翻译理论与实践(2008)

Translation (Workbook)

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Translation theory and practice

? 翻译中的内容与载体的关系

(翻译中的内容及其载体的选择，《上海科技翻译》2002，3。)

1 )翻译中形式和意义的关系

原文和译文之间的联系是意义上的联系，发生变化的仅仅是形式。内容和载体的问题跟词汇意义、语法意义和语用意义有关。在整体交际过程中它们之间的特点如下：

(1) 词汇意义载蓄于以词为单位的符号形式中。

(2)词与语法之间存在着密不可分的关系。索绪尔(2001: 112-113)认为词的价值即体现在它所代表的概念上，又体现在它与其他词的关系上。

(3)词与语境有密切的关系，是语篇的有机组成部分。Leech(1987) 就语境和语义学的关系指出：假若从思想、概念或者内在的思想来讨论意义，那么意义便被置于科学观察的范围之外；因此，人们应该根据情景、用法和语法来研究意义，也就是根据语言行为表面的和可以观察到的相互关联的事物来研究意义。语境不仅为语言活动提供一定的背景，而且决定语言活动的性质。语境特征一方面与语义有对应关系，另一方面又体现一定的社会文化系统。(转引自俞如诊，金顺德，1994)这段话说明词义涉及到语法、语篇和语用几个层面，一个词在这几个层面上与其他词发生联系，才能体现出其整体交际价值。 2) 句法和词汇意义的关系

(1)He flew to the south.(He moved through the air to the south by plane.)

(2)The bird flew to the south. (The bird moved with its wings through the air to the

south.)

(3)Her hair was flying about. (Her hair was moved about by the wind.) 3) 语境与话语意义的关系

(5)My father was a nice man. I miss him a lot. (6)I don?t like my father, but he was a nice man. (7)Is this place taken?

(8)Is there anyone sitting here?

(9)May I sit here?( Larson,1997：9) 4) 翻译中的形式和意义

(10)He has been pursued, day by day, and year by year, by a most phenomental astonishing luckiness.

(11)I marveled at the relentless determination of the rain. (12)He discussed greatness and excellence. (13)I approached her very hesitantly. “Want to come and play?”

Piquette looked at me with a sudden flash of scorn. “I ain?t a kid,” she said.

Wounded, I stamped angrily away… (The Loons) (14)Would you like a lift into town? Yes, please. 5) 等值和激活框架－框架模式

(15) I once heard someone shout, “Look out!” I put my heard out of a window and

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a bucket of water fell on me. It seems that “look out ”may mean “don?t look out.” (16) The fair breeze blew,

The white foam flew,

The furrow followed free.

(17) In Hollywood a marriage is success if it outlasts milk. (18) A happy family is but an earlier heaven.

(19) Q: What is the thinnest book in the world?

A: What Men Know about Women.

Q: What is the thickest book in the world? A: What Men Think They Know About Women. (20) Q: Why won't sharks attack lawyers?

A: Professional courtesy. ? Catford

Linguistic translation and translation shifts

Catford's approach to translation equivalence clearly differs from that adopted by Nida since Catford had a preference for a more linguistic-based approach to translation and this approach is based on the linguistic work of Firth and Halliday. His main contribution in the field of translation theory is the introduction of the concepts of types and shifts of translation. Catford proposed very broad types of translation in terms of three criteria:

The extent of translation (full translation vs partial translation);

The grammatical rank at which the translation equivalence is established (rank-bound translation vs. unbounded translation);

The levels of language involved in translation (total translation vs. restricted translation).

Translation shifts: defined as 'departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL' (ibid.:73) Catford argues that there are two main types of translation shifts, namely level shifts, where the SL item at one linguistic level (e.g. grammar) has a TL equivalent at a different level (e.g. lexis), and category shifts which are divided into four types:

Structure-shifts, which involve a grammatical change between the structure of the ST and that of the TT;

Class-shifts, when a SL item is translated with a TL item which belongs to a different grammatical class, i.e. a verb may be translated with a noun;

Unit-shifts, which involve changes in rank;

Intra-system shifts, which occur when 'SL and TL possess systems which approximately correspond formally as to their constitution, but when translation involves selection of a non-corresponding term in the TL system'. For instance, when the SL singular becomes a TL plural.

Translatability

There are essentially two points of view from which translatability has been traditionally approached: the universalist one and the monadist one. Supporters of the former approach claim that the existence of linguistic universals ensure translatability.

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Those who endorse the latter approach maintain that each linguistic community interprets reality in its own particular way and this jeopardises translatability. Some theorists have oscillated between the extremes represented by universalism and monadism and some have attempted to combine aspects of both perspectives. There is a third, more recent approach to translatability: that of the Deconstructionists, who question the notion of translation as transfer of meaning.

Von Humboldt: All translation seems to me simply an attempt to solve an impossible task. Every translator is doomed to be done in by one of two stumbling blocks: he will either stay too close to the original, at the cost of taste and the language of his nation, or he will adhere too closely to the characteristics peculiar to his nation, at the cost of the original. The medium between the two is not only difficult, but downright impossible (Wilss, 1982: 35). He proposes to explain the possiblity of comunication across cultures. To apparent untranslatability, which results from structural incompatibilities between languages, one can respond with potential translatability, with the possibility of expressing the concepts of human experience in any human language (see Wilss, 1982: 35 ff.).

Nida and Charles R. Taber pronounce: \that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message\

According to Catford, in order for textual equivalence to exist, source language and target language elements must have some essential features in common. A text is more or less translatable. He proposes the following definition of translatability: Linguistic untranslatability: Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text. Broadly speaking, the cases where this happens fall into two categories. Those where the difficulty is linguistic, and those where is is cultural.

Linguistic untranslatability occurs when two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in one and the same phonological or graphological form. (1) The workers can fish.

(2) Judge: “What makes you think that you could park your car here?” Tourist: “Well, there was a big sign that read: Fine for parking!”

(3) “It?s everybody?s right, right?” Majetich said in a quick rebuff, “You think all

your right is right?”

(4) A Farewell to Arms

The second type of linguistic ambiguity is due to what would usually be called polysemy; that is, not to the fact that two or more items have the same exponent, but that one single item has more than one meaning. Strickly speaking, the term of polysemy is misleading. “It is not a case of one item having several meanings, but of one item having a wide or general contextual meaning, covering a wide range of specific situational features.”

(5)“Can you see a female.”

“Of course, I can see a female as easily as a male.”

Cultural untranslatability arises \for the SL [source language] text, is completely absent from the culture of which the

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TL [target language] is a part\ For instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and abstract concepts, amongst others.

(6) The president-elected is a typical baby-kisser.

(7)Bright red costumes, with hats, shoes and stockings to match, are to be all the craze in the spring. Smart women will have to be careful not to yawn in the streets in case some short sighted person is on his way to post a letter.

? 意义取向的翻译

1．符号的语义图式

(1) The other ships of the fleet were also at rest in the sand, scattered in the dunes that stretched all the way to the horizon.

(2) Her eyes seemed stretched open, blazed open by the flames reflected in them.

“What now, Lord?” I asked, sitting in the church. My life stretched out before me as an empty abyss. (3) Big storms sometimes pull water from the ocean up into huge, spinning columns called waterspouts…Waterspouts stretched from the sea all the way up to the clouds. (4) Later, people made lighter boats by stretching animal skins around sticks. (5) No stretch of imagination could visualize anything half so lovely. (6) His ideas stretched throughout the centuries. 2. Basic types of meaning 1) Types of meaning

(1) Referential (sense) -----dictionary meaning----The meaning of a given word is governed by the external object or idea that particular word is supposed to refer to. This type of meaning, i.e., the meaning of reference, is often referred to as the \meaning(sense), the \meaning, the \meaning, or the \lexical item. The conceptual meaning of a word is the type of meaning which could be mainly deduced in isolation from any other linguistic or even non-linguistic context.

(2) Contextually referential meaning----The meaning of a given word or set of words is best understood as the contribution that word or phrase can make to the meaning or function of the whole sentence or linguistic utterance where that word or phrase occurs. The meaning has to be derived from the context of the utterance. (3) Pragmatic meaning----The meaning of a given word is governed not only by the external object or idea that particular word is supposed to refer to, but also by the use of that particular word or phrase in a particular way, in a particular context, and to a particular effect. Pragmatic meaning is the logical meaning that is different from the lexical reference of a particular word, and the types of associated meaning. The meaning has to be derived from the context of the utterance.

(4) Associated meaning---- There is a distinction between conceptual meaning, on the hand, and connotative(including cultural meaning) stylistic, affective, reflected, and collocative types of meaning on the other hand. Thus, we classify the last five types of meaning under one general category of associated meaning. The meaning

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has to be derived from the context of the utterance.

It is often difficult to obtain even the lexical equivalent of a given item in translation, when the translation is taking place across two different languages that do not have a culture in common, such as translation from Arabic into English and vice versa. Yet, we should not indulge in a tedious and rather worthless search for the lexical equivalent, since, even if such lexical items are easy to come by, they might not be helpful in translation. (1) Referential meaning

① The Tearmarks of the Cheetah

A very long time ago, when the earth was first created, all the animals came down onto the savanna. The animals, birds, insects were all different shapes and different colors. When the cheetah first came to the earth, just like all other animals, she shook her body and stretched her legs, and took a deep breath of the new clean air. The cheetah found it very good to be alive. Each animal had to get used to her own body, so the cheetah started running and found out she could run very very fast.

The cheetah ran and ran across the vast plains. After a time of wandering the plains alone, the cheetah became lonely, and decided to look for friends of her own kind. One day, the cheetah, with her great eyesight, spotted some large cats off in the distance and eagerly went running as fast as she could toward these cats. As she was running toward them, one of the cats, which was much larger than the others, stood up and roared. The loud noise frightened the cheetah and she dug her claws into the dirt and came to abrupt halt. The cat was a big male lion, and he roared out to the cheetah in a very low booming voice, \

The cheetah, which is much smaller in size than a lion and who by nature is a very shy and timid animal, said ，\trying to find friends of my own kind.\

The lion roared, \much thinner than we are. And look at your feet. You have claws like a dog?s. Your claws do not retract all the way back into your feet like ours do. You are not a cat；you are a dog. So, you better run away fast and try to find someone in your own family.\

The cheetah lowered her head and put her tail down, and crept away feeling a bit discouraged. She thought big cats were very unfriendly. The cheetah continued her search looking for a friend of her own kind. The days went by. Then one day, the cheetah saw a pack of wild dogs playing in the sun. The cheetah went racing up to the pack. The whole pack was yelping and barking furiously. The cheetah stopped immediately, and the pack leader yelped at her, \

The cheetah began to tell the wild dogs her story about trying to find a family of her own. During her search, she was scared by a lion and saddened when he told her that the cheetah was not a cat, but a dog. The whole pack of wild dogs howled in laughter, and barked at her, \your round head and ears, and your rough tongue. They are like a cat's. Your tail is long just like the other cats. You are not a dog at all!\

This time the cheetah raced away / very fast / because she was scared（语序调整，切分句子，化整为零）. After running a safe distance from the dogs, the cheetah

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laid down to rest under a big tree. She felt sad. She thought about how the lion roared and did not want her, and how the wild dogs yelped and bit at her feet, and she felt sadder and sadder. The cheetah felt so sad that started to cry. She was very lonely.

The cheetah did not realize that any other animals were near her. A giraffe had walked up quietly while the cheetah was crying. The giraffe, looking down at the cheetah with its big brown eyes, asked, \surprised when the giraffe spoke. The cheetah looked up tearfully at the giraffe and proceeded to tell her sad story about the lions roaring and telling her she was not a cat, and the wild dogs chasing (衔接性增词)her and saying she was not a dog.

Sniffling（形象处理，拟声词）, the cheetah said, \and I have cried so long and so hard--look at my beautiful face, the tears have burnt marks in my face.\

A bird that was flying by the big tree saw the beautiful cheetah and chirped, \have traveled throughout this land and you, cheetah, are the most splendid and unique of all the cats I have seen.\

(2)Pragmatic meaning

法语 “chien mechant”，所指(概念)语义 ，或者说，字面意义“dog that bites” (咬人的狗) or “savage dog”(很凶的狗)，语用义：（communicative translation） “Beware of the dog”(当心这狗哟!) cf. wet floor 小心地滑 // 请小心台阶 Please Mind The Step // 当心扒手 Beware of Pickpockets

A rock sailed down. He hastily stepped back and mumbled, “Doug, Doug Wood.”“Thank you,” said the cheerful voice. “Is that Wood as in wood or Would as in could?

(3)Associated meaning(文化、文体等联想意义的确定)

红眼病＝green-eyed// 嫉妒鬼＝a green-eyed monster//食言＝ eat one?s words形同陌路＝a strange bed fellow

It was mid August and the subject for discussion was the future of Rommel and his Africa Corps.

He boarded the stagecoach for San Francisco, then and now a hotbed of hopeful young writers.

2) 动态翻译的过程(Translator’s Performance on different levels) (1)Grammatical level---a syntagmatic（linenary） approach

Subject Predicate Object Attribute Adverbial the Complement a Subject or an Object

(2)Semantic level---Referential meanings.

A. Projection-rules----the rules of the semantic component, also referred as semantic rules. They serve two purposes: (i) they distinguish meaningful from meaningless sentences; and (ii) They assign to every meaningful sentence a formal specification of its meaning or meanings.

B. Semantic presentation in terms of prepositional structure(semantics of event structure)----which consists of ARGUMENT and PREDICATE. Arguments:

AGENT(ACTOR), EXPERIENCER, BENEFACTIVE (BENEFICIARY), OBJECT(AFFECTED OR PATIENT), INSTRUMENT, SOURCE, GOAL,

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LOCATION(PLACE), TIME, MANNER, PATH etc. 施事格、受格事、经事格、受惠格、工具格、出处格、目标格、场所格、间格、方式格、原因格、结果格、路径格等等。

①The “modern British cuisine”(AF) promoted (E1) by a regiment of television (P)chefs (A)borrows (E2) freely from Tuscany, Japan, California and even Morocco (S).

一大批厨师 (A)大量地借鉴 (E2)了意大利托斯卡纳、日本和美国加离福尼至摩洛哥等地方 (S) 的烹饪技术 (AF),在电视节目中(P)向公众推荐/介绍(E1)“现代英国烹饪术”(AF)。(free--lavish: be free with one?s money)

②Submerged in a flu-induced New Year?s Eve hibernation, my husband and I had turned off the phone ringers that evening and called it a year.

③Now, sir, your real address?”Doug gazed at the roiling waves. “Lovers’ Leap, Sunshine Coast.”

(3) Pragmatic level----intention (style/register/situation/figures of speeches)

Makers implications are concerned with. Attention focuses on markers and implications. Reading strategies: reading between the lines. 3) Approach to meanings in the context 词项 辞书释义 汉语释 指称义 译 文 义 (the state of mind in which 使人全 sad thoughts 缠棉same )preocsth.takes up all of a 神贯注悱恻 cu- person's thought 的事物 pation p.12 (run the complete scope of sth. 整个范face all the U-boat 对付gamut risks 围 所有p.261) 的德潜艇 go through do sth.that one is 敷衍塞shake hands with... 与?motions p.59 expected to do in a 责 insincerely ?握insincere manner 手，应付一下 (this kind of) a call to play a game, 挑战 a call for us to (要)改challenge to have a fight etc.to reassess the 变我p.38 see who is better relation- 们的stronger etc. ship between 看法 nature and civilization (intellectual) ibid 同上 calls to learn→知识 challenges knowledge p.120 ibid (could not ibid had to be the 不得refuse)the 同上 witness for the 不出challenge defendance 来当

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证人 written version of a 脚本the written (我这play etc. in a film ?? speculation 个)提production about thinning the 法 polar cap (this ibid the morning (刚才同上 matutinal activities 所描scenario described?? 绘的p.116) 早晨的一系列活动) theater p.33 scene of operation 事件发battle field 战场 生的场所 chasten punish in order to 惩戒 give up the old 改变correct… epicurean motto 生活态度和方式 (1) And secondly, because I had a lump in my throat and a lot of sad thoughts on my mind that had little to do with anything a Nippon railways official might say…The Japanese crowd did not appear to have the same preoccupations that I had.

(2) 0n our way back, every U-boat in the Atlantic will certainly be on battle alert. We shall have to run the gamut.

(3) Meanwhile Asalamalakim is going through motions with Maggie’s hand.

(4) As a result, any solution to the problem will require a careful assessment of that relationship as well as the complex interrelationship among factors within civilization and between them and the major natural components of the earth?s ecological system. There is only one precedent for this kind of challenge to our thinking.

(5) They are revivifying students, dangling and delivering intellectual challenges beyond the ken of most educators.

(6) Now Darrow sprang his trump card by calling Bryan as a witness for the defence…Bryan was suspicious of the wily Darrow, yet he could no refuse the challenge.

(7) As the polar cap air warms, the ice here will thin; and since the polar cap plays such a crucial role in the world?s weather system, the consequences of a thinning cap could be disastrous…Considering such scenarios is not a purely speculative exercise.

(8) It is 7:30 a.m. As the alarm clock burrs, the bedroom curtains swing silently apart…Wellsian fantasy? Maybe. But while this matutinal scenario may still be years away.

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(9) A useful system comes from the military, which frequently place a conflict in one of three different categorties, according to the theater in which it takes place.

(10) Sometimes I have thought it would be an excellent rule to live each day as if we should die tomorrow. Such an attitude would emphasize sharply the values of life. We should live each day with a gentleness, a vigor, and a keenness of appreciation which are often lost when time stretches before us in the constant panorama of more days and months and years to come. There are those, of course, who would adopt the epicurean motto of 'Eat, drink, and be merry,' but most people would be chastened by the certainty of impending death.

In stories, the doomed hero is usually saved at the last minute by some stroke of fortune, but almost always his sense of values is changed. He becomes more appreciative of the meaning of life and its permanent spiritual values. It has often been noted that those who live, or have lived, in the shadow of death bring a mellow sweetness to everything they do. Practice 1

(1) 八字还没有一撇呢！

(2) 三个人品字式坐了，随便于谈了几句。 (3) 他伸开四肢躺在草地上，像个“大”字。 (4) “那个村里有个驼儿所。” “那是托儿所，不是驼儿所。” (5) We haven?t had any trouble since we have lived here. (6) I haven?t heard from him since he lived in Shanghai. (7) Great changes have taken plane here since he left. (8) Peace will be his Pyramid. Practice 2

Compare the SLT with the TLT and try to work out in what way the translation achieve the effect of the original.

(1)“Snap shot of a senorita sitting in the sand---alliteration unintentional,” guessed White lazily.一个小姑娘，坐在沙滩上，乘她不防备，照了一个像，无意中押了韵。怀特懒洋洋地猜道。

(2)You cannot bite back, but you can fight back.(ad. of insecticide)

A. 不能以牙还牙，何不以毒功毒。B. 不能回之以咬，何不回之药。 (3)“张铁嘴怎说的？”胡太太惴惴地问。“很好，不用瞎担心事了。我还有委员的福分呢？” “么事的桂圆！”“是委员！从前行的是大老爷，现在是行委员了！” “你还不明白？”

“What did Zhang Tiezui say”， she asked timidly. “He gave me very good news. We need not look for trouble, I have the possibility of being a member of a committee!” “What?s a common tea?” asked the wife, who only vaguely caught the sound. A committee! Lords and esquires are out of date, and the prevailing nomination is to a committee. Don?t you still understand? (4)《赤橙黄绿青蓝紫》 All the Colours of the Rainbow

(5) \tell us about her, Auntie,\cried Imogen,\? She's the skeleton in the cupboard, isn't she??\ She wasn't much of a skeleton as I remember her, murmured Euphemia, \

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A：\哦！告诉我们关于她的事吧，姑母\伊摩根喊着；\她是家庭里的家丑是吗？??

我记得，她并不像一付'骷髅'，尤菲米雅低声说，\顶丰满的\。

B：\哦，给我们讲讲她的事儿吧，好姑母；\伊莫金喊道，\我几乎记不得了，她是我们家'衣柜里的骷髅，见不得人'，是吗？??\

\嗯，我记得她并不怎么像骷髅，\尤菲米雅低声说，\长得顶丰满的呢。\Practice 3

(1)THE ANCIENT CAPITAL \

桂枝香

I climb a height 登临送目， And strain my sight;

Of autumn late it is the coldest time; 天气初肃。 The ancient capital looks sublime. 正故国晚秋， The limpid River, beltlike, flows a thousand miles; 千里澄江似练， Emerald peak on peak towers in piles. 翠峰如簇。

In the declining sun sails come and go; 征帆去棹残阳里， In the west wind wineshop flags flutter high and low 背西风酒旗斜。 The painted boat, 彩舟云淡, In clouds afloat,

Like stars in Silver River egrets fly. 星河鹭起， What a picture before the eye! 画图难足。

(2) THE DOUBLE SEVENTH

\鹊桥仙

Clouds float like works of art; 纤云弄巧， Stars shoot with grief at heart. 飞星传恨，

Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid. 银汉迢迢暗度。 When Autumn's Golden Wind embraces Dew of Jade, 金风玉露一相逢， All the love scenes on earth, however many, fade. 便胜却人间无数。

Their tender love flows like a stream; 柔情似水， This happy date seems but a dream. 佳期如梦， How can they bear a separate homeward way? 忍顾鹊桥归路？ If love between both sides can last for aye, 两情若是久长时， Why need they stay together night and day? 又岂在朝朝暮暮！ （2）See yonder, to, the galaxy which men clepth the Milky Way, For hit is why,

which men in England Do call Watlyng Streete.

边的星群，人们称之为银河；因为是白色之故，也还有人叫它滑忒林街。 (4) 差池上舟楫，窈窕入云汉。

Passing an uneven pass I come aboard the boat up into the Milky Way.

? 翻译单位

巴尔胡达罗夫把翻译单位分为：音位层、词素层、词层、词组层、句子层

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及话语层。这种翻译单位的划分纯属对原文形式的切分，对应物显然指的是形式上的对应。这种根据结构形式切分出来的翻译单位不利于翻译操作，而且经常会影响到语篇的连贯性和翻译的质量。匈牙利翻译家拉多·久尔及认为“翻译是逻辑活动，其基本的分析单位是 “逻辑素”。翻译过程是分析和综合：分析是把原著分解成一个一个的逻辑素，综合是把这些逻辑素重新组织成译著。”“每个逻辑素都有一个逻辑上的理由作为依据，所以才叫逻辑素。” 拉多·久尔及认为词素、词义、语音、双关语、诗歌中的韵律乃至文化要素都可能作为翻译单位的逻辑素。 (1)The prisoners were allowed to write censored letters to their family. 语义定位法 (Semantic frame) (2) “Hello. Don?t we have a development here.”

Little black coffin-shaped markers dotted the wide blue spaces, and an officer was putting up several more, in a cluster close to the battleship?s projected course. Farther on stood large clusters of red pins with a few blue pins.

“This new U-boat group was sighted by an American patrol plane at twilight, sir,” said the officer.

（3）He covered his face with his hands, and, as he cried, he remembered Bill and how he had served him that night in the long ago.(A Piece of Steak)

(4) Clement Attlee?s broadcast the next day packed the wardroom. Every officer not on watch, and all staff officers and war planners, gathered in the wardroom around one singularly ancient, crack-voiced radio. 切分法 (Segmentation)

（5）My grandmother never had a holiday until she was too old to enjoy it. (6) The sailors swarmed into a laughing, cheering ring around the two men. 意图定位法(Frame of motivation) （7）Dismissive as Pharisee, I regarded as moonlings all those whose life was lived on a less practical plane. Protests about damage to ?natural beauty froze me with contempt, for I believed in progress and could spare no regrets? for a lake dammed into hydraulic use for the benefit of an industrial city in the Midlands. (8) What is the strongest bird? ------A crane.（同形异义词）

(9)Primitive people have long believed that comets have been the harbingers of famine and death.

A.原始人长期以来一直认为彗星是饥荒和死亡的先兆。

B.头脑简单的人长期以来一直认为彗星是饥荒和死亡的先兆。

? 翻译技巧

1. 引申法Extension

1) 语言语境干涉所表现的几个方面：

? 语境对语言符号的使用、理解有 强制、制约、推动作用。语言语境对语言

符号的理的强制、制约作用：句子内部成分之间的制约规律可以限制词义，通过牵制关键词的内部因素的分析来确定词义，如，搭配关系、话题控制、词汇照应等。

? 语境对语言符号的选择(表达)有强制、制约作用。在源语语境中一个词的意 思在目的语里有一个或多个对应的语言形式(经常是多个)，决定得体措辞的因素是目的语句子内部之间的制约规律，如，windswept glistening white，风

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凛凛， 雪皑皑，冰晶闪闪(选词、词序)。Cf. 风萧萧、风呼呼。目的语语言内部的制约规律：韵律、搭配、词汇之间的照应关系、褒贬习惯、词序、衔接手段、句法规律、话题、语域、文化等都会在不同的层度上制约译者选词的行为。

引申方法的关键就是把握切入点：理解和表达的切入点。注意跟信息焦点相关的各语境线索，善于透视信息关联脉络，正确判断符号之间的各种关系，善于灵活地调整翻译视点。 2)Context Bell （103）: linguistic co-text of the sentence and that sentence-meaning depends; inclusion and exclusion;（110）: situation,context, and universe o discourse; 112: context and situation; 114: context of utterance 3) 英汉词汇特征比较

词义的独立性：汉语词汇的意义独立性较强表现在以下几个方面：

(1) 组成一个词的义素较具体，因而语义投向较明确。词义较窄，构成一个词的义素比较少而且比较具体。

(2) 双音词和多音词具有提供语境情景的作用，所以两个语素之间可以互为语

境。

(3) 名物化和词汇化的灵活度大大超出汉语词汇。名物化直接影响句子结构，信

息蕴含大。

(4) 英语词汇的语篇照应能力很强，尤其是上下义词之间的照应现象非常普遍。 照应关系是语篇内部的粘合剂，同时也是制约词汇意义独立存在的因素。 4) 引申思维过程：

刘宓庆在《文体与翻译》中指出，英语是“一种适应性、可塑性较强的语言，它的适应性和可塑性突出地表现在词义的灵活性上。”汉语不同于英语。汉语词义较为稳定，伸缩性小，独立性大，对语境的依赖性较小。词义独立性弱的语言对语义照应手段的依赖性较强，反之，较弱。每种语言都有自己独特的语义照应机制。任何语言都需要靠照应手段来控制某些词的语义指向，促进语义衔接，建立起相对完整的语义框架，只是依赖程度有所不同。“英语重形合，对话语结构的形式要求很严。其语义的连续性大都表现为显性照应，所以语义照应手段较汉语繁复而且使用率高。”不了解这一点，译者就难免会陷入“难以言传”的困境中。

引申不能脱离原文词义的基本范围，而应立足于辞典释义，从原文最小的词义引申层次着手，由近及远，由此及彼，有目的地找出影响词义引申的因素。确定词义的步骤通常是辞典释义→与关键词毗邻的其他词语→句子→语段→其它 段落→整个 语篇→文化语境。译者在确定词义时应避免盲目性、任意性和主观性，只有纵观全文，统盘 考 虑各种语言因素与关键词的关系，基于辞典又不囿于辞典，在表达过程中才能做到有据可依，恰好其分地再现原文内容。 发现被激活的语境义素。 思维步骤：

定义分析：

首先要确定基本意义，然后根据语境，在定义里确认受语境支配的义素。受语境制约的义素就是可被语境激活的潜在义素，这种潜在义素一旦跟语境建立的关联性，就成为语境中的活跃义素，它可以显示出一个词在语篇中的语义指向。

识别语境制约因素的切入点：

识别语境制约因素的切入点有：话题、搭配、词汇照应、语域、文体、文化

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因素等。话题制约着语义的连贯 性。搭配在满足了两个语言单位之间义素的相互作用的需要的同时，还要满足句法需要，保证行文的流畅性 和正确性。共指性的词汇照应关系是建立两个语言单位之间的共指关系，如，类比关系、上下义(包容)关系、 互代关系等。因此，共指关系一致的两个语言单位之间往往可以采用还原法、视点推移法来选择表达形式，原则是要保证所指的一致性。逆指性的词汇照应关系建立在语义对立两个语言单位之间，如反比关系、反义关系、对立关系。在词汇的逆指关系的制约下，从对立面选择表达形式，让读者通过逆向思维，捕捉原文的语义指向。

引申的切入点，即引申视角及方法：(Extension motivated by translation shifts) ? 话题定位： 话题笼统，评述或展开部分中就会有具体词或具体阐述；笼统和具体之 间构成了照应互补关系。如果能确定笼统和具体之间的关系，就不难把握笼统词的语境所指义。话题具体，展开部分的笼统词就可以根据话题的具体内容定位。 (1)Steamboat decks teemed not only with the main current of pioneering humanity, but its flotsam of hustlers, gamblers, and thugs as well. From them all Mark Twain gained a keen perception of the human race, of the difference between the people claim to be and what they really are. His four and a half a years in the steamboat trade marked the real beginning of his education, and the most lasting part of it. In later life Twain acknowledged that the river had acquainted him with every possible type of human nature.(笼统)

(2)Early the next morning I met a polite and elegant man wearing fine clothes. After a one-hour flight, we spent the day visiting attractions along with hundreds of other tourists, most of them overloaded with cameras and souvenirs. I remember feeling disdain for this collection of ogling humanity.

(3) Along the way, conventional wisdom(抽象－具体) suffered yet another series of defeats. No wave of terrorism greeted the American campaign, though fanatics will surely strike again. Neither foreign troops nor suicide bombers paralyzed U.S. and British forces. Saddam Hussein could not mount a deadly and costly Stalingrad defense in Baghdad. The Arab \not rise. Many people insist that Arabs are being colonized again by western powers in search of oil. No surprise there. But there is dissonance in that message now. It is hard to explain that the dread crusaders have taken over again when everyone can see the Iraqi people exulting over fallen statues of Saddam. (conventional---following what has been customary)

(4) Today the ancient, ancestral wisdom of the hand has been largely replaced by the simple movements of the machine operator; our glass and china, furniture, book, and textiles are almost entirely products of the machine. That machine-made goods can be well designed and good-looking no one now denies; nevertheless, there are many who believe that if the old skills of the handworker were to die out altogether it would be a disaster.

(5) But our respond to these signals is puzzling. Why do some images startle us into immediate action and focus our atte ntion on ways to respond effectively? And why do other images, though sometimes equally dramatic, produce instead a kind of paralysis, focusing our attention not on ways to respond but rather on some

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convenient, less painful distraction?

(6) Move with Confidence

When you walk, do so purposefully as if you belong. Keep your chin up and your shoulders back. Try to maintain an even, deliberate stride. Don?t drag or shuffle your feet. Make sure you don?t point your feet outward when you walk. It?s hard to be confident when you look like a duck. People will often tell me, “I knew you were the instructor by the confident way you walked into the room. You acted like you were in charge. ”

? 组合控制:

通过搭配关系选择汉语的词语。以词义明确的词为中心词，通过中心词来判断与相应的搭配词语。

(7) For 13 months, she had faithfully replied, and more than replied.(How?

(8) Every day when the tide goes out, it leaves pools of water trapped among the

rocks,

(9)Some of the heat we make escapes back into space but some gets trapped in the atmosphere.

(10) The Earth is surrounded by a blanket of gases called the atmosphere. This traps

heat and air around the Earth making it possible for life to exist.

(11) Drift nets hang from the surface. They trap fish that try to swim through them. (12) Fin Trap: Lionfish use their long, spiny fins to steer small fish into the sides of

the coral reef where they hunt. When the fish are cornered, the lionfish pounces. (13) Because man is the only known reservoir of the smallpox virus, the disease

should be eliminated forever when the last infected person recovers.

(14) The room was easily traced by the noise that was coming from it. It didn't sound

a studious noise.

(15) But what hurt me most was that in the middle of the room sat a very

studious-looking boy reading a book. ? 参照框架控制

(如：比较框架、类比框架、对比框架、指代框架、信息回补框架等) (指代 /替代照应 )

(16) I knew a little more than I had that summer at Diamond Lake, but I could not

reach her now any more than I had then. I was ashamed, ashamed of my own timidity, the frightened tendency to look the other way. Yet I felt no real warmth towards her---I only felt that I ought to, because of that distant summer and because my father had hoped she would by company for me, or perhaps that I would be for her, but it had not happened that way.

(17)Smallpox, the most devastating and feared pestilence in human history, is making

its last stand in two remote areas of Ethieopio, one in the desert and one in the mountains.

(18)Their own teacher had been sick for a long time: a succession of startled

substitutes had stood before them, ducked, winced, and fled. (No和Yes 的指代照应)

(19) When Smith pointed out that he had spread the rumour, he vehemently retorted: “No! No!”

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(20) He had been anxiously looking round him for an aristocratic face, in order that he

might tell him what he thought, but could not recognize lord this or duke that. No! No! (类比照应)

(21) It had been a fine, golden autumn, a lovely farewell to those who would lose their

youth, and some of them their lives, before the leaves turned again in a peacetime fall.

(22) He(the manager)had gathered from my mysterious manner that I was a detective.

I knew what he was thinking and it made me worse. (My Financial Career) (24) Fear of Dearth (类比和信息回补)

I hate jogging. Every dawn, as I thud around New York City's Central Park reservoir, I am reminded of how much I hate it. It's so tedious. Some claim jogging is thought conducive(help to produce , others insist the scenery relieves the monotony. For me, the pace is wrong for contemplation of either ideas or vistas. While jogging, all I can think about is jogging---or nothing. One advantage of jogging around a reservoir is that there's no dry-shortcut home.

From the listless looks of some fellow trotters, I gather I am not alone in my unenthusiasm: Bill-paying, it seems, would be about as diverting. Nonetheless, we continue to jog; more, we continue to choose to jog. From a practically infinite array of opportunities, we select one that we don't enjoy and can't wait to have done with.

(25) Few of us like to be told that we?re average, and Americans are no exception. Far

worse, however, is to be told that we, or the things we do, are typical of our nation. (逆比照应)

(25) In 1864 a treaty---The Convention of Geneva---was signed and the Red Cross

came into being. The design of its badge, a red cross on a white field, was obtained by reversing the colours of Switzerland.

(26)Though it was twice what she had expected, her expression did not change. \

The fat man seemed puzzled. \\

He shrugged. \

“No,” The statement was unequivocal. \(回指先行词，补显性信息之不足。)

(27) I struck up a conversation with kid, trying to establish some kind of rapport, I

touched on hippies, pop music, dating, morality and so on. She contributed very little.

(28) The glow of the conversation burst into flames. There were affirmations and

protests and denials, and of course the promise, made in all such conversion, that we would look it up on the morning. That would settle it; but conversation does not need to be settled; it could still go ignorantly on.

? 词汇照应(上下义互代、笼统具体互代、抽象形象互代、共指关系) (笼统与具体照应)

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(30) I wanted to say to her, Are you certain your publisher is telling you the truth? Publishers are human. They may sometimes exaggerate the virtues of the young and the pretty. Will The Chelsea Set be read in five years? Are you prepared for the years of effort, 'the long defeat of doing nothing well'? As the years pass writing will not become any easier, the daily effort will grow harder to endure, those 'powers of observation' will become enfeebled; you will be judged when you reach your forties, by performance and not by promise.

(31) It was Mrs.Packletide's pleasure and intention that she should shoot a tiger. Not

that the desire to kill had suddenly come to her, or that she felt she would leave India safer than she had found it, with one wild beast less. (共指项照应)

(32) Modern medicine owes a great deal to the discovery of certain tiny disease-carrying organisms. Louis Pasteur was the discoverer of bacteria. Much later, scientists discovered viruses. But it was left to scientists of our won time to develop powerful killers of these hateful micro-organism.

(33)The impulse towards culture, the desire to express and explore the world through imagination and representation is fundamental. In Europe this desire has found fulfilment in the masterpieces of our music, art literature and theatre. These masterpieces are the touchstones for all our efforts; they are the touchstones for the possibilities to which human thought and imagination may aspire; they carry the most profound messages that can be sent from one human to another. (笼统和具体照应；动因－行为－结果框架)

(34) I was toying inwardly with ideas of thunderbolts, earthquakes, mass executions.

But in old blood I could think of no practical substitute for these dramatic punishments.

(35)There is more to their life than political and social and economic problems; more

than transient everydayness. (逻辑照应)

(36) The low angle of the winter sun throws long, dramatic shadows.

(37) Safe in Schools: Some fish swim in big groups called schools. This helps

confuse predators, so they don?t know which fish to attack. They might even think the whole school is a much bigger animal. ? 蕴含关系框架(各种蕴含关系：)

(38) I hope she?ll always feel like a daughter of America, and not like a stepchild. ? 说话人的表情(如：褒贬)、

(中性词的积极和消极取向取决于上下文)

(39) I never had much in seeing you. There was no love lost between us, at any time,

I think.

(40) We grumble a little now and then, to be sure, but there's no love lost between us. 文化制约

(41) He flung himself down at little Osborne's feet, and loved him. Even before they

were acquainted, he had admired Osborne in secret. Now he was his valet, his dog, his man Friday.

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(42) It was mid August and the subject for discussion was the future of Rommel and

his Africa Corps.

(42) \wanted to be a Communist,\he told me rather wistfully, \nobody ever

asked me to join. I was already fifty, and I concluded that the Communists considered me too old.\place and asked him to enter the Party. He was overjoyed, the old rascal, and he told me he wept then to think that he was still of some use in building anew world.

(43) His illness is child's play when you think of how serious it might have been.

(44)When Mary came down dressed for the dance her father remarked, \

make fine birds\文体和语域制约

2. Amplification (增词译法)

Amplification or expansions in Nida?s term, may be most conveniently divided between syntactic(or formal) expansion and lexical(or semantic) ones. Syntactic expansions

The most common expansions required by the syntactic structure of the receptor languages include: (a) identification of the participants in events, (b)identification of objects or events with abstracts, (c)more explicit indication of relations, and (d)filling out of ellipses, which may involve any type of syntactic structure.

Lexical expansions(sense-for-sense)

The most common lexical expansions consist of (a) classifiers, (b)descriptive substitutes, and (c) semantic restructuring. 2．增词法

增词的语义句法化过程

? 语义结构和句法结构的调整(propositional—syntactic processing or

identification of the participants in events)

(1) 门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。

<<夜间来客>>

A. The doorbell rang；a visitor arrived. Huang had never refused any visitor； he

should receive the visitor with courtesy. He put on his socks and smoothed his hair；he hurried to the door.

B. Suddenly the doorbell rang, announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair, he hurried to the door. (刘士聪译)

(2) In the evening, after the banquets, the concerts and the table tennis exhibitions, he

would work on the drafting of the final communiqué.

(3) Mary washed for a living after her husband died of acute pneumonia. (4) Day after day he came to his work ---- sweeping, scrubbing, cleaning.

(5) The girl is beating the drum. (6) The girl is drumming.

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? 词素内部的语义成分外化(making lexicalized participants explicit) (7) Smoke swirled through the opening. (swirl: move + with twists and turns)

(8) I boxed the apples.(box: put + into + a box)

(9) The napkin blew off the table. (blow: be moved + by the wind or other air current)

(10) The rock rolled down the hill.

(11) The crowds melt away.(melt: go slowly away)

(12) As he sat down and began talking, words poured out.(pour: cause to flow in a

continuous way)

3) 逻辑因素的“外化”(more explicit indication of relations) ? 形合与意合(hypotaxis vs. parataxis)

(13) 如果他来，我就走。If he comes, I'll leave. =I'll leave if be comes.

(14) 他一来，我就走。 I'll leave as soon as be comes.= As soon as he comes I'll

leave.

(15) 他来了，我再走。 I won't leave until be comes. I'll be here until he comes. (16) 因为他来了，所以我要走。Since he comes I'll leave. =I'll leave since he comes. (17) His weariness and the increasing heat determined him to sit down in the first convenient shade.

(18) He was mature in years and tried in wars but had the old, inbred arrogance of his

family.

? 源语中的语义深层信息量大于语符表层

(19) And suddenly he saw her at her window, looking out. He moved a little from the

yew tree, and whispered:“Megan!”She drew back, vanished, reappeared, leaning far down .He stole forward on the grass patch, hit his shin against the green painted chair, and held his breath at the sound. 曲、直表达习惯有较大差异

(20) Suddenly an idea mingled with the alcoholic fumes that disturbed his brain. It

was apparently of a jocular nature, for he felt impelled to slap his leg again and cram his fist into mouth.

(21) The best lubricant cannot maintain oil films between the surfaces of engineering

gears.

? 虚、实表达习惯有较大差异

(22) But the tamping-iron rubbed against the side of the shaft, and a spark ignited the

powder.

(22)(The latter-day Aladdin, still snugly abed, then presses a button on a bedside box

and issues a string of business and personal memos, which appear instantly on the genie screen.)After his shower, which has turned itself on at exactly the right temperature at the right minute, Mr. A is alerted by a buzzer and a blue light, on the screen.

4) 文化因素的“外化” (more explicit indication of cultural messages)

(23) Say you shoot a video that you think is particularly artsy. Beam it out and make a

small fortune by charging an untold number of viewers a fee for watching. Peter Tennings would be obsolete. (24) Wellsian fantasy?(ibid)

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(25) (Nicholas Negroponte, director of MIT's Media Lab, a leading think tank in this

new world, remembers that back in the 1970s,a government agency gave him a grant on the condition that he remove the word multimedia from his proposal.)“They were afraid we would get one of ［Senator］ Porxmire's Golden Fleece awards,” he says.

(26) Computer technology may make the car, as we know it, a Smithsonian antique. 5) 屈折形式的语义外化(inflexion vs.lexical entry) ? 英语名词复数形式的构句功能和表意功能

(27)(A user might stand in front of a monitor receiver and just talk and listen,

communicating with whatever or whomever is Out There).Images and voices would be beamed back and forth

(28)Personal tragedy haunted his entire life, in the deaths of loved ones? (29)Disappearances occured with apparently increasing frequency,? (30)She warmly welcomed her guests in and brought them a cup of tea.

(31) I have had the joy of two beautiful and wonderful wives, the happiness of

parenthood and the love of eight children. (Why Measure Life in Heart Beats?) ? 动词“时”、“体”的结构功能和表意功能 (32) Are you understanding me better? (33) You are not looking quite yourself.

(34) Britain′s railway system is being improved.

(35) At the time when it happened, I was seeing a lot of Belinda, and I was also going

to the opera a lot. ? 冗余法则与增词分寸 信息冗余现象 (a) 同义、近义单位的复现：We will never parley, we will never negotiate with Hitler

or any of his gang.

(b) 共指单位复现： ?the return of the bred-winner, of their champion, of their protector.(ibid)

(c) 同一个语言单位的重现：Words, words, mere words, no matter from the heart. (36) He lives in Qingdao.

(37) He was born and lives in Qingdao. (38) He said that he lived in Qingdao.

(39) He who is most slow in making a promise is generally the most faithful in its

performance.

(40) The smallest chick knows better than (to) trust itself to water. (41) The simplest explanation is the best.

(42) It(her husband?s death as the result of heart transplanting) was a great ordeal for

Mrs West, but an even greater ordeal had been publicity.

(43) It's the commonplace, the habitual, that challenges definition, for its very

common ness compels us to define it in uncommon terms. 6) 结构性增词

? 增补原文中被省略的部分(filling out of ellipses)

(44) Histories make men wise; poets(?)witty; mathematics(?)subtle; natural philosophy

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(?)deep(?) (On Study)

(45) And whereas a country like Britain exhibits considerable variation in climate and landscape, the（限定、提示已知范围信息的省略） differences （同义照应） across the continental U.S. are extreme (顺接照应) (46) No phrase was borrowed:it was pure Roosevelt.(The Glory and the Dream)

(47) Poor little tender heart! And so it goes on hopping and beating, and longing and

trusting.(Vanity Fair)

(48) Next to health, heart and home, happiness for mobile Americans depends upon

the automobile.

(49) Bryan stood forlonly alone. My heart went out to the old warrior as spectators

pushed by him to shake Darrow's hand. (50) Let the head rule the heart.

(51) Wise men have their mouth in their heart, fools their heart in their mouth.

(52) 一间阴暗的小屋子里，上面坐着两个老爷，一东一西。东边的是一个马褂，

西边的是一个西装，??马褂问过他的姓名年龄籍贯之后，就又问道：“你是木刻研究会的会员么?”

? 增补汉语词组结构中缺少的成分 增补动词

(52)The season does induce a quickening of the blood and a heightening of humankind's sensual pleasures.

(53)He wanted to send them more aid, more weapons and a few more men. 增补名词

(54) All of parenting is a series of letting go by degrees.

(55)The microelectronic revolution promises to ease, enhance and simplify life in

ways undreamed of even by the utopians.

(56) 根据汉语主谓搭配的需要，在形容词或动词前增加作主语的名词。

(But)his father,red-faced and happy,was still reading the book? (The Snob) 增加范畴词(classifiers) 增加表性质、范畴的名词，常见的有：“精神、观念、身份、情况、局面、工作、问题等。

(57) Indeed, this nation's best-loved author was every bit as adventurous, patriotic,

romantic and humorous as anyone has ever imagined. (58) Much of our morality is customary.

增加补语：常用的专用动量词有：“次”、“回”、“趟”、“遍”、“番”、“下”、“阵”等；还可以借用名 词构成动量词：“手”(露一手)“声”(叫几声)等。当译文中补词组残缺时，应根据动词适 当增补动量词。 (59) Mr.Parsons coughed. 常用的趋向性动词有：“来”、“去”、“上”、“下” 、“进”、“出”、“回”、“开”、“过”、“起”、“起来”、“下去”等。

(60)The efficient and capable foreman no longer existed; the friendly, considerate

Phineas Gage was dead;? 增加概括性的词语

(61) (“When you go to college, little baby,”Dad would say,“you'll be our

pioneer. ”)He didn't say if you go to collage. 增加连接性词语

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(62) But even in winter, when the food they'd put down from the garden was gone and

they were forced to accept government rice and beans, Dad kept up his subscription. 增加承上启下的动词

(63)?he had stumbled on a buried memory, a wild sweet time, swiftly choked and

ended.

(64)?Ashurst, on his silver-wedding day, longed for——he knew not what.

(65) Lieutenant Blandford remembered one night in particular, the worst of the

fighting, when his plane had been caught in the midst of a pack of Zeros. He had seen the grinning face of the enemy pilots.

(66) Next time you doubt yourself, I want you to hear my voice reciting to you: \for thou art with me'\ And he had remembered; he had heard her imagined voice, and it had renewed his strength and skill. 3 减词译法(Reduction)

1) Types of reduction defined by Nida

a. simplification of doublets, e.g., “answering, he said,” becomes “he answered”; b. reduction of repetition, e.g., “verily, verily,” must in some languages be reduced to one “verily”, for repetition does not convey the same meaning that is dos in Greek;

c. omission of specification of participants, e.g., the overabundant use of “God” as subject of so many sentences in the first chapter of Genesis (in some language certain of these occurrences of “God ” must be eliminated in order to avoid syntactic confusion); d. loss of conjunctions, when hypotactic structures are reduced to paratactic ones; e. reduction of formulas, e.g., “for his names? sake” maybe changed to “for his sake”;

f. more extensive ellipsis than may be typical of the Greek or Hebrew; that is to say, while some languages require expansion of possible ellipsis, some languages prefer more extensive ellipsis than occurs in the source-language texts;

g. the simplification of highly repetitious style, often associated with stateliness of form and importance of the theme, e.g., the first chapter of Genesis. While in Hebrew such repetitions and pleonasms may have a valued liturgical significance, a close formal paralleled in another language may seem awkwardly heavy.

2) 功能词的省略 (loss of conjunctions / omission of specification of participants) (1) Smoking is prohibited in public places.

(2) A wise man will not marry a woman who has attainments but no virtue.

(3) (She jerked the bill furiously from my hand stepped away from the window .)In a moment she reappeared to hurl my change and the ticket on the counter with such force(that)most of it fell on the floor at my feet?I stooped to pick up my change and ticket from the floor. 3) 结构性省略

(4) They could be adapted to the waging of people?s war of liberation but were rather

useless in an anti-people?s war.

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4)冗余信息载体的省略 / 化显为隐

(5) His very appearance at any affair proclaims it a triumph. (6) He was now open to charges of willful blindness.

(7) When she finished wrapping the dasher the handle stuck out. I took it for a moment in myhands. You didn't even have to look close to see where hands pushing the dasher up anddown to make butter had left a kind of sink in the wood. A：她把搅拌桨包上了，手柄露在外面。我把它拿过来看了一阵，(你)一眼就能

看出因手握搅拌器上下搅动制作奶油而在木柄上留下的深深的印痕。

B：她把搅乳器包上了，手柄露在外面。我把它拿过来看了一阵。(你)一眼就能

看出木柄上手把之处留下的深深的印痕。

C：她把搅乳器包上了，木手柄露在外面。我把它拿过来看了一阵。(你)一眼就

能看出手把之处留下的深深的印痕。

下画线显性表述，i.e.冗余信息载体；斜体字表示隐性表述载体。适度内化的译文应包括以下5个内容：

(8) In the bus station lobby, I looked for signs indicating a colored waiting room, but saw none.

是否充分传递了原文的内容，有没有漏译；是否遵守了经济、省力原则，是否符合译语表达习惯；隐性表述内容是否存在于读者的知识结构中；语境里有没有激活含意因素及其载体；译文的难度是否与原文一致。 4. 词性转换现象的解释 (Conversion) 1）谓词中心视点

它们是学习文件。(2)他们在学习文件。(3)他们学习了文件。 (1)The sight and sound of our jet planes [filled] me with special longing. (2)一想到将来，我感到浑身有用不完的力气。

The thought of the future [fills] me with boundless energy and strength.

(3)Talking with his son, the old man was the forgiver of the young man?s past wrong doings.

(4)Fenella?s father pushed on with quick, [nervous] strides. Beside him grandma bustled along in her crackling black ulster; they went so fast that she had now and again to give an [undignified] little skip to keep up with them. 2) 副词、形容词和介词的转译

(5)Perhaps she would prod at the straw in her clumsy impatience. (6)Buckley was in a clear minority.

(7) He is physically weak but mentally sound. (8)As he ran out, he forgot to have his shoes on. (9) The man ran back down into the cellar.

(10)“Coming!” Away she skimmed over the lawn, up the path, up the steps, across the

veranda, and into the porch. 5. 重复译法 1) 回指性重复 ? 代词回指

(1) A continuous concomitant of contact between two mutually incomprehensible

tongues and one that does not lead either to suppression or extension of either is translation.

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(2) As conscientious parents, we strive to foster independence. But when it happens,

when you pause outside that door and look at the blank panels it is a little uneasing.

(3) You could never pick him out in a crowd. He became just another man the minute

her was in one.

? 具有替代功能的语言单位回指

具有替代功能的语言单位：such, counterpart, substitute, the former, the latter, affirmative, negative, alternative, instead, do, reverse等等 。

(4) Easton looked alternatively at the list of debts and the 3 letters, and then he

said?(The Financiers) (5)“Don't get up,”says Dee. Since I am stout it takes something of a push. You can see me trying to move a second or two before I make it.

(6)（Do not touch the exhibits）?These objects, however, were different. Lined up

against the wall, there were long thin wires attached to metal spheres? In the center of the hall there were number of tall structures which contained coloured lights.

(7) More often, the heart disease process progresses silently until symptoms occur

because the pump is not supplying blood in sufficient quantity to other organs. (8) \

There being nothing eatable within his reach, Olive relied in the affirmative. (9) Suddenly the enraged elephant burst from the jungle and charged toward us.

Coolly I raised my gun and shot him cleanly between the eyes. The wild beast

slowly toppled to his side. ? 语法单位的回指

(10)He made an attempt to square his shoulders which did not succeed.(Blackmail) (11)“The best way is to write out a list of every thing we owe; then we shall know

exactly where we are. You get me a piece of paper and tell me what to write. Then we'll see what it all comes to.”(The Financiers) 2) 直接重复法 ? 同字面重复

(12)I can read every word that Dr. Johnson wrote with delight, for he had good sense, charm and wit. ? 异字面重复

(13) Having relied for too long on the old strategy “out of sight, out of mind” ，we

are now running out of ways to dispose of our waste in a manner that keeps it out of either sight or mind.

(14) London is a junction of many roads also of many influences.

(15)The distinction had perhaps been felt too strongly. It had given him a disgust to

his business and to his residence in a small market town; and quitting them both, he had removed with his family to a house a mile from Merino, denominated from that period Laces Lodge…

(16) There is no double the war in China was an extremely brutal one involving

widespread atrocities, and it has left a deep and bitter legacy in both China and Japan.

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(17)France, Russia and Germany were soon pressuring China to cede them ports, naval bases and special economic privileges and to deny Japan its newly won rights.)

6. 正反`反正 表达法(Affirmative to negative & vice versa) 1) 调整表达手段的前提：

? 正说-－以肯定说法表达原文的否定形式所传递的信息；反说――以否定说法

表达原文的肯定形式所传递的信息；原文的逻辑关系、目的语的表达习惯、有时，在目的语中正反表达都可以，但表达效果不同。 2) 翻译中的正反表现形式

? Full negatives：nothing, nobody , nowhere. no ,not, none, never, neither, nor, etc. ? Absolute negatives：not at all, by no means , in no way, nothing short of etc. ? Words with negative affixes：de- dis- im- in- un- -less ir- il- etc. ? Semi negatives：hardly, scarcely, seldom , barely, few, little, etc.

? Words with negative implication：ail, without , beyond, unless, lest, ignorant of ,

refrain, refuse, neglect, rather than, except etc.

3) 摆脱原文形式束缚，以句子内在的逻辑关系表达依据。 (1) It is a long lane that has no turning.

(2) As for the time of the attack, Hitler told his reluctant generals, \take place too early. It is to take place in all circumstances (if at all possible) this autumn.

(3)It is an ill wind that blows nobody good. (4) You can't be too careful in crossing the road.

4) 英汉表达习惯不同，在反映同一内容，同一情景的前提下，按汉语习惯表达。 (5) There is a notice on the power line port,\

(6) Your letter of April 18 has come to hand but the enclosure is wanting.

(7) 15.Miss Ingram was a mark beneath jealousy; she was too inferior to excite the feeling.

5) 以表达效果为措词依据

(8) The earth is tilted a little. It is always tilted the same amount in the same direction. (9) It was not without infinite labour that I felled this tree.

(10) Mexico City is an earthquake zone and earth tremors are not unusual. 6) 否定两端的译法

(1) Not that it can be disputed the light toil requisite to cultivate a moderately-sized

garden imparts such zest to kitchen vegetables as is never found in those of the market gardener.

(2) This reproach of my dependence had become a vague sing-song in my ear, very

painful and crushing, but only half-intelligible. 7) 具体情况具体处理

判断表达方式的几个问题：翻译单位的概念是否定还是肯定；在与原文相对应的情况下根据目的语的表达习惯选择表达形式；根据目的语的语篇衔接需要选择表达形式。

(13) She stood still, trying vainly to answer the battery of questions the teacher raised. (14) His papers would be disarranged on the desk and his pipes would be lying

around.

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(15) She always wore neutral expression when she was alone.

(16) In marrying this girl he married a bit more than he could chew.

(17) The youth moved a pace or two nearer, and the scent of his honest heat afflicted

Arthurst's nostrils.

(18)The mildness of its climate,/ with slight temperature variations/ and infrequent

rainfall, combined with a high average level of sunshine and brilliant skies, all make it ideal for tourism whether by winter or by summer.

(19)To Big Tun that day he (Roosevelt) looked like a cocky college kid, still wet

behind the ears.

(20) It is a good machine that never goes out of order.

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