2016黑龙江大学跨文化英语考试总结分解

2016黑龙江大学跨文化英语考试总结

考试构成：

一、单选 1*20=20分。（Choose the one that）其中有一部分是书中的概念。

二、搭配 1*20=20分。matching 四组搭配，概念的对应，每一章课后的summary中的黑体字。 三、判断 1*20=20分。（A—>true。B—>false) 课后习题第二大题，其中某些题是变动的。要注重理解。

四、阅读理解 1*25=25分。五篇。与课文中的专有词有关。 五、案例分析 3*5=15分。五个案例。书中案例有四个，课外一个。 Chapter 1 Culture Keywords

(1) Culture (from intellectual perspective): Culture is “the arts and other manifestations of human intellectual achievement regarded collectively”（从知性角度定义文化：作为整体的人类智力成就的艺术和其他表现。）

(2) Culture (from anthropologic perspective): Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and especially their attached values”.（从人类学角度定义文化：文化由清晰和模糊的行为模式构成，这些模式通过符号获得并传播，这些符号由人类群体的特别成就构成，包括具体的人工制品。文化的基本核心由传统思想和与其相关的价值观构成。）

(3) Culture ( from psychological perspective): culture is the collective programming of he mind which distinguishes the members of one category of people from another。（从心理学角度定义文化：文化是使一个人类群体成员区别于其他人类群体的思维的总体规划。）

(4) Culture (from socialogical perspective): Culture is defined as a pattern of learned, group-related perception—including both verbal and nonverbal language, attitudes, values, belief system, disbelief systems, and behavior. (从社会学角度定义文化：文化是一种可习得的、基于群体的认知模式——包括言语与非言语符号、态度、价值观、信仰和非信仰系统以及行为。)

(5) Culture ( from intercultural communication perspective): is the deposit of knowledge, experience, belief, values, actions, attitudes, hierarchies, religions, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and artifacts acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving. （从跨文化交际学角度定义文化：文化是个人和群体在种族发展过程中所获得的知识、经验、信仰、价值观、行为、态度、阶级、宗教、时间观、角色、空间观、宇宙观和艺术品的集合。）

(6) Culture Identity: refers to one’s sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic group.（文化身份：认为自己归属于某一文化或民族群体的感觉。）

(7) Subculture：refers to a culture that exists within dominant culture, and is often based on economic or social class, ethnicity, race, or geographic region. （亚文化：指存在于主流文化中的文化，其划分通常基于经济地位、社会阶层、民族、种族或地理区域。）

(8) Co-culture: refers to groups or social communities exhibiting communication characteristics, perceptions, values, beliefs, and practices that are significantly different enough to distinguish them from the other groups, communities, and the dominant culture. （共文化：指具有独特的交际特征、感知特点、价值观、信仰和行为，区别于其他群体、社团以及主流文化的群体或社团。） (9) Subgroup: usually does not involve the same large number of people and is not necessarily thought of as accumulating values and patterns of behavior over generations in the same way as cultures do. （亚群体：相对于亚文化和共文化群体，亚群体通常规模不大，也不一定有文化群体世代相传积累的价值观念和行为模式。）

Case 2: White Dress Case analysis: The Indian women might think the wedding ceremony is a funeral if they see the western bride in white gown. The case reflects the similes and metaphors in the text. Culture is like an iceberg: we can identify the color of the dress worn by women in different cultures, but we do not know the values underneath. Culture is like the water a fish swims in: people wear dress of different colors for different context but they usually take it for granted and never ask why.

案例2：白连衣裙案例分析：印度妇女可能会认为，如果他们看到了西方白色礼服的新娘在婚礼仪式的葬礼。情况反映了明喻和隐喻在文本中。文化就像一座冰山：我们可以找出不同文化背景的女性在穿着的礼服的颜色，但我们不知道下面的价值。文化就像是一条鱼游在水中：人们穿的礼服不同的颜色，不同的背景，但他们通常把它视为理所当然，从来不问为什么。

Case 4: Coconut-skating（用椰油保养地板的方法） Case analysis: The case reflects the characteristics of culture. We can tell from the case that culture is pervasive and it’s learned. People may invent different ways for things even as simple as the issue of floor moping. The Philippine woman must have learned this way of mopping from her own culture.

案例4：椰子-滑冰（用椰油保养地板的方法） 案例分析：案例反映了文化的特点。我们可以告诉的情况下，文化是无处不在的和可以通过学习得到的。人们可以发明的东西即使是这么简单的问题，地面抹平不同的方式。菲律宾女人必须学会这样的拖地从自己的文化中。 Chapter 2 Communication and Intercultural Communication Keywords

(1) Sender/Source: A sender/source is the person who transmits a message.（信息发出者/信息源：信息发出者/信息源指传递信息的人。）

(2) Message: A message is any signal that triggers the response of a receiver.（信息：信息指引起信息接受者反应的任何信号。）

(3) Encoding: It refers to the activity during which the sender must choose certain words or nonverbal methods to send an intentional message. （编码：编码指信息发出者选择言语或用非言语的方式发出有目的的信息的行为。）

(4) Channel/Medium：It is the method used to deliver a message. （渠道/媒介：渠道/媒介指发送信息的方法。 ）

(5) Receiver: A receiver is any person who notices and gives some meaning to a message. (信息接受者：信息接受者指信息接收者是指注意到信息并且赋予信息某些含义的人。)

(6) Decoding: It is the activity during which the receiver attaches meaning to the words or symbols he/she has received.（解码：解码指信息接受者赋予其收到的言语或符号信息意义的行为。） (7) Feedback: The response of a receiver to a sender’s message is called feedback.（反馈：反馈指信息接收者对信息源信息所做出的反应。）

(8) Noise: It is a term used for factors that interfere with the exchange of messages, including external noise physiological noise, psychological noise and semantic noise.（干扰：干扰指妨碍信息交流的各种因素。包括外界干扰，生理干扰，心理干扰和语义干扰。）

(9) Context: A context is the setting or situation within which communication takes place , including physical context, social context and interpersonal context.（语境：语境指交际发生的环境，包括自然语境，社会语境和人际语境。）

(10) Intercultural communication: It is the communication between people whose cultural perception and symbol system are distinct enough to alter the communication event.( 跨文化交际：跨文化交际指的是那些在文化认知和符号系统上存在差异的人们之间的交际。这些差异足以改变整个交际事件。)

(11) International communication: it takes place between nations and governments rather than individuals; it is quite formal and ritualized. (国际交流：国际交流是指发生在国家和政府之间而非发生在个人之间的交际；此种交际非常正式和仪式化。)

(12) Interracial communication: It occurs when the sender and the receiver exchanging messages are from different races. (跨种族交际：跨种族交际是指交流信息的信息源和信息接受者来自不同的种族的交际。)

(13) Interethnic communication: It is the communication between or among people from different ethnic groups in a country or culture.（跨民族交际：跨民族交际是指来自一个国家或文化内部的不同民族群体的人们之间的交际。）

(14) Intracultural communication: it is defined as communication between or among members of the same culture.（文化内交际：文化内交际是指同一文化内部的成员之间的交际。）

(15) Communication :is derived from the Latin word communicare,meaning to share with or to make common,as in giving to another part or share of your thoughts,hopes,and knowledge.

Case 12: Why Don’t You Eat the Pizza? This case can reflect the problems appearing during intercultural communication and how ignoring cultural differences can affect communication. In Malaysia, where most people are Muslims, people think the left hand is used only for cleaning the body and thus it is dirty and can not be used to pass food. Knowing nothing about the cultural difference, the American student puts himself in an embarrassing situation.

案例12：为什么你吃披萨呢？ 这种情况可以反映在跨文化交际中出现的问题，忽略文化差异如何影响沟通。在马来西亚，其中大多数人是穆斯林，人们认为左手是仅用于清洗身体，因此它是肮脏的，不能用来传递食品。不知道什么文化差异，美国学生使自己陷入尴尬处境。 Chapter 3 Culture’s Influence on Perception

Keywords

(1) Sensation: It is the neurological process by which people become aware of their environment.（感觉：感觉是人们意识到周围环境的神经过程。)

(2) Perception: It is the process by which we become aware of objects, events, and especially people and their behaviors through our various senses and involves higher-order cognition in the interpretation of the sensory information. (知觉：知觉是一种人们通过各种感觉来觉察事物、事件、人和人的行为的过程。它是解释感觉信息更为高阶的认知过程。)

(3) Selection: It is a process in which we screen out what we need from all the stimuli and information around us.（选择：选择是从周围选择的刺激信息中筛选出所需要的信息的过程。)

(4) Organization: It is the process during which we need to organize and impose structure on what we observe in a meaningful way. （组织： 组织是把从周围选择的刺激信息，以一种有意义的方式整理，组合的过程。）

(5) Interpretation: It refers to attaching meaning to sense data and is synonymous with decoding.（释义：释义是赋予感觉信息意义的过程， 类似于解码过程。）

Case 16: Different Responses to Noise This case can reflect different culture can give different influences on human sensation. No two of people can assume that their sensations are the same, especially when they come from different cultures. Different social reality and living conditions can equip them with different way to sense the world. So it is very common for them to have totally different sensations even towards the same condition. In this case, the German professor and Japanese professor have very different response to the noise produced by the same motor for the heating system because of their cultures and living habits.

案例16：噪声不同的反应，这种情况可以反映不同的文化会产生不同的影响，对人的感觉。可以假设没有两个人的感觉是一样的，特别是当他们来自不同的文化。不同的社会现实和生活条件，使他们用不同的方式来感知世界。所以这是非常常见的有完全不同的感觉，甚至对相同的条件下。在这种情况下，德国教授和日本教授有非常不同的反应，噪声由同一电机的加热系统产生的，因为他们的文化和生活习惯。

Chapter 4 Intercultural Communication Barriers Keywords

(1) Anxiety: It occurs because of not knowing what one is expected to do, and focusing on that feeling and not be totally present in the communication transaction.（焦虑：当人们不知道如何迎合他人对自己的期待，过多的关注自己情绪以至不能全心投入到交际事物中去时，就会产生焦虑。） (2) Uncertainty: It refers to our cognitive inability to explain our own or other’s feelings and behaviors in interactions because of an ambiguous situation that evokes anxiety. (不确定：不确定是指人们无法从认知的角度去解释交际活动中自己或他人的感觉及行为，这种认知角度解释能力的欠缺是某种引起焦虑的含糊情境导致的。)

(3) Assuming similarity instead of difference: It refers to the idea that people coming from another culture are more similar to you than they actually are or that another person’s situation is more similar to yours than it in fact is. （假定一致性：假定一致性是指认为来自另一文化的他人和自己相似或他人的处境与自己的处境相似，而事实上却并非如此。）

(4) Ethnocentrism: It refers to negatively judging aspects of another culture by the standards of one’s own culture.（种族或民主中心主义：是指从本国文化的标准出发，消极地审视另一文化。） (5) Stereotypes: They refer to negative or positive judgments made about individuals based on any observable or believed group membership.（文化定势：文化定势指基于明显的或受到认可的群体身份，对目标群体中的个体成员所持有的正面或反面的判断。）

(6) Prejudice: It refers to the irrational dislike, suspicion, or hatred of a particular group, race, religion, or sexual orientation.（偏见：偏见是指对于某一特定群体、种族、宗教、或性取向的无端地憎恶和怀疑。）

(7) Racism: It refers to any policy, practice, belief, or attitude that attributes characteristics or status to individuals based on their race.（种族主义：种族主义是指基于种族把性格特点或地位归因于个人的任一政策、做法、信仰或态度。）

Case 21: A Danish Woman in New York This case can reflect assuming similarity instead of difference. When communicating with people from another culture, one is likely to regard and treat other people as “his people” and to assume there must be only one way of doing things: that is “his way”. In this case, the Danish woman assumes that her behavior of leaving the baby alone, which is common in Denmark, is also appropriate in New York. Here, she assumes what is suitable in her own culture is also indisputable in another culture. That is why the small conflict happens.

丹麦女性在纽约这种情况可以反映假设相似性而不是差异。与来自其他文化的人沟通时，很可能看待和对待其他人向“ 他自己人“ ，假设有必须做的事情只有一个办法：那就是 “ 自己的方式“ 。在这种情况下，丹麦女子假定的宝宝独自离开，她的行为，这是在丹麦，也适合在纽约。在这里，她认为什么是适合自己的文化也是不争的另一种文化。这就是为什么发生小冲突。

Case 23: Girl-ness This case can reflect one of the translation problems: the lack of conceptual equivalence, which refers to abstract ideas that may not exist in the same fashion in different languages. Different cultures may attach different meanings to the same thing or person. Concerning this case, we should know what young females call themselves is very different in China from the States. In China, \e desirable to be called a girl rather than a woman. For most people, \o is married and who probably is not young. In fact, most single Chinese females, such as university students, would be insulted to be called \t is customary to call any woman who is past puberty a woman, even though she may not be legally old enough to vote, marry, purchase alcoholic beverages, drive a car, or sign a contract. This terminology became widespread during the \girl\

女孩性这种情况可以反映一个翻译的问题：缺乏等价的概念，它指的是抽象的概念，可能不存在以同样的方式在不同的语言。不同民族的文化高度不同的含义，同样的事情或人。在这种情况下，我们应该知道什么是年轻的女性称自己在中国有很大的不同，从美国。在中国，“女孩”是指人谁是年轻的单身。在某种程度上，它使女性更希望被称为一个女孩，而不是一个女人的声音。对于大多数人来说，“女人”是指谁结婚，谁的人可能是不年轻了。事实上，最单一的中国女性，如大学生，被侮辱，被称为“妇女”。而在西方，在正式的，公开的设置，它是习惯性地调用任何女人谁是过了青春期的女人，即使她可能不会在法律上进行投票，结婚，购买酒精饮料，开车，或签署合同。这个术语在“妇女解放运动在20世纪60年代成为广泛”。“女孩”有时被解释为是贬低或不尊重。

Chapter 5 Verbal Intercultural Communication Keywords

(1) Verbal intercultural communication happens when people from different cultural backgrounds communicate with each other by using language.来自不同文化背景的人用言语进行的交际即言语跨文化交际

(2) Dialect is a form of language peculiar to a group of people, as distinguished from the literary language of the whole people. 方言是某一群体特有的语言，与整个群体的言语不同。

(3) Sociolect refers to variation in terms of social class or style. （社会方言指由于社会阶级或言语风格不同而产生的方言。）

(4) Pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or lends languages for restricted purposes such as trading. 洋泾浜，是一种特殊的语言变体，指为贸易等目的将两种或几种语言混合使用。 (5) When a pidgin language begins to acquire native speakers and becomes the permanent language of a region, it is called a Creole. 当有人以洋泾浜为母语，并成为某一地区永久的语言是，它就成为克里奥耳语或混合语

(6) Lingua franca refers to a specific language that is used as an international means of communication. 通用语指作为国际间交流手段的一种特殊语言。

(7) Taboo refers to prohibition of a set of behaviors that should be avoided because they are offensive and impolite. 禁忌语指被禁止或避免的具有冒犯性的不礼貌行为。

(8) Euphemism is Taboo’s linguistic counterpart because it substitutes the offensive and disturbing vocabulary. 委婉语是替代具有冒犯性的不礼貌的禁忌语词语。

（9）Jargon refers to the special or technical vocabularies developed to meet the special needs of particular professions such as medicine and law. 行话指演变而来的专门的或科技词汇，用以满足特殊职业的特殊需要，例如医药和法律。

Case 25:Success Story One of the sources of the frustration and misunderstandings that occurred in this case was different notions of what was verbally relevant. In this case, Mary was expecting a much more direct response to her question. Ms. Goshima, however, was uncomfortable with the question and felt her response should be very indirect and establish a proper sense of modesty before revealing the answer to the question. If Mary had been more patient, she would have eventually heard the answer to her question, but she was not really paying attention when it finally came because she felt that Ms. Goshima's comments weren't really relevant to her query.

案例25：成功的故事我们的挫折和误解的来源，在这种情况下发生的是不同的概念，什么是口头有关。在这种情况下，玛丽被期待她的问题更直接的响应。然而，五岛，女士是不舒服的问题，觉得她的反应应该是非常间接的，揭示了问题的答案之前，建立一个真正意义上的谦虚。如果玛丽有耐心，她终于听到了她的问题的答案，但她并没有真正重视时，它终于来了，因为她觉得，女士五岛的意见是不是真的有关她的问题。

Chapter 6 Nonverbal Intercultural Communication Keywords

(1) Nonverbal communication: It refers to the messages sent without using words. （非言语交际：不运用言语语言传递信息被称为非言语交际。)

(2) Proxemics: It refers to the study of spatial relations.（时空行为：时空行为对空间关系的研究。） (3) Kinesics: It refers to gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, body positions, body movement, and forms of greeting and their relation to communication.（身势语行为：身势语（也称体态语），指手势、面目表情、眼神交流、身体姿势、肢体运动和问候方式以及和他们与交际的关系。） (4) Chronemics: It is the study of how people perceive and use time.（时间行为：对于人们如何理解和利用时间的研究。）

(5) Paralanguage: It is the set of audible sounds that accompany oral language to augment its meaning.（辅助语行为：为增强其含义，伴随言语语言产生的可听到的声音符号系统。）

(6) Haptics: It refers to communicating through the use of bodily contact.（触觉行为：指通过身体接触来交流。）

(7) Chromatics: It refers to the study of color use in affecting people’s perceptions, behaviors and impressions of others.（色彩学：色彩学指对于影响人们认知、行为和他人印象的色彩的研究。） (8) Olfactics: It is the study of communication via smell.（气味行为：研究气味对于交流的影响的学科。）

(9) Oculesics: It is the study of communications sent by the eyes.（目光语：对于由眼睛所传达的信息的研究。不同的文化对于交际时眼神的接触有不同的要求。）

(10) Silence cues affect interpersonal communication by providing an interval in an ongoing interaction during which the participants have time to think,check or suppress an emotion,encode a lengthy response,or inaugurate another line of thought.

(11) Attire refers to clothing and physical appearance .it also serves as nonverbal symbols. Case 33:Are Americans Indifferent? This case can reflect different nonverbal communication patterns exist in the actual intercultural communication, especially facial expression differ according to different cultures.Compared to most Chinese, Americans like to smile a lot and to have causal and rich facial expressions in their daily lives, even though they have some misfortune. In this case, because of the different opinions about facial expressions in intercultural communication, the American lady talked about her father’s sickness and death in a smiling way to show she still has the optimistic way to treat the future life, which is misunderstood as being indifferent and selfish by the Chinese.

案例33：美国人无所谓吗？这种情况可以反映不同的非语言沟通方式中存在的实际跨文化交际，尤其是面部表情根据到不同的cultures.Compared对大多数中国人不同，美国人喜欢笑了很多，在日常生活中，即使有因果关系和丰富的面部表情他们有一些不幸。在跨文化交际中的面部表情，因为不同的意见，在这种情况下，美国女士谈到她父亲的病，死在一个面带微笑的方式显示她仍然有乐观的 方式来对待未来的生活，被人 误解。冷漠和自私的中国人。

Case 36:Don’t Put Your Hand on My Arm This case can reflect different cultures have different opinions to spatial relations. Different cultures have very different opinions about an individual’s unconsciously structuring the microspace immediately surrounding the physical body. Some cultures can have relatively close distance when communicating while other cultures cannot. Some western cultur

es consider body touch between people of the same gender to be cultural taboo and a symbol of being homosexual.In this case, Sam is from western cultures and knows the social taboo of body touch very clearly,so he wouldn’t let others misunderstand Mark’s close body distance and touch with him, even though Mark from Chile doesn’t know the cultural taboo at all.

案例36：唐' 吨把你的手在我的手臂上， 这种情况可以反映不同的文化有不同意见的空间关系。不同的文化有不同的意见，关于某一个人的不自觉 的身体周围的微小空间结构。一些文化时，可以有比较近的距离，而其他文化不能沟通。一些西方文化认为是文化禁忌，一个符号的被人homosexual.In这种 情况下，同性别的人之间的身体接触，三是从西方文化中，很清楚地知道身体接触的社会禁忌的，所以他不会“ 让别人误解马克的近身距离和与他接触， 虽然马克从智利没有按' 吨知道在所有的文化禁忌。

Chapter 7 Cultural Patterns Keywords

(1) Cultural pattern: Shared beliefs, values, norms, and social practices that are stable over time and that lead to roughly similar behaviors across similar situations are known as cultural patterns. (文化模式是指在相对稳定的共有的信仰、价值观、标准和社会实践，这些文化模式在相似的情形下会使人产生相似的行为。)

(2) Context：It is the information that surrounds an event, and is inextricably bound up with the meaning of the event.（语境是指事件发生时周围的信息，对事件的意义解读具有重要参考价值。） (3) High context communication: is one in which most of the information is already in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicitly transmitted part of the message. （高语境交际是指在交际过程中大部分的信息靠交际人本身传递，只有少量信息被明确地用语言的形式传递。） (4) Low context communication: is one in which the mass of the information is vested in the explicit code. （低语境交际是指大量的信息通过明确的语言编码被传递的交际。）

(5) Uncertainty avoidance： deals with the degree to which members of a culture try to avoid uncertainty. （不确定性规避指某一文化的成员对于不确定性因素的规避程度。）

(6) Power distance： is the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations accept that power is distributed unequally. （权力距离是指机构或组织中权利较小的成员对权利被不平等分配的接受程度。） 3. Brief Explanations to the Cases of this Chapter (7) Belief:a belief is an idea that people assume to be true about the world.

(8) Values:involve what a culture regards as good or bad,right or wrong,fair or unfair,just or unjust,beautiful or ugly,clean or dirty,valuable or worthless,appropriate or inappropriate,and kind or cruel. (9) Norms:are the socially shared expectations of appropriate behaviors.

(10) Social practices:are the predictable behavior patterns that members of a culture typically follow.

(11) Human-nature orientation

(12) Person-nature orientation:consists of three categaries:mastery over nature;harmony with nature;subjugation to nature.

(13) Time orientation:as far as time orientation is concerned,cultures may belong to 1,the past orientation;2,the present orientation;3,the future orientation.

(14) Activity orientation:the activity orientation involves three groups:1,the doing orientation;2,the being orientation;3,the being-in-becoming orientation.

(15) Relational orientation:consists of three categaries1,individualism;2,lineality;3,collaterality (16) Individualistic cultures:give more importance to individuals' needs when they do things such as setting goals.

(17) Collectivism:is characterized by a rigid social framework that distinguishes between in-groups and out-groups.

(18) Masculine and feminine cultures:

Case 41: Getting Frustrated Jay was frustrated in large part because many of the norms he was used to didn't apply in Saudi Arabia, and many Saudi norms did not make sense to him. Much of the business done in Saudi Arabia depends on baksheesh, a type of kickback to a middleman (and it is a man), who facilitates contacts between potential business partners. The middleman is doing a service and expects to get paid for it. The more baksheesh the person gives, the more likely it is that the person will succeed, because the middleman will be sure to treat him very well. Giving baksheesh is a norm in the Saudi business community. In addition, Saudis believe that God gave us multifunctional hands and that the hand is our best tool for eating. However, they are also concerned with hygiene. They reserve the left hand for cleaning themselves and use the right hand for eating. Saudis have a number of norms related to restricting male and female interaction that, within the context of their religious beliefs, make perfect sense but would be very inappropriate to most Westerners.

案例41：失意的周杰伦在很大程度上是因为有很多的规范，他并不适用于在沙特阿拉伯，和许多沙特规范并没有任何意义，他很沮丧。在沙特阿拉伯进行的大量的业务依赖于中间人，这是一种反弹，由一名中间人（它是一个人），有利于潜在的商业合作伙伴之间的联系。中间人做的服务，并期望得到报酬。越多的人给出的中间人，就越有可能是一定会成功的人，因为中间人一定会很好地对待他。在沙特商界给予中间人是一个规范。此外，沙特人相信，上帝给了我们多功能手和手是我们吃的最好的工具。但是，他们也担心与卫生。他们保留清洁自己的左手，用右手吃。沙特有一些相关的限制男性和女性的互动，他们的宗教信仰范围内，使完美的意义，但大多数西方人是非常不恰当的规范。 Case 43: The Improvement Does Not Work Following their individualistic orientations, Mr. Patterson and Mr. Wyman were perfectly comfortable with the idea of creating team leaders within the individual sales groups. However, as Park Young Sam mentions, doing so upset the harmony of the groups, which in turn led to poor performance. In the United States, workers are often motivated by the opportunity for promotion and advancement as this serves the individualistic drive for individual achievement. In collectivistic cultures, however, workers may be motivated by being a part of a cohesive and productive team. Individualism and collectivism are terms that describe whole cultures. But cultures are not pure. Members of collectivist cultures may practice individualistic tendencies while members of individualist cultures may value collectivist ideals. For example, Denmark is a country with both collectivistic and individualistic tendencies. In Denmark, individual freedom is nurtured through a devotion to established traditions and customs. Regarding income and social rank, Danes are staunchly egalitarian. At the same time, however, Danes consider themselves free to be nonc

onformist and to stand out from the group. In this way, Danes may be at the theoretical midpoint of the individualism and collectivism cultural continuum.

案例43：他们的个性化的方向，改善不起作用，帕特森先生和威曼先生创建团队领导者个人的销售团队的想法非常舒适。然而，由于公园年轻的心提到了，这样做破坏了和谐的群体，这反过来又导致业绩不佳。在美国，工人往往出于促进和提高的机会，因为这符合个人成就的个人主义驱动器。然而，在集体主义文化中，工人可能会出于一个有凝聚力的，高效的团队的一部分。个人主义和集体主义的术语来描述整个文化。但文化不是纯粹的。集体主义文化的成员可能会实行个人主义的倾向，而个人主义文化的成员重视集体主义的理想。例如，丹麦是一个国家与集体主义和个人主义的倾向。在丹麦，个人自由是通过一个奉献的既定的传统和习俗的熏陶。关于收入和社会地位，丹麦人是坚定的平均主义。在相同的时间，但是，丹麦人认为自己是不墨守成规，从组中脱颖而出。在这种方式中，丹麦人可能是在个人主义和集体主义文化连续体理论中点。

Case 44:When Shall We Meet For Dinner? Uncertainty avoidance orientation can be seen in this case. In the dialogue presented below,Kelly and Keiko are interacting about a dinner invitation. Kelly, from the United States, possesses a relatively low uncertainty avoidance index, while Keiko, from Japan, comes from a culture with a relatively high uncertainty avoidance index.In the dialogue above, Keiko is confused by Kelly’s easygoing attitude toward the evening’s plans. Coming from a high uncertainty-avoidant culture, Keiko would prefer to plan ahead to avoid uncertainty and prepare her script for the evening. Kelly, on the other hand, is perfectly comfortable making plans based on how the evening progresses. Without a plan, how will Keiko know how to act?

案例44：我们什么时候见面吃晚饭？可以看出，在这种情况下，不确定性规避取向。在下面的对话中，Kelly和惠子互动的晚宴邀请。凯利，来自美国，拥有相对低的不确定性规避指数，而惠子，来自日本，来自文化具有相对较高的不确定性规避index.In上面的对话，是混淆了凯利的随和的态度，晚上 惠子“ 计划。来自很大的不确定性回避的文化，惠子宁可未雨绸缪，以避免不确定性和晚上为她准备的脚本。凯利，另一方面，则完全是计划的基础上晚上的进展。如果没有计划，怎么会惠子知道如何采取行动？

Chapter 8 Cultural Influences on Contexts Keywords

Communication is not devoid of external influence: all human interaction is influenced to some degree by the social, physical, and cultural settings in which it occurs. This is known as the communication context. （交际无法脱离外部环境的影响：所有的人类交际都或多或少受到社会、物理和文化场景的影响。这些场景被称为交际语境。）

Case 48:Gift from a Chinese Chinese people love giving gifts. Usually, the value of the gift is an indication of how important the receiver is in the sender’s eyes. Most people giving gifts are concerned about whether the gift will be seen as valuable enough. An inexpensive gift means a loss of face.Dongxie may have a practical reason in giving the ginseng to his manager, but most Chinese will take it as something usual for a subordinate to do this to a manager out of a sign of respect.North American companies do occasionally receive gifts out of appreciation for the friendship and assistance the manager may provide. Such gifts are treasured; however, the value usually is fairly small, a bottle of wine, a music CD, a small book, or other tokens.

案例48：礼品从中国的中国人喜欢互赠礼物。一般情况下，价值的礼物是一个接收器在发送者的眼睛是多么的重要指示。大多数人送礼 的礼物是否会被视为有价值的足够关注。一种廉价的礼物是指face.Dongxie的损失可能在人参给他的经理有一个实际的原因，但大多数中国人都会把它作为一个下属

平常的东西，这样做是为了经理的标志respect.North美国的公司偶尔也会收到礼物的升值经理提供的友谊和帮助。珍惜这样的礼物，但是，值通常是相当小的，一瓶酒，音乐CD，一本小书，或其他标志。 Case 50:Refuse to Be Treated? In the case just described, the U.S. American medical team system for making sense of the situation demanded that people be seen in order of the seriousness of their injuries or illness. Each person was considered as worthwhile as the next, and so seriousness of injury appeared to be a natural way to determine who was seen first. However, the cultural system working for those on the Virgin Islands demanded that elders be seen and treated first. Their position, age, and wisdom demanded respect. For younger members of the community to go ahead of them in a time of crisis was seen as extremely disrespectful.The conflict centered on efforts by each side to do what they perceived as good and morally responsible. Because the U.S. Americans were in a better position to adapt than an entire community that had just suffered great loss and were under extreme stress, it was good that they were willing to do so. Sadly, this is not always the case.

案例50：拒绝接受治疗吗？在刚才所描述的情况下，美国的美国医疗团队感的情况，要求系统中，人们可以看到他们的伤害或疾病的严重性顺序。每个人都被认为是值得的，因为在未来，所以受伤的严重性，似乎是一种自然的方式来决定谁被视为第一。然而，文化体制改革工作维尔京群岛的要求，长老首先看到和处理。要求尊重他们的位置，年龄和智慧。对于年轻的社会成员去之前，他们在危机时刻被视为集中在努力，每边做什么，他们被认为是良好和道德上负责任的非常disrespectful.The的冲突。由于美国的美国人在一个更好的位置，以适应比整个社会刚刚遭受了巨大的损失，在极端的压力，这是很好的，他们愿意这样做。不幸的是，这并非总是如此。 Chapter 9 Intercultural Adaptation Keywords

（1）Acculturation：It refers to an individual’s learning and adapting to the norms and values of the new host culture. （文化适应：文化适应指人们学习和适应新文化的社会规范和价值观念的过程。） （2）Assimilation：It is a process in which members of an ethnic group are absorbed into the dominant culture, losing their culture in the process. (同化：同化指一个民族群体的人们逐渐失去自己原有的文化，接受新的主流文化的过程。)

（3）Integration: It takes place when some people desire a high level of interaction with the host culture while maintaining identity with their native culture. This kind of acculturation is called integration. (文化融合：文化融合指人们在文化适应过程中高度接受新的主流文化，同时又保留了自己文化的完整性)。

（4）Separation：When individuals prefer low levels of interaction with the host culture and associated microcultural groups while desiring a close connection with, and reaffirmation of, their native culture, the mode of acculturation is called separation. （分离：分离指人们在文化适应过程中对自己原有文化进行重新肯定认同、保留了原有文化，对新的主流文化及与其相关的微观文化不接受不认可）。

（5）Segregation：It occurs when the more politically and economically powerful culture does not want the intercultural contact, the separation is initiated and enforced by the dominant society.（隔离：隔离当经济和政治上更强大的新主流文化不接受人们与它进行文化接触，人们就会被这种文化隔离在外。）

（6）Marginalization：It occurs when the individual chooses not to identify with his or her native culture or with the host culture. (边缘化：边缘化指人们不仅失去自己原有的文化身份，而且无法融入新的主流文化。)

（7）Culture shock: It refers to the traumatic experience that an individual may encounter when entering a different culture. （文化冲击/文化休克：文化冲击/文化休克指人们在进入一种新文化环境中遭遇的痛苦和难忘的经历。）

（8）Intercultural adaptation: It refers broadly to the process of increasing our level of fitness to meet the demands of a new cultural environment. (跨文化适应：跨文化适应指人们不断提高自己的适应能力，以期达到新文化环境的需要。)

Case 54: A Fish out of Water This case reflects that the boy is experiencing culture shock, which may bring him some psychological symptoms. Culture shock is virtually a communication problem which involves the depressed feelings accompanying a lack of understanding of the verbal and nonverbal communication of the host culture, its customs, as well as its value systems. Culture shock happens when people have to deal with a huge amount of new perceptual stimuli that are difficult to understand and interpret because the cultural context has changed. In this case, when the American student feels that his familiar cues from his native culture is removed, he becomes to reject the new environment and he displays some psychological symptoms due to culture shock.

案例54：离开水的鱼这种情况下反映，这名男孩正在经历文化冲击，这可能给他带来一些心理症状。文化冲击实际上是一个沟通的问题，涉及的郁闷之情伴随的语言和非语言的沟通缺乏了解东道国的文化，风俗，以及它的价值体系。文化冲击发生时，人们处理了大量的新的感知刺激，是很难理解和解释，因为文化背景发生了变化。在这种情况下，美国学生认为他所熟悉的线索，从他的本土文化被删除时，他拒绝新的环境，他显示了一些心理症状，由于文化的冲击。

Case 55: Missing China! This case can reflect reverse culture shock. When people return home after an extended stay in a foreign culture, they experience another round of culture shock in their native culture and they must proceed through the four stages of the U-curve pattern once again. In this case, John, whose comes from Canada, has been living in China for quite a long time and he has got familiar with the Chinese culture. Therefore, when he returns to Canada, he cannot adapt well to his native culture.

案例55：迷失在中国！这个案例可以反映逆向文化冲击。当人们回家后延长逗留在外国文化，他们经历新一轮的文化冲击本土文化，他们必须再次通过四个阶段的U型曲线模式进行。在这种情况下，来自加拿大的约翰已经在中国生活的相当长的时间，他已经得到了熟悉中国文化。因此，当他回到加拿大，他不能很好地适应他的本土文化。

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