theoryinanemergingmarketeconomy.ThedevelopmentofregionaltourismclustersbasedonPorter’s(1998.Oncompetition.Boston:HarvardBusinessReviewPress)modelmaybeawayoffosteringcompetitiveadvantageinregionalChina.Thisisespeciallyrelevantwithrecentpolicyevents,includingtheemergenceofthe‘WestDevelopment’initiative.Thepotentialforthedevelopmentofregionaltourismclustersisexploredinthispaper,which ndsthatwhilePorter’smodelistheoreticallyapplicable,thereismuchworktobedoneatamicro-businesslevelinfosteringclusterdevelopment.r2005ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved.

Keywords:China;WestDevelopment;Competitiveadvantage;Clusters

1.Introduction

Thetourismindustryhasbeenseenasonemeansofpromotingregionaleconomicdevelopmentandameli-oratingregionalinequalities.Howeverwellintentionedsomegovernmentsareaboutregionaldevelopment,theirsuccessinadvancingequitabledistributionofeconomicbene tshasnotalwaysbeenoutstanding.InChina,thereexistsigni cantinequalitiesinincomedistributionbetweeneasterncoastalgatewaysandwesternandinlandprovinces(Demurger,2000;Zhang,2001)exacerbatedbylessthanfullexploitationofpossiblesourcesofcomparativeadvantage.

Recentinitiatives,particularlythe‘WestDevelop-ment’policy,aredesignedtoaddresstheseinequalities,withthetourismindustryplayingaleadingrolein

Tel.:+61394792847;fax:+61394793593.

E-mailaddress:Julie.jackson@latrobe.edu.au.

0261-5177/$-seefrontmatterr2005ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved.doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2005.02.007

regionaldevelopment.AsGaoandGe(2000,p.240)comment‘Tourismshouldtakethelead[inregionaldevelopment]tostimulatelocalemploymentandre-levantbusinesses,promotingdevelopmentofthethirdindustry’.Since1978,indevelopingthetourismindustry,thegovernmentviaChinaNationalTourismAdministration(CNTAorNTAofPRC)hasplayedavitalpartincoordinatingtourismdevelopmentandpromotingthetourismproductinternationally.Ithasalsoful lledtherolesofoperator,regulator,investmentstimulatorandeducator(Zhang,Chong,&Ap,1999).However,inrecentyearstherehasbeenincreasingdecentralisationinvolvingdelegationofroutinedeci-sion-makingand scalreformschemes(Xu,1999,p.16),andtheroleofthecentralgovernmentisconsequentlychanging.

Whilethecontinuingimportanceofaroleforcentralgovernmentsisacknowledged,thispaperarguesfortheemergingimportanceoftheroleofregionalandlocal

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tourismauthoritiesindevelopingandpromotingthetourismproductandtheneedforlocallybasedorganisationalstructurestosupportregionaldevelop-ment.Xu(1999,p.209)hasnotedthat‘People-centred,community-responsiveyapproachesintourismplan-ningandpolicyformulationsareabsent’.Atop-downindustrialpolicyapproachwiththeassociatedsubsidisa-tionandprotectionismisseenaslesslikelytobeproductivethanalocallybasedindustry-drivenmodel.Moreover,traditionalmodelsforregionaldevelopmentthathavematuredincapitalisteconomies,basedontheassumptionsofthecompetitivemarketmodel,donotadmittheuniquehistoricsocialandbusinessculturefromwhichtheChineseeconomyiscurrentlyevolvingtoa‘socialistmarketsystem’.

Thishistoryincorporatescollectivismandthenotionsofguanxi(trust/connections/socialrelationships/in u-ence)andrenqing(humanfeelings/sympathy/giftex-change).Localcollectivesarecharacterisedbyastructurethatfacilitatescooperationthroughimplicitcontractsamongstcommunitymembers.Manyofthemarehorizontallyintegrated,incorporatingnetworksthatincludescientists,engineers,academicsandbusinesspeople(Harvie&Turpin,1997).Alongsidethesefeatures,Chinaisanationwithahugepopulationcompetingfortheuseoftheexistingresourcebase.Thispaperexploreswhetherincreasingself-relianceinregionaltourismdevelopmentviacreationoractivationofregionalandlocaltourismclustersbasedonPorter’s(1998)modelandlocatedinPorter’s(1990)theoryofcompetitiveadvantage,isaneffectivemodelforChina.Theseclustersmightthenbecomethemeansofconvertingcomparativeadvantagetocompetitivead-vantageinregionalChinaandmakingbetteruseofexistingtourismresources.Itisproposedthat,whilethemodelofbusinessclusterswasalsomaturedwithinthecapitalistmarketsystem,therearespeci cfeaturesofthemodelthataretheoreticallyconsonantwithguanxi,renqing,localcollectivesandthe‘socialistmarketsystem’.Porter’smodelprovidesanorganisationalstructureforregionaldevelopmentlinkedtoatheoryofcompetitivebehaviourthatmaybetteraccommodatethesefeaturesoftheChinesesystem.

2.Background

2.1.RegionalinequalitiesandtourisminChinaSince1978,facedwiththeimperativesofeconomicdevelopmentandmodernisation,withtheintroductionoftheopennessandreformpolicy,theChineseeconomyhasbeengraduallyevolvingfromaclosedsocialisteconomytowardsamarketsystem.ThelateststageinthisprogresstowardsanopenglobaleconomyismarkedbyChina’sentrytotheWorldTradeOrganizationin

November2001.From1978to2000itwasestimatedthattheaveragegrowthratewouldbeintheorderof10%perannum(Tisdell&Chai,1997,p.1).However,thisaggregate gureobscureslargeinter-provincialdisparitiesinthegrowththatactuallyoccurredoverthistimeperiod,withcoastalregionsenjoyingaveragegrowthratesofupto14%,whileinlandprovincesmayhavehadgrowthratesofaslittleas6.9%overthesameperiod(Demurger,2000,p.15).

ThecurrentinequalityinwealthdistributioninChinacanbeattributedinparttotheprocessbywhichChina’sprogresstoamarketeconomyhastakenplace.Theopennessandreformpolicythat,amongstotherthings,enabledinboundtourismandtheassociatedearningsofforeignincome,wasintroducedinDecember1978,butwasnotappliedtoallprovincesatthesamerate(Demurger,2000).At rstitwasappliedonlytoselectedcoastalprovincesinitiallyGuangdongandFujian(Demurger,2000,p.14),whichwereintendedtobecometheenginesforthegrowthprocessinChina.Indeed,inthe ve-yearplanfrom1981to1985theintentionto‘exploittheeconomicpowerofthecoastalregionsyinordertopromoteeconomicdevelopmentintheinterior’wasexplicitlystated(Lemoine,1994,quotedinDemur-ger,2000,p.14).Thispatternofinequalityhasalsobeenreinforcedbyforeigninvestment.In1983,almost93%ofForeignDirectInvestment(FDI) owswenttotheeastcoast‘gateway’regionsofChina(Demurger,2000,p.21).TheseprovincesareGuangdong,Beijing,Fujian,Shanghai,Jiangsu,Liaoning,Guanxi,Tianjin,Shan-dong,ZhejiangandHainan(seeFig.1).In2002,forthesame11provincesitwasjustunder86%(ChinaStatisticalYearbook2003,p.675).

Thetourismindustryisanareainwhichthemove-menttoa‘socialistmarketsystem’hasbeenmostrapidandpronounced.Also,theinternationaltourismin-dustryisanexportsectorandenjoysnationalincentivelegislation(Xu,1999,p.20).Earningsfrominterna-tionaltourismhaverisenfrom$US7.223billionin1994to$US18.53billionin2002(NTAofPRC).However,asisalsothecasewithbroadereconomicdevelopmentinChina,bothdomesticandinternationaltouristactivityisheavilyconcentratedonthecoastalgateways.In2000,thetop12tourismregions,asmeasuredbytotalarrivals,accountedfor82.9%oftotalvisits,including77.1%ofinternationalvisitorsand86.8%offoreignexchangeearningsfromtourism(seeTable1).

Nineofthesetop12arecoastalgatewayprovincesidenti edbyDemurger(2000).Inlandprovincestobeincludedinthetop12areShaanxi,whichhousesthefamousTerracottaWarriorsatXi’anandawealthofwell-promotedhistoricandculturalattractions,andYunnan,withthebeautifulcityofKunming,theStoneforestandahostofhistoricalandculturalattractions.Guangxi,identi edbyDemurger(2000)asoneofthe11coastalprovinces,butreceivingtheleastamountof

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Fig.1.TheWestDevelopmentprovinces.

Table1

Tourismindicatorsforthetop12tourismprovincesin2000Province

TotalForeignForeignexchangearrivals(%)arrivals(%)earningsfrom

tourism(%)38.59.15.85.25.243.63.22.32.321.883311.231m

14.516.29.83.46.73.54.44.53.343.43.477.1146.801m

28.719.311.36.25.12.13.62.42.222.71.386.9US$14325m

GuangdongBeijingShanghaiFujianJiangsuGuanxiaZheijiangYunnanaShandongShaanxiaLiaoningHeilongjiang

Totalfortop12(%)Total

By2002,whiletherewassomemovementinthetop12provincialtourismdestinationsasmeasuredbytotalarrivals,theseprovincesstillenjoyed83.2%oftotalvisitation,and77.3%ofinternationalvisitorsand86.4%offoreignexchangeearningsfromtourism(NTAofPRC).Thetop12werestilldominatedbytheeastcoastalregionswiththe‘WestDevelopment’provincesofYunnanrankedninth,Shaanxi10thandGuangxi12th.TheunevengrowthintourismactivityandthepotentialtoexacerbateregionalinequalitiesinChinahasbeennotedbyanumberofresearchersincludingZhang(2001)andWenandTisdell(1997).2.2.RegionaldevelopmentinChina

Inpursuingregionaldevelopment,manyregionsandcitiesinChinahaveembarkedonatourism-orienteddevelopmentcourse(Xu,1999,p.17).Inparticular,sinceearly200012provincesinwesternandinlandChinahavejoinedtogetherinthe‘WestDevelopment’campaignaimedatregionaldevelopmentwithtourismactivitybeinganimportantdriver.Thismeansthatthetourismindustrywillbeasupportedindustry,withtheintentionofincreasingthepaceofregionaldevelopment.

Currently,inthetourismindustry,westChinalackscompetitivenesswitheastChinaasshownearlierinTable1.AsfurtherdemonstratedinTable2,theyattractedonly15.8%ofdomestictourismand21.3%ofinternationaltourismin2000.In2002itwas14.9%and19.7%,respectively.AccordingtoLiXuemei(Head,

Source:NationalTourismAdministrationofPRC.ChinaTourismStatisticsMonthlyBulletins(various).a

WestDevelopmentprovinces.

FDI,hasnowjoinedwith11otherwesternprovincesinthe‘WestDevelopment’initiative(seeFig.1).Thisinitiativehastheaspirationthat‘bythemid21stcentury,thewesternregionshouldbedevelopedintoanareawithathrivingeconomy[withan]advancedsocietyyandstablelivingconditions’().

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Table2

IndicatorsoftourismactivityintheWestDevelopmentprovincesProvince

%oftotalvisits2000

InnerMongoliaGuangxiChonqingSichuanGuizhouYunnanTibetShaanxiGansuQinghaiNingxiaXinjiangTotal

1.340.91.50.63.20.52.30.70.10.030.815.93

20021.13.41.11.70.63.20.42.10.60.10.020.715.02

%offoreignvisits20002.63.51.31.40.54.50.9410.10.041.421.24

20022.23.31.62.10.43.90.73.60.80.10.021.219.92

%offoreignexchangeearningsfromtourism20000.92.110.90.42.40.420.40.10.020.711.32

20020.81.71.21.10.42.30.31.90.30.10.010.510.61

Source:NationalTourismAdministrationofPRC.ChinaTourismStatisticsMonthlyBulletins(various).

Xi’anTouristBureau,speakerattheForumonChina’sTourism,June2001),in2000,therewasa1.3billionYuantourismnationaldebt,withthegreaterpartofthedebtinwestChina.ThisattractssomeattentionfrombusinessleadersineastChinasomeofwhomobjecttothissubsidisation.However,asTable2alsoshows,whilethe12provincesconcernedgeneratedover21%offoreignvisitsin2000,theyaccountedforalittleover11%offoreignexchangeearningsfromtourism.By2002,thesituationhadnotimprovedwith19.9%ofinternationalvisitationrewardedwith10.6%offoreignexchangeearnings.

FurtherunderliningtheimportanceofanationalstrategyforthedevelopmentofwestChinaisthecontinuingverysmallproportionofFDIinthese12regions.Since1999ithasfallenfrom4.6%ofthetotalto3.8%in2002(ChinaStatisticalYearbook2003,p.675).

3.Researchissue

Toassistinaddressingthisunequaldistributionofwealthandopportunityinapreviouslysocialisteconomythatismovingtowardsamarketsystem,anewmodelforregionaldevelopmentinChinaisrequired,whichwillfostercompetitiveadvantageintheregions.Modelsforregionaldevelopmentthathaveevolvedovertheyearsincapitalisteconomiesbasedontheassumptionsofclassicalandneo-classicalmicro-economicsaboutthebehaviourofeconomicunits,suchasthoseproposedbyIsard(1956,1982),Kaldor(1970),andPerroux(1950,1970,1988)maynotsuittheuniquecultureandpoliticaleconomyofChinaatitscurrentstageofdevelopment.

AsuitablemodelshouldbeabletodrawonthestrengthsofthetraditionalChinesecultureincludingthe

closefamilytiesandlocalcollectives,whilebeingabletotakeadvantageofeconomicandbusinesstheorysuitedtoamodernnationcompetingintheglobaleconomy.ChristersonandLever-Tracy(1997)havepreviouslydemonstratedthesimilaritiesbetweenruralindustrialareasofChinawiththeindustrialdistrictsoftheThirdItaly.TheindustrialdistrictmodelaselucidatedbyauthorssuchasPioreandSabel(1984)andBeccatini(1987)focusesongeographicconcentrationsofcompa-niesoperatinginparticular eldsandpointstotheimportanceoftrustingrelationshipsbetween rms.Porter(1990,1998)embedsthesegeographicconcen-trationsinadynamicconceptofcompetitionthatincorporatesproductivityanddifferentiation,aswellascontinuousimprovementandinnovation.ThispaperexploreswhetherPorter’s(1990)theoryofcompetitiveadvantageandhis1998elaborationoftheconceptofbusinessclustersisanappropriatemodelforapplicationintheChinesecontext.Speci cresearchquestionsaddressedinclude:

Towhatextentaretheelementsofcompetitiveadvantageidenti edinPorter’sdiamondpresentinthetourismindustryinwestChina?

Towhatextentaretheprerequisitesforsuccessfulclusterdevelopmentpresentamongstmembers,atvaryinglevels,ofthetourismindustryinwestChina?IsPorter’sclustertheorysuitableforapplicationinregionaltourismdevelopmentinChina?

3.1.Acquiringcompetitiveadvantage

Porter(1990)seestheinteractionbetweenthefourelementsoffactorendowment,relatedandsupportingindustry,demandconditionsandthecontextfor rm

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. A local context that encourages appropriate forms of Investment andsustained upgrading

. Vigorous competition among locally-basedrivals

Fig.2.Porter’sdiamond(AdaptedfromPorter,1998,p.211).

strategy,structureandrivalryasbeingcriticaltotheevolutionofcompetitiveadvantage(Fig.2).

Businessclustersareamanifestationoftherelation-shipsthatcandevelopbetweensectorsofanindustry,theexactnatureofwhichwillbein uencedbythecultural,economicandpoliticalenvironment,butgiventhenecessaryfactorendowmentincludingratesoffactordevelopment,andbothlocalandinternationaldemandconditions.

3.2.Businessclusters

Inadditiontoexistingfederal,provincialandregionaltourisminitiativesinChinathereshouldbearesponsi-bility,atamicro-economiclevel,onlocaltourismbusinessestocontributetotheirregion’sdevelopment.Apossiblewayofactivatinglocalbusinessestocontributeinthiswayisviathecreationofbusinessclusters.Porter(1998,p.197)de nesaclusteras‘ygeographicconcentrationsofinterconnectedcompa-nies,specialisedsuppliers,serviceproviders, rmsinrelatedindustries,andassociatedinstitutionsinparticular eldsthatcompetebutalsocooperate’.Clustersarebroaderthanindustriescapturinglinkages,complemen-tarities,skills,marketing,andcustomerneedsthatcutacross rmsandindustries.Thisattributeofcuttingacross,andlinkingthefortunesof, rmsandindustriesenhancestheglobalcompetitivenessof rmswithinthecluster.Suchclusterdevelopmentincorporatingcompeti-tionbetweenlike rmsfacilitatesincreasedproductivity,increasesthecapacityforinnovationandproductivitygrowth,andstimulatesnewbusinessformationthatsupportsinnovation(Porter,1998,p.213).

Theclusterapproachentailsmakingmoreef cientuseofknowledgeandonbuildingconstructiveinterac-tionsbetweendifferentpartiesinthecluster.Cluster

policiesaredesignedtostrengthencompetitionbasedondifferentiationandspecialisation,ratherthancompeti-tionbasedonimitationandcostcutting(Jacobs&deMan,1996,p.430).ThefosteringofcooperativerelationshipsbasedondifferentiatedbusinessesisalsoemphasisedbyDoeringerandTerkla(1995)andGordonandMcCann(2000)andtheapplicationofclustertheoryinthetourismindustrybyothersincludingGoandWilliams(1993),Hall(2004,2005a,Chap.6primarily,2005b),Hall,Cambourne,Macionis,andJohnson(1997)JacksonandMurphy(2002)andKonosolas(2002).

Inclusteranalysis,governmentsupportisnotfocusedonprotectionismorsubsidisationofindustrysectorsbutmoretoimprovingthebusinessenvironmentthroughinfrastructuredevelopmentofpublicandquasi-publicgoodsthatimpactacrossarangeofindustries.Thismeansthattheroleofgovernmentincludesfacilitatinginputssuchasaneducatedworkforce,physicalinfra-structure,accreditationandregulationofstandardsandprovisionofaccurateandtimelyeconomicinformation.Additionally,thegovernmentalpurviewincludesensur-ingmacroeconomicandpoliticalstabilityaswellasappropriatetaxationandlegalsystems.

3.3.Characteristicsofsuccessfulclusters(Porter,1998)

Wideinvolvementofclusterparticipantsandassociatedinstitutionsandappropriateclusterboundaries.Tourismclustersshouldincludeallelementsofthetourismmixincludingaccommodationproviders,foodandbeverage,travelandtours,attractioncoordinators,eventpromoters,educationandre-searchinstitutions.Geographicboundariesshouldalsore ecteconomic,notpoliticalreality,henceclustersshouldnotbecon nedbystateorlocalgovernmentborders.

Inadditiontoestablishinglinkagesbetweentourismandtourism-relatedsectorswithinageographiclocation,thefollowingcharacteristicsofPorter’s

modelareimportant.

Asharedunderstandingofthecompetitivebusinessethicimpliesthatclusterparticipantsallunderstandthatgainsinproductivityandinnovationwillcontributemoretocompetitiveadvantagethanwillpricecuttingunderpinnedbylowwages,lowtaxesoradevaluedcurrency.Rivalrybetween rmsproducingthesameproductismorelikelytoleadtoinnovationanddifferentiationthaniscollusiontolimitcompeti-tionorseekgovernmentsubsidies.Theheterogeneityoftheelementsoftheclusterisalsoanimportantaspectofthetheoryinthetourismcontext,asthehorizontallinkagesthataredevelopedareunlikelytocreatethesituationwherethemembersoftheclustershareauniformapproachtocompetitionthatmayinhibitinnovation.

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Infosteringanattitudetocompetitionbasedondifferentiationandinnovationratherthanprice,closeattentiontopersonalrelationshipsandtrustinsustainedcollaborationrepresentsthetacitbusiness-to-businessunderstandingthatgoesbeyondthewrittencontracts.Asaresultoflong-termbusinessrelationships,trust

buildsupbetweenthevariousparties.

Strongprivatesectorleadership.Whileinitiallypublicsectorauthoritiesmaybeinvolvedinfacilitatingclusterdevelopment,theleadershipfortheestablishedclustershouldbefromwithinthebusinessmember-shipoftheclusters.Strongleadershipwillallowexplicitup-frontgoalsettingandcontinualreinforce-mentofthesegoalstoavoidtheurgetoseeksubsidies

orlimitcompetition.

Institutionalisationofconcepts,relationships,andlinkages.Centralandprovincialgovernments,localtradeandbusinessdevelopmentorganisationsmaytakeanimportantfacilitationroleinformalisingandinstitutionalisinglinksandrelationshipsbetweentourismbusinessestoensurethelonger-termsurvivalofthecluster.Thisformalisationofrelationshipsisapointofdifferencefromearlierindustrialdistrictmodelsofbusinessorganisation.

Insum,clustertheoryfeaturestheimportanceoflocation,partnershipsbetweenorganisations,theim-portanceofclusterintersectionsandthesynergiesachievedthroughcompetitionalongsidecooperationbetweendifferentiated rms.ItisembeddedinPorter’s(1990)theoryofcompetitiveadvantageasameansofstrengtheningthelinkagesbetweenrelatedandsupport-ingindustrieswithinacontextfor rmstrategyandstructuredictatedbyanation’scultureandpoliticaleconomy.

3.4.Addingvaluetonaturaladvantage

AspointedoutbyBordas(1994,p.4),‘Nowadaysthesuccessofaclusterininternationaltourismmarketsdependslessandlessonitscomparativeadvantagesandmoreonitscompetitiveones’.Hence,theideaistomovefrompossessionofthecomparativeadvantage,whichmaybeendowedbynaturaladvantages,toapositionofcompetitiveadvantageutilisingthetheoryofbusinessclusters.Aproperlyfunctioningbusinessclusterwillreduceisolationofsmallandmediumenterprises,resultinincreasedproductivity,anincreasedcapacityforinnovationandwillstimulatenewbusinessformation.TheissueforinlanddestinationsinChinaishowtodeveloptheirnaturaladvantagesandfactorendowmentinaninnovativeway.Outcomeswilldependupontheimaginationandproductivitywithwhich rmsinalocationcancooperativelymanagetheseresources,inasustainablefashion,toproducevaluablegoodsandservices.Inadditiontocreatinganenvironmentthat

fostersinnovation,ahealthyclusterattainingacriticalmassalsogeneratesaself-reinforcingprocesstowhichotherbusinessesareattractedbecauseagrowingclustersignalsopportunityforalertentrepreneurs.Itisalsopossiblethatthedevelopmentofaclusterinoneindustrywillleadtorecognitionanddevelopmentofotherrelatedclusters.Forexample,thedevelopmentofatourismclustercouldbeapositiveforceinimprovinginfrastructuresuchastransportandcommunicationlinksforotherindustryclusters.Insuchaway,thedevelopmentoftourismbusinessclustersseemsanidealwayofsupportinggeneraleconomicdevelopment.3.5.Methodandlimitations

Thispaper rstexaminesthepresenceofthefourkeyelementsofPorter’sdiamondinthestudyregionthroughsecondarydatasources,aliteraturesearchincludingpresentationsattheForumonChina’sTourismheldin2001,andinterviewswithlocalindustryleaders.Thiswasdonetoestablishthepre-conditionsforconvertingcomparativeadvantagetocompetitiveadvantage.High-levelindustry,regionalgovernment,CNTAandacademicattitudestoclusterformationwerealsoelicitedduringtheForumonChina’sTourism.Forthepragmaticreasonsofaccesstosubjectsandinterpreters,theprovinceofSichuanwaschosenasafocusfortheprimarydatacollection.Aseriesofquestionnaire-basedandfollow-upin-depthinterviewswereconductedwithtenmanagement-levelmembersofthelocaltourismindustryfromtheaccommodation,foodandbeverage,travelandtours,andregionaltourismof cesinSichuan.Throughthesemeanstheunderstandingofcompetitionandcompetitivebeha-viourandtheirinteractionandcooperationwithotherbusinessesintheindustrywasexamined,toestablishtheirreceptivitytoclusterformation.Theinterviewswerebasedonastructuredquestionnaire,translatedintoChineseandwiththeassistanceofaninterpreterfromSichuanUniversity.Follow-upquestionsweredonethroughtheinterpreter.Responsesweretran-scribedontheChineselanguagequestionnairesandtranslatedbytheinterpreterontotheEnglishlanguagequestionnaires.

Respondentswereinvitedtorespondtoaseriesofdiagnosticstatementsregardinghowtheregioncouldbecomemorecompetitive,howindividualbusinessescouldbecomemorecompetitiveandthenatureoftheirinteractionwithotherbusinesses,using7-pointLikert-typescales.Follow-upquestionssoughtfurtherexpla-nationoftheresponsestothestructuredquestionnaire.Limitationstothisstudywereimposedbythevariabilityofthesecondarydatasources,witharangeofdifferentresultsformeasurespertainingtothesamevariable.Hencetheselectionofwhichresultstouserequiredsomejudgementcalls.Additionally,whiledata

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wasavailablefor2003,itwasnotusedasitwassigni cantlyaffectedbytheSARSoutbreakinChina.Fortheprimarydatacollection,intheabsenceofcomprehensivedatabasesofmembersofthelocalindustry,personalcontactsthroughtheUniversityofSichuan’sSchoolofTourismwereused,sothesamplewillre ectsomebias.Thisisevidencedwithlackofrepresentationofsmallertourismoperators,andalsothoseinterviewedrepresentingonlyalimitedrangeoftourism-relatedindustries.FuturestudieswouldextendthisprimarydatacollectiontootherinlandregionsofChinaandtoawidergroupofindustries.However,theinterviewsthatwereconductedwereinconsiderabledepth,providingusefulinsightsandquiterichdata.

4.Results—opportunitiesininlandChina4.1.Elementsofcompetitiveadvantage

ThetourismindustryinwestChinaisnoworganisingtocooperativelydevelopandpromotetheirproduct.InJune2001,theForumonChina’sTourismwasheldinChengdu,SichuanProvince,withover200participantsfromprovincialgovernments,CNTA,thetourismindustry,tourismacademicsfromaroundChinaandselectedrepresentativesfromotherPaci cRimnations.Whilesuchactivitiesrevealthedesireforactionatbothanindustryleadershipandtheoreticalacademiclevelandhenceahigh-levelperceptionofthepotentialforregionalclusterdevelopment,itisalsonecessarytoconsidertheotherdeterminantsofcompetitiveadvantage.

4.1.1.Factorendowment

Theemergenceofthe‘WestDevelopment’initiative,intendedtofosterregionaldevelopmentviadevelopingthetourismproductintheearlystages,meansthattherearebroadopportunitiesinthetourismsector.Itisheld,bythelocalindustry,thatthenaturaladvantagesandtourismattractionsinthewestareunmatchableelse-whereinChina,enablingittoproduceauniquetourismproductandcomparativeadvantage(ForumonChina’sTourism,2001;Liuzhen&Feng,2000).

NaturaladvantageshereincludespectacularsceneryandenvironmentalattractionssuchastheThreeGorgesontheYangtzeRiverinChongqing,theoasiscityofUrumqiinXinjiang,themigratorybirdsonQinghaiLake,theSilverbeachareainGuanxi,andtheonlyknownremaininggiantpandahabitatandtheJiuzhai-gou-HuanglongworldheritagesiteinSichuan.UniqueculturalattractionsincludetheTerracottaWarriorsinShaanxi,thehistoricSilkRoadrouterunningthroughmanyofthewesternprovinces,‘mysteriousTibet’,theMausoleumofGhengisKhaninInnerMongolia,thefamousSichuancuisine,thevaryingculturesrepresented

bythe‘ethnicminority’groupsofwestChina,andanabundanceofhistoricalandarchaeologicalsitesandmuseums.GaoandGe(2000,p.216)identifytheneedto‘enhanceandexpandtheexistingheritagetourismsoastoleadanoveralldevelopmentofthethirdindustry’.InrecentyearsinwestChinatherateoffactorupgradinghasbeensubstantial.Inthe veyearssincetheannouncementofthe‘WestDevelopment’initiative,some$US48billionhasbeeninvestedinwestChina(XinhuaNewsagency,2004).Therehasbeenrapiddevelopmentoftransportationinfrastructurewithwide-spreadexpresswaycreation,oftenviajointventureswithforeigncompanies.Itisestimatedthatthereisnowover7000kmofexpresswayinthewest(XinhuaNews-agency,2004).Additionally,arecentlyconstructedextensiverailwaynetworkconnectsmanyofthemajorwesternChinesecitiestothemajorcoastalcities.Thereareinternationalairports,usuallyaccessedthroughHongKong,Beijing,orShanghailocatedintheprovincesofSichuan,Chongqing,Yunnan,Guanxi,Shaanxi,Xinjiang,andNingxia.InTibet,majorroadnetworkshavebeencompleted,inthe10th ve-yearplan,connectingLhasawithotherregionalTibetancentres(Lie,2001,p.3).

Otheressentialtourisminfrastructuredevelopmenthasalsotakenplace.Attheendof2002inthe12provincesinquestion,therewere12touristhotelswithmorethan500roomsandafurther60with300–499rooms.Thisrepresents15%and19%,respectively,ofthenationalstock(ChinaStatisticalYearbook2003,p.604).InternationalhotelchainsincludingHyatt,Sher-atonandHolidayInnarenowwidelylocatedthrough-outthewesternprovinces.

IssuesconfrontingthetourismindustryinwestChinaidenti edattheForumonChina’sTourismwerewideranging.Accessfromthecoastalgatewaysandtheexpenseinvolvedwithtravelduetothedistancebetweenattractionsinthewestwashighlighted.Suchselectivefactordisadvantageswillrequireinnovativemeanstoovercomethem.OneexampleofhowthismightbedoneisthewayinwhichChengduinSichuanandXi’aninShaanximarketthemselvesasthe‘sparklingcities’andhavecombinedtojointlydevelopaproductincorporat-ingatouristrouteconnectingthem.Thecreativepromotionofamoresubstantialproductisonemeansofsurmountingfactordisadvantages.

4.1.2.Demandconditions

TheopeningupoftheChineseeconomyfrom1978hasresultedinincreasesinprosperityandgreatermobilityoftheChinesepopulation.WiththisgrowthintheChineseeconomyandrapidlyincreasingoppor-tunitiesforoutboundtourismtherehasbeenanassociatedincreaseinboththequantityandqualityofdomestictourismactivity.Between1993and2003,thenumbersofoutboundtouristsincreasedfrom3.74

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millionpersonsto20.2million(ChinaNationalTourismOrganization(CNTO)).Thenumberofdomestictouristsincreasedfrom639millionin1996toover878millionin2002(CNTO).Thequalityofdomesticdemandisenhancedbyanincreasingsophisticationassociatedwithwideningexperienceofinternationaldestinations.

Asindicatedearlier,internationaldemandfortourismtoChinahasalsoincreasedsubstantiallysincetheopennessandreformpolicyin1978,underpinnedbyfactorupgradinginresponsetothegrowingsophisticationofdomesticdemand.In2002,Chinaranked fthintheworldasatourismdestination,upfrom34thin1980(CNTO,WorldTourismOrganization gures).

4.1.3.Relatedandsupportingindustries

Acrossthe12provinces,thepresenceofrelatedandsupportingindustriesvaries.However,ingeneraltheyarewellendowedwithaheterogeneousrangeincludingaccommodation,foodandbeverageoutlets,man-madeandnaturalattractions,festivals,agriculturalandhorticulturalenterprises,transportandtourorganizers,handcraftsandsouvenirsplusarangeofserviceindustriestosupportthesetourism-relatedbusinesses.MajoruniversitiesinSichuanandYunnanofferprogramsintourismandhospitality.

Atamicro-level,however,thelinkagesbetweentheseorganisationsarequiteweakaswillbediscussedintheresultsoftheprimarydatacollection.

4.1.4.Contextfor rmstructureandstrategy

Fromthebeginningofthe‘GreatLeapForward’in1958privatelyownedSMEswerelargelytransformedintocollectives,manyofwhichwerethentransferredintostateownership.WhiletherehasbeenamovementtowardsamoremarketdrivensystemfortourisminChinasince1978,manyofthetourismbusinessesarestillownedbythestateorlargenationalorinternationalcompanies.Therearestillnolargenumbersofsmalltomediumenterprises(SMEs)thatareprivatelyowned,rgertourismbusinessesinwestChinaarealsostillpredominantlystateowned.Forexample,ofthe2043touristhotelsofalltypesinthe‘WestDevelopment’regionsin2002,fewerthan6%wereprivatelyowned,whilearound10%werecollec-tivelyownedandover62%werestateowned(ChinaStatisticalYearbook2003,p.693).

ThereisnoreadilyavailabledataonownershipofSMEs;however,anindicationofownershippatternscanbegleanedfromsecondarydataforotherindustrygroups.Forallindustrygroupswithabove5millionYuanannualturnoverintheseprovinces,therateofprivateownershipisbelow6%,whilestateownershipisover42%.Thiscomparestolessthan20%state

ownershipintheeasternprovincesofChinawhichhaveasigni cantlyhigherproportionofinternationallyownedbusinessesthanthewesternprovinces.BothsidesofChinamaintainabout15%collectivelyownedenterprises(ChinaStatisticalYearbook2003,pp.461–464).

Withcollectivesbeingahistoricallyacceptedorganisa-tionalforminChina,itispossiblethatthereissomeconsonanceofbusinessclusterswiththemodelsoflocalcollectiveswhichmaybeexploitedwithinthe‘socialistmarketsystem’thathasevolvedinChina’stourismindustryinrecentyears(Zhangetal.,1999,p.480).Xu(1999,p.218)alsoarguesforbroadeningtheconceptofthetourismindustrysystem‘toestablisharticulationsbetweentourismandtourism-relatedsectors’,indicatingsupportforcluster-likedevelopmentatatheoreticallevel.

4.1.5.TheroleofgovernmentincreatingthecontextReducedrelianceongovernmentsubsidisationisacornerstoneofbusinessclustertheory.In1998,PremierZhuannouncedcutbacksinsubsidisationofunpro ta-bleenterprises,whichincreasesthemotivationforself-relianceinlocaltourismenterprises.Further,withtheemergenceofthesocialistmarketmodelinthetourismindustryinChina(Zhangetal.,1999)andthedevelopmentofsmallcollectiveorprivateenterprisesthatareoutsidestateplans,nurturingthenecessarysharedunderstandingofthecompetitivebusinessethicmaybepossible.Hencetherecouldbeacombinationofcompetitionandcooperationinproducinga exibleentrepreneurialattitudetomarketforces.

AttheForumonChina’sTourism,arecurringthemefrompresenters,inassessingthemovetowardsamarketeconomy,wastheresistancetochangebysomegovernmentof cialswhoarestillarguingforamajorroleforgovernmentintourismactivity.However,academicsandindustryleadersarguedforlessinter-ferenceinthemarket,signifyingasophisticatedunder-standingofthepossiblerolesforcentralgovernmentinamorecompetitivemarketmodel.‘Theroleofgovernmenthasnotbeenenhancedorclari ed.Forinstance,thereisstrongparochialismandthegovern-mentisweakinadjustingthesituation.Besides,notonlythetourismindustrybutalsothegovernmentshouldbemarketoriented.Ithasbeensaidthattourismisthemajorindustryundergovernmentdirection.Yetitisnotclearwhatspeci careasthegovernmentshoulddirect’(Fu&Wu,2001,p.12).

Inadditiontotherolesofgovernmentidenti edbyPorter(1990)mentionedearlierinthispaper,Xu(1999,p.219)viewsanappropriateroleas,apartfromstart-up nancialandtechnicalassistanceandincentivelegislation,itiscrucialthattheyfoster‘inter-regionalcooperationandsounddivisionofdemandmarkets’.

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4.2.Potentialforclusterformation

ThereareindicationsofsupportforthenotionofclusteringattheindustryleadershiplevelasevidencedbytheinputofparticipantsintheForumonChina’sTourismin2001.Intheinterviewswithmanagement-levelrepresentativesoflocaltourism-relatedbusinessesincludingaccommodation,foodandbeverage,travelandtourcentres,andlocaltourismorganisationsthefollowingthemeswerediscerned.

4.2.1.Developingregionalcompetitiveadvantage

Recallingtheverysmallsamplesizeof10anditscomposition,asfarasmakingtheregionmorecompetitiveinthetourismindustry,thoseinterviewedratedasmostimportantthequalityofinfrastructure,localprovisionofeducationandtrainingandlinkstonationalorinternationaltourismorganisations.Theconditionsthattheyratedasrelativelylessimportantwerestronglocalleadershipintheindustry,theinvolvementofstateorfederalgovernmentintourismdevelopmentandinvestmentbyexternalbodiesintourismbusiness(Table3).

Fromfollow-upquestionstothisverylimitedsample,mostofwhomwerepartoflargernationalorinterna-tionalorganisations,thereappearstobeasenseofsecurityinbelongingtoalargertourismbusinessorganisation.Thedesireatthislevelappearstobeforverticallyintegratednationalorinternationaltourismbusinesses,ratherthananindustrythatishorizontallyandlocallylinkedandsupportedbylocaltourismleaders.Whatisdesiredlocallyisinfrastructureandeducation,anditisthisthatisthegovernment’sroleratherthaninvolvementindevelopinglocaltourism.4.2.2.UnderstandingofthecompetitivebusinessethicInassessingattitudestocompetition,respondentsrated,asmostimportanttobecomingmorecompetitive,

improvingproductivity,productinnovations,co-oper-atingwithotherlocalbusinessesandworkingwithnationaltourismbusinesses.Initiativesconsideredleastimportantwerejoiningtolimitentryofothers,loweringprices,reducingproductioncosts/wagesandreceivinggovernmentsubsidies(Table4).

Theseresponsesre ectanattitudetocompetitionthatisconsistentwiththatnecessaryforclusterformation,withcompetitionbeingbasedoninnovationanddifferentiationratherthanonprice,llow-upquestions,participantswerequitede nitethatwageswerealreadyquitelowandshouldnotbecut,lesttheylosegoodstaff.

Apotentialnegativesideofguanximighthaveresultedintheanti-competitivebehaviourofjoiningwithconnectionstolimitmarketentry.However,whiletheaccommodationrespondentsbemoanedthefactthattherewerenowtoomanyluxuryhotelsinChengdu,andthattheylostgoodstaffthroughpoaching,theydidnotfeelableorinclinedtojointogethertoexcludeothernewplayersfromenteringthemarket.

4.2.3.Personalrelationships,trustinsustainedcollaborationandlocalleadership

Inmovingfromthecontextofasocialistsystemtoacompetitivemarketeconomy,thequalitiesidenti edbyChristersonandLever-Tracy(1997)inruralChina,especiallythestrongfamilytiesandresultingtrustrelationships,theculturalaspectsofguanxiandrenqingandthehistoryofcollectivisationmightful lthecharacteristicofcloseattentiontopersonalrelationshipsandtrustinsustainedcollaborationidenti edbyPorter(1998)inthedevelopmentofactivetourismclustersinregionalwestChina.TheresponsefrommembersofthesamplewithrespecttointeractingwithothermembersoftheindustryisshowninTable5.

Respondentsregardedthemselvesascompetingstronglywithotherbusinessesandwhiletheygenerally

Table3

Attitudestodevelopingregionalcompetitiveadvantage

HowimportantarethefollowinginmakingyourregionmorecompetitiveinthetourismindustryLocalprovisionofeducationandtrainingforstaffLinksbetweentourismrelatedbusinesses

Qualityofinfrastructure(roads,rail,accommodation)InvestmentintheregionbysourcesexternaltotheregionThepossessionofuniquenaturaladvantagesInnovativetourismdevelopmentsorinitiativesConductofspecialeventsorfestivals

InvolvementofstateorcentralgovernmentintourismdevelopmentTechnologicaldevelopments(puterisedbookingsystems)LinkswithnationalorinternationaltourismbusinessorganisationsStronglocalleadershipinthetourismindustry

Responsesmeasuredona7-pointLikert-typescalewhere1¼unimportant,7¼mostimportant.

Meanresponse6.56.1774.86.175.335456.33.3

Standarddeviation0.81.601.511.91.12.20.90.82.9

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Table4

AttitudestocompetitionandcompetitivebehaviourMyownbusinesscouldbecomemorecompetitiveby:

Improvingproductivity(moreef cientuseofresources)Reducingprices

Imitatingothersuccessfulbusinesses

ReducingproductioncostssuchaswagesReducedtaxes

Innovationsinmyproduct

Receivinggovernmentsubsidies

ParticipatinginlocaltourismorganisationsinvolvedinsellingthedestinationBuildingrelationshipswithlocalsuppliers

ClearlydifferentiatingmyproductfromothersimilarproductsReducedgovernmentregulation

Increasingmyadvertisingexpenditure

Workingcooperativelywithother,similar,businesses

Joiningwithotherbusinessestolimitentrytothelocalmarket

WorkingcooperativelywithotherlocalbusinessesinthetourismindustryWorkingcooperativelywithothernationalbusinessesinthetourismindustry

Meanresponse72.752.84.873.456.45.84.266.21.46.86.8

Standarddeviation0112.11.302.61.20.51.61.50.70.80.80.40.4

Table5

Interactionwithotherbusinesses

Regardinginteractionwithotherlocalbusinesses

WherepossibleItaketheopportunitytoworkcooperativelywithotherlocaltourismrelatedbusinessestosellthedestination rst

IcompetestronglywithothersimilarlocalbusinessesIamamemberoflocaltourism/businessorganisationIregularlyattendindustryfunctionsandactivitiesIprefertodobusinesswithpeopleIknowwell

Ithinkthatthereisthepotentialtoincreaselinkageswithothertourismrelatedbusinessesinthisregion

Thelocalindustryneedshelptodevelopandmaintaintheselinkages

Developmentandleadershipofsuchlinkagesshouldbemanagedbylocalorganisationsratherthangovernments

Responsesmeasuredona7-pointLikert-typescale1¼never,7¼always.

Meanresponse5.675.84.82.875.44

Standarddeviation1.502.732.602.62.1

agreedabouttheirdegreeofco-operationwithotherbusinesses,believedthattherewaspotentialtoincreaselinkageswithothertourismbusinesses.Theyexpressedrelativelylessinterestinobtainingsuppliesonlyfromthosetheyknewwellorinhavinglocalorganisationsorindividuals(seeTable3also)managinglinkagesratherthangovernments.

Follow-upquestionsrevealedlittleinterestininter-actingwithotherlocaltourismorganisationsordesignatedsupplierstoformclusters.Thesecuritymentionedearlierinbelongingtoalargerverticallyintegratedorganisationwasevident.Thismayhoweverhavebeenrelatedtotheparticulargroupsofrespon-dentsinterviewed,andthecurrentownershiparrange-mentsformosttourismbusinessesinChengdu.Whiletheindustryismovingtoamarketeconomy,therearestillfewindividualentrepreneurswithinit,andtheseproveddif culttoaccess.

5.Discussion

Thepreconditionsforcompetitiveadvantageoffactorendowment,relatedandsupportingindustriesanddomesticdemandconditionsareallpresentinthestudyregion.Supportforgreaterco-operationbetweentour-ismbusinessesandclusterformationatanacademicandindustryleadershiplevelwasevidencedbythewideandenthusiasticparticipationintheForumonChina’sTourismandinacademicpublications.However,atthemanagementlevelofindividualbusinessesthereappearstobealesserappreciationofthevalueofhorizontallylinkedlocalclusterswithstronglocalleadershipsupportinglinkagesbetweenbusinesses.

Despiteasophisticatedunderstandingofappropriatecompetitivebehaviouramongstmembersoftheindus-try,theevidencefromSichuanprovinceisthat rmstructuresarelikelytohamperclusterdevelopmentin

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themediumterm,withanindustrystilldominatedbyverticallyconstructedstate,nationallyandinternation-allyownedbusinesses.Thistensionbetweensocialism,withthestateasthedominantformofbusinessownership,operatinginacompetitivecapitalist-stylemarketsystemmotivatedbyeconomicobjectiveshasalsobeennotedbySo eldandLi(1998).

Apossiblesolutiontothedisinterestatindividualbusinesslevelmaybeprovidedbylocalgovernmentof cialswhohaveoftenbeenthedrivingforcesbehindlocaleconomicdevelopment(Christerson&Lever-Tracy,1997,p.573).Theseof cialscouldplayavitalpartinactivatinglocaltourismclustersinfosteringlocalcollectives,suchasthosebasedonethnicminoritygrouphandcraftsinUrumqi(So eld&Li,1998,p.374)andalsoprivatelyownedtourismSMEs.Additionally,theyhavearoleinidentifyinganddrawingoutadynamicprivatesectorleadership,ininstitutionalisingconcepts,relationshipsandlinkagesbysupportingthestrengthen-ingoflocaltourismtradeassociationsandensuringawideinvolvementofclusterparticipantsandassociatedinstitutions.

Thereisalsoaroleintheactivationoftourismbusinessclustersfornationalgovernment,CNTA,provincialgovernmentsandprovincialgovernmentauthorities,suchastheSichuanProvincialTourismBureau,whichbetweenthemcouldprovidetheappro-priatecontextincludingcoordinationandtransporta-tion,information,communication,legal,educationalandeconomicinfrastructurefortourismclusterdevel-opment.Additionally,assistancecouldbeprovidedininstitutionalisingthelinkagesandrelationshipsthatwillensurethelonger-termsurvivalofthecluster.

Whileitisimportantthattheemergingclustersarenotoverlyin uencedintheirdirectionbytherepresen-tativesofacademicinstitutions,thepresenceinthewestofanumberofuniversitiessuchasSichuanandYunnanUniversities,activelyteachingandresearchinginthe eldsoftourismandhospitality,providesnecessaryeducationalinfrastructuretotheclusters.Academiacouldalsobecomeinvolvedbyprovidingguidanceonappropriatestructuresforindustryorganisationsandgovernmentagenciesandassistancewithgatheringandinterpretingeconomicandstatisticalinformationinadditiontoensuringawell-educatedworkforce.

6.Conclusion

Inrecognitionoftheimportanceoftourismactivitytoregionaleconomicdevelopment,theexistingregionalinequalitiesandchangingbusinessclimateinChina,thispapersetouttoexploretheapplicabilityofamodelofregionalandlocallybasedtourismclustersbasedonPorter’s(1998)work.Additionally,inthelightofthemovementawayfromacentralgovernment-controlled

tourismindustrytheneedforalternativemodelsforregionaltourismdevelopmentinChinawasidenti ed.ItwasproposedthatbusinessclustersmightbeasuitablemeansoffosteringastructurewithinwhichrelatedandsupportingindustriescaninteractwhichisappropriatefortheemergingintersectionofeconomicparadigmsinChinaanditsdistinctivesocialandculturalheritage.

Throughbusinessclusterinitiativeslocalcommunitiescanbeenabledtocontributetotheirowndevelopment,ratherthanrelyingongovernmentlargesseanddirec-tion.Amoreself-suf cient‘bottom-up’approachtoregionaldevelopmentwithhorizontallinkagesincorpor-atingprivate/publicsectorpartnershipsandpartner-shipsbetweeninternational,nationalandlocallyownedbusinessesseemsdesirableindevelopingregionaltour-ism.ThedevelopmentofbusinessclusterscouldsupportlinkagesbetweenrelatedandsupportingindustriesinthecontextofChina’scultureandpoliticaleconomyanditsshifttowardsa‘socialistmarketeconomy’,giventhepresenceoftheadvantageousfactorendowmentanddemandconditions.

Porter’smodelappearstobeidealandthereseemstobestrongsupportforsuchamodelatanindustryleadershipandacademiclevel.However,atthemicro-businesslevel,withade ciencyofsmallcollectiveorprivateenterprisesoutsidestateplans,thereisagooddealmoreworktobedonebeforelocaltourismbusinessclusterscanbeactivatedtoassistintheconversionofconsiderablecomparativeadvantagestocompetitiveadvantage.

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