语言学

语言学 名词解释：

一．Meaning :

1.The referential theory : the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to or stands for .

2.Conceptualism : There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to . In the interpretation of meaning , they are linked through the mediation of concept in the mind .

3.Contextualism : Meaning should be studied in terms of situation , use , context --- elements closely linked with language behavior .

4.Behaviorism : The meaning of a linguistic form should be viewed as “the situation in which the speaker ulters it and the response which it calls forth in the hearer ”. 5.Meanings of meaning : (1) Conceptual meaning : is the meaning given in the dictionary and it forms the core of the word meaning . The same word has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers of the same language .

(2) Connotative meaning : it refers to overtones which a words suggests or implies .

(3) Social meaning ( stylistic meaning ) : It’s the level of meaning that we rely on , when we identify certain social characteristics of speakers and situations from the words used the communication .

(4) Affective meaning (情感意义): It’s the level of meaning that conveys the language users feelings , attitudes , and points about a particular piece of information or about the on going context .

(5) Reflected meaning : It’s the level of meaning which conveys the unfavorable association or reflection .

(6) Collocative meaning (搭配意义)：It consists of the associations a word acquires in collocation or the part of the word meanings suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion .

(7) Thematic meaning (主位意义) ：It’s determined by the order of the words in the sentence and the different prominence they each receive .

二．Antonymy (反义)

1.Gradable antonymy : They are often intermediate forms between the two members of such a pair .

2.Complementary antonymy : The denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other .

3.Converse antonymy : This is the special type of antonymy in that the members of a pair do not constitute a positive -negative opposition . They show the reversal of a relationship between 2 entities .

三．Superordinate (上义词)

A superordinate usually has several hyponyms (下义词). Under flower , there are peony , jasmine , tulip , violet and many others apart from rose . These members of the same class are co-hyponyms (并列下义词) .

四．Hyponymy (上下义关系)

It’s the sense of relation between a more general or more inclusive word and a more specific word . It’s the relationship where the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another word . 五．Homonymy (同音异义)：

It refers to the words having different meanings ,have the same form . Different words are identical in sound or spelling or in both . 六．Componential analysis : (成分)

Componential analysis is a way to analyse lexical meaning . This approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be analysed into meaning components called semantic components or semantic features .

七．Predication (述谓构成) ：

Predication refers to the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence . A prediction consists of Argument and Predicate . An argument is a logical participant in a predication , largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence . A predicate is something said about an argument , or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence .

八. Locutionary act (发话行为) :

an act of saying something that’s an act of making a meaningful utterance .

九．Illocutionary act (行事行为)：

An act performed in saying something , that’s in saying X I was doing Y .

十．Perlocutionary act (取效行为)：

An act performed as a result of saying X and doing Y I did Z . 十一．5 basic types of speech acts : 1. Representatives(陈述) :

The illocutionary act of representatives is to commit the speaker to the truth of something . 2. Directives (指令) ：

The illocutionary act of directives is to get the speaker to do something . 3. Commssives(许诺)：

The illocutionary act of commssives is to commit the speaker to some future action .

4. Expressives (表情) ：

The illocutionary act of expressives is to express the psychological state about something . 5. Declaratives (声明) ：

The illocutionary act of declaratives is to bring about immediate change of existing state of affairs .

十二．Sociolinguistics

It’s a branch of macrolinguistics which studys the relationship between the language and society .

十三．Speech community (言语社团) ：

It refers to the social group that is singled out for any special socio-linguistic study .

十四．Speech variety (语言变体) ：

It’s also known as language variety . It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers .

十五．Dialectal varieties / Dialects (方言变体) ：

1. Regional dialect : It’s a language variety used by people living in the same geographical region .

2. Temporal dialect : It’s a language variety determined by time people lived in . 3. Sociolect :

It’s a language variety characteristic of a particular social class . 4. Idiolect (个人方言) ：

It’s a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional , social , gender and age variations . 5. Standard dialect : It’s a particular language variety that has no connection with a particular region but widely accepted and normally used in a official document , newspaper , newscast , taught in schools and to non-native speakers . 十六．Pidgin (洋泾浜语) ：

It’s a special language variety that mixes or blends language . It’s used by people who speak different language for restricted purposes such as trading . Ex: “ Long time no see ” .

十七．Creole (克里奥尔语/混合语)

When a Pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community and it’s acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language . It’s said to have become a Creole . 十八．Bilingualism (双语现象) ：

In some speech communities , 2 languages are used side by side with each having a different road to play and language switching occurs when the situation changes . These constitutes the situation of bilingualism . 十九．Diglossia (双语体) ：

It refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism . But instead of 2 different languages , in a diglossia situation , 2 varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community with each having a definite road to play . 二十. Registers (语域) ： （1） Narrow : occupation

（2） Broad : It’s a language variety resulted from configuration of several contextual features . 二十一. Code switching

（语码转换）：

It refers to the alteration between one or more languages , dialects and

registers . In the course of discourse , between people who have more than one language in common .

二十二. Linguistic determinism : (语言决定论)

Our language helps mould our way of thinking . Language may determine our thinking patterns .

二十三. Linguistic relativity : (语言相对论)

（1）Different languages may probably express speakers’ unique ways of understanding the world . (2) Similarity between languages is relative . (3) For two different speech communities , the greater their structural differentiation is , the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be .

二十四. Cognitive Linguistics (认知语言学)：

1. Categorization范畴化(superordinate--basic--subordinate越来越具体) Categorization is a process of classifying of experience into different categories , based on commonalities and differences . (1) Superordinate level（上谓层次）--- the most general ones

Superordinate categories are the most general ones . The members of a Superordinate categories do not have enough features in common to conjure up a common gestalt at this level . This is parasitical categorization . The idea is that you actually borrow some features from a basic level category and apply them to the Superordinate category . (a) Superordinate categories are less good categories than basic level

categories , because although members are relatively distinct from members of neighboring categories , within-category resemblance is relatively low ;

(b) Superordinate categories have fewer defining features than basic level categories ;

(c) Immediate superordinates of basic level categories often have a single-attribute relation to a higher superordinate category .

(d) Linguistically , names for superordinate categories are often mass nouns (集合名词) when basic level terms are count nouns . (2) Basic level (基本层次) -- based on (1) and (3)

The categories at the basic level are those that are most culturally salient and are required to fulfill our cognitive needs the best .

（a）It is the most inclusive level at which there are characteristic patterns of behavioral interaction . (b) The most inclusive level for which a clear visual image can be formed . (c) The most inclusive level at which part-whole information is represented . The level used for everyday reference .

(3) Subordinate level (下属层次) -- the most specific ones

They have clearly identifiable gestalts and lots of individual specific features . At this level we perceive the differences between the members of the basic level categories . They are typically composite forms . One such example is that of compound nouns .

(a) Subordinate categories are less good categories than basic categories , because although their members have high mutual resemblance , they have low distinctiveness from members of neighboring categories . (b) They are such less informative relative to their immediate superior category .

(c) They are frequently polymorphemic(复合词素词的），the most common pattern being modifier-head . 2. Image scheme 意象图示：

Mark Johnson defines an image schema as a recurring , dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience .

Image schematic structures have two characteristics : they are pre-conceptual schematic structures emerging from our bodily experience and they are constantly operating in our perceptual interaction , bodily movement through space , and physical manipulation(处理) of objects . （1）A center-periphery schema 中心边缘图示：(如：家人朋友在中心) It involves a physical or metaphorical core and edge , and degrees of distance from the core . Ex : the structure of an apple , an individual’s perceptual sphere (感知的范围) ，an individual’s social sphere , with family and friends at the core and others at the outside . （2）A containment schema 容器图示：

It is an image schema that involves a physical or metaphorical boundary ,

enclosed(隔绝的）area or volume , or excluded area or volume . A containment schema has additional optional(可选择的) properties(内容、性能) ，such as transitivity (及物的) of enclosure (附件，围墙) ，objects inside or outside the boundary , protection of an enclosed object , the restriction of forces inside the enclosure , and the relatively fixed position of an enclosed object . 例句：John went out of the classroom . The ship came into our view .

(3) A cycle schema 循环图示（对时间的认识）：

It involves repetitious events and event series . Its structure includes the following : a starting point , a progression through successive(连续的) events without backtracking(回溯)，a return to the initial state . The schema has often superimposed(重叠) on it a structure that builds toward a climax and then goes through a decline . Ex: days , weeks ,years ,sleeping and waking ,breathing , circulation , emotional buildup and release (情感积累与释放). （4）A force schema 力图示：

It involves physical or metaphorical causal interaction . It includes the following elements : a source（起源） and target of the force , a direction and intensity of the force , a path of motion （移动路径）from a source to a target , a sequence of causation（一系列因果关系） . Here are some kinds of force schemas : an attraction schema , a balance schema , a blockage（堵塞，妨碍） schema , a compulsion schema , a counterforce

schema , a diversion schema , an enablement （启动）schema , a restraint (抑制，约束)removal（排除）schema .

（5）A link schema 连接图示 （朋友圈、手机充电）

It consists of two or more entities , connected physically or metaphorically , and the bond between them . Here are some examples : a child holding her mother’s hand , someone plugging a lamp into the wall , a causal “connection” , kinship “ties” . (6) A path schema 路径图示 （空间移动）

It involves physical or metaphorical movement from place to place , and consists of a starting point , a goal , and a series of intermediate (中间的)points . This can be exemplified（证明）by paths and trajectories（轨道） . 例句：Tom had gone a long way to change his personality . (7) A part-whole schema 部分-整体图示

It involves physical or metaphorical wholes along with their parts and a configuration of the parts . Ex : the body and its parts , the family and the caste (种姓) structure of India . (8) A scale schema 标量图示

It involves an increase or decrease of physical or metaphorical amount , and consists of any of the following : a closed-end or open-end progression of amount , a position in the progression of amount , one or more norms(标准，定额) of amount , a calibration(刻度，标度) of amount . Here are some examples : physical amounts , properties in the

number system .

(9) A verticality schema 垂直图示

It involves “up” and “down” relations . Here are some examples of verticality schemas : standing upright , climbing stairs , viewing a flagpole , watching water rise in a tub . 3. Conceptual Metaphor 概念隐喻：

It’s defined as understanding one conceptual domain in terms of another conceptual domain , based on similarity . Conceptual Metaphors typically use a more abstract(抽象的) concept as target and a more concrete（具体的） or physical concept as their source .

In cognitive linguistics , metaphors are represented by a simple formula : “X is Y” , in which X is the target domain and Y is the source domain . (1) Ontological metaphors : 实体隐喻

Ontological metaphors means that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events ,activities , emotions , ideas , etc , as entities and substances . Ontological metaphors can serve various purposes . By Ontological metaphors we give bounded surfaces to less clearly discrete entities (mountains , hedges, street corners) and categorize events , actions and states as substances .

例子：Inflation is lowering our standard of living . (Inflation is an entity there ,

It means rising prices).

本体论隐喻通过一些特殊的方位词,我们得到了一些本体论隐喻,比如“up-down, in-ou,t front-back”等。

在现实生活中,通过具体的实体或者实物,我们可以更好的理解抽象的事物。在本体论隐喻中,我们经常把抽象的、无形的概念,比如说思维、感情、心理事件等当作具体而有形的实体,特别是人们的肉体。通常,本体论隐喻由三个部分组成: 1)实体和实物隐喻; 2)容器隐喻; 3)人化身隐喻。

1)实体和实物隐喻：在实体和实物隐喻中,一种非常普遍的现象就是抽象性的概念经常被看作可以感知的具体物体。 THE MIND IS A MACHINE.

在这个例子中,思想和机器相联系,因此,思想就被赋予了机器的特性,具有“打开”和“关上”的能力,也具有生产的能力,能够日夜进行运转。以下两个例子就是对该概念隐喻的具体应用:

1) My mind is not operating today. 2) I am a little rusty today.

不难发现,在我们的日常生活中存在着许多实体和实物隐喻的例子。因为这些隐喻被人们自然而便捷地使用着,因此,久而久之,人们已忘记了它们本身其实是隐喻。

2)容器隐喻:容器隐喻是一种最典型和最特殊的本体论隐喻。人类本身是独立于物质世界之外的一种实体,并且由于其特殊性,每一个人本身都是一个容器。

具体而言,人体被分为了两个部分:内部和外部,这种划分本身就具备了容器的特征。人类还把这些隐喻概念投射到了人体之外的其他物体,比如说房子、森林、田野、面积等等,甚至人们还把无形和抽象的事件、行为、活动等称为容器。

在日常生活中,人类把对容器的感知影射到了外部环境中,从中我们得到了容器隐喻。具体而言,容器隐喻的图式由这几个元素构成,即内部、外部、界限。这里,我们可以把房子作为一个例子:从一个房间进入另一个房间可以被理解为从一个容器移进另一个容器。除此之外,还有很多实物都可以被认为是容器。比如说跳进水里或飞上天空等。另外,我们也可以使用容器的概念来理解别的事物,让我们看以下的例子: 1) He is out of the race now. 2)We are out of trouble now.

为了更好的理解这两个容器隐喻,可以从Metaphors we live by(Lakof,f 1980)中引用一个经典例子: LIFE IS A CONTAINER.

从对这个容器隐喻的分析中我们可以看出,生活———这个抽象的概念可以被理解为一个瓶子。瓶子可以是空的也可以是满的,开心和悲伤这样的感情可以被放进去,也可以被完全取出来。

3)拟人化隐喻:在所有的本体论隐喻中,拟人化隐喻是被使用最广的。拟人化隐喻的实质就是通过人类的感情、特征和活

动方式来感知人类之外的实体和抽象的概念。以下隐喻在日常生活中被广泛使用: 1) A cup has a mouth. 2) A teapot has an ear. 3) A table has feet

显而易见,通过使用拟人化隐喻,思维的复杂过程会被缩短,而语言本身也会变得更加生动和具有艺术性。 (2) Structural metaphors 结构隐喻

Structural metaphors play the most important role because it allows us to go beyond orientation and referring and gives us the possibility to structure one concept according to another . This means that Structural metaphors are grounded in our experience . Structural metaphors imply how one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another .

结构隐喻就是使用一种高清晰结构的概念隐喻来建构其他的隐喻。如:

ARGUMENT IS WAR.

以下隐喻都是对这个结构隐喻的具体应用: 1) Your claims are indefensible.

2) He attacked every weak point in my argument

3) His criticisms were right on target

4) I have never won an argument with him. 5) If you use that strategy, he will wipe you out

6) He shot down all of my arguments.

从以上例子可以发现,这些隐喻都是围绕“argument”这个主题而使用的,且有一些具体的军事术语被使用在这些例子里面,比如“defense, attack,win, strategy”等等。因此,在以上例子中,我们使用了这些军事术语去建构“argument”这个概念。确实,我们可以在我们的“argument”中获赢或失败。 而且,在争论中,我们把那些同我们争辩的人称为敌人,我们可以进攻他们的观点,以便维持我方的观点。因此,在我们的日常生活中,通过物体之间的相互联系,结构隐喻已深深的根植于我们的思维和行为之中,并且影响着我们的感知行为。 (3) Orientation metaphors 方位隐喻

Orientation metaphors gives a concept a spatial（空间的）orientation . They are characterized not so much by structuring one concept in terms of another , but by a co-occurrence (共现) in our experience . The Orientation metaphors are grounded in an experiential basis , which link together the two parts of the metaphor . The link verb “is” , part of the metaphor , should be seen as the link of two different co-occurring experiences . Ex : MORE IS UP . They are based on human physical and cultural experience .

方位隐喻在语言学界,大多数语言学家都持有这样的观点:方位隐喻对人类各种概念的形成有着重大的意义,因为许多抽象概念都是通过方位隐喻来进行表达和理解的。“方位隐喻是一种意象图式隐喻”,而隐喻的认知基础正是意象图式。“up-down, in-out ,front-back, on-off,deep-shallow, central-peripheral”之类的方位词都被认为是意象图式。这些认知结构对于人类都是很有意义的,因为它们来源于我们,同我们所处的物质世界的各种事物有直接联系。

根据认知语法的观点,意象图式主要由动体(TR)、路标(LM)、路径(PATH)构成,这三个元素都代表着一个非对称的关系。其中,TR代表该关系中的运动主体,而LM是该关系中的另一个实体,也就是运动主体的参考对象。如: 1)他爬上了树。 2)桌上有一本书。 3)温度下降了10度。

在例1)中,他代表TR,树表示LM。在例2)中,书是指TR,桌子是指LM,但是TR和LM都是具体物体。这两个例子所使用的隐喻均是UP-DOWN。

在例3)中,温度是TR, 10度是LM。这三个例子是从以下这个概念隐喻中引申出来的:HIGH TEM-PEPATURE ISUP,LOW TEMPERATURE ISDOWN。

以上是从认知语法的角度进行探讨的,下面我们要透过物

质世界给出一些方位隐喻的例子: 1)HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS DOWN.

从上面的讨论中我们可以看出这是一个概念隐喻,而以下这些隐喻都是对该概念隐喻的具体应用: a) I won’t let you down. b) My heart sank. c) I am in high spirits. d) He is feeling up.

该概念隐喻中的方位词主要是“down, sank,high, up”,它存在的物质基础主要是遵循了物质世界运行的规律,即低垂的姿势伴随着悲痛和沮丧的心情,而竖直上升的姿势伴随着积极的情感状态。

2)MORE IS UP;LESS IS DOWN.

同样,这也是一个概念隐喻,下面所列举的隐喻也都是对该概念隐喻的具体运用:

a) The number of books printed each other keeps going up.

b) My income rose last year. c) His income fell last year

d) The amount of artistic activity in this state has gone down in the past year.

该概念隐喻中的方位词主要是“going up, rose,fell

down”。对于这个隐喻概念,它存在的物质基础主要是和物质世界的这样一种运动规律相关,即:

如果你给一个容器或一堆东西增加更多的实物,那么这个容器或这堆东西的水平线将会上升;同样,如果你减少更多的实物,那么这个容器或这堆东西的水平线将会下降。 4. Conceptual Metonymy 概念转喻：

It’s a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity provides mental access to another conceptual entity within the same domain , based on contiguity (相关性) and causality (因果性) .

转喻是用人们认知上的两种东西之间的关联，使一物转指另一物成为可能，常见的有:用来源指称结果事物，用局部指称整体等方式.例如： 炉子着了。（炉子指代炉中的火） 白宫没有表态。（白宫指代美国政府） 他瞎了。（他指代他的眼睛）

(1) Whole ICM (Idealized Cognitive Models)and its part(s) 理想化认知模式

(a)Thing-and-Part ICM : (整体与部分间的转喻) This ICM may lead to the two metonymic variants : ＊Whole thing for a part or the thing : America for “United state”.(整 体--部分)

＊Part of a thing for the thing for the whole thing : England for “Great Britain ” .（部分---整体）

（b）Scale ICM (标里转喻)：

Scale are a special class of things and the scalar(标量的) units are parts of them . Typically , a scale as a whole is used for its upper end and the upper end of a scale is used to stand for the scale as a whole :

＊ Whole scale for upper end of the scale : Henry is spreeding again for “Henry is going too fast.” (整体---上限)

＊ Upper end of a scale for whole scale : How old are you ? For “What is your age ” (上限---整体) （c）Constitution ICM (构成转喻) ：

It involves matter , material or substances which are seen as constituting a thing .

＊Object for material constituting the object : I smell skunk（。。。皮毛）（物体--材料）

＊ Material constituting an object for the object : wood for “forest” .(材料--物体)

（d）Event ICM : (事件转喻）

Event may be metaphorically viewed as things which may have parts .

＊ Whole event for sub-event （整个--子） ＊ Sub-event for whole event (子--整个)

（e）Category-and-Member ICM : (范畴及成员转喻)

A category and its members stand in a kind of relation .

＊ Category for a member of the category : the pill (口服避孕药) for “ birth control pill ” (范畴--成员)

＊ Member of a category for the category : aspirin (解热镇痛药) for “any pain-relieving tablet” (成员--范畴)

（f）Category-and-Property ICM : （范畴及属性转喻）

Properties may either be seen metaphorically as possessed objects or metonymically as parts of an object .

＊Category for defining property : jerk (蠢人)for “stupidity”（愚蠢）（范畴--属性） .

＊Defining property for category : blacks for “black people” (属性--范畴)

（g） Reduction ICM :

A final type of a “Part for Whole” metonymy is found in the reduction of the form of a sign .

＊ Part of a form for the whole form : crude for “crude oil ” . (2) Parts of an ICM : (a) Action ICM :

It involves a variety of participants which may be related to the predicate expressing the action or to teach each other : ＊ ＊

＊

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