Lexicology Sense relations 语义关系

Sense relations 语义关系

1、 Sense relations are the relations held between words within

the vocabulary. 2、 Five types

? ? ? ?

synonymy 同义关系 antonymy反义关系 hyponymy下义关系

homonymy同形同音异义关系 polysemy一词多义

3、Synonymy

3、1 Synonyms can be defined as words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.张维友 picture, photo, snapshot

Synonymy is a term used in semantics to refer to a major type of sense relation between lexical items: lexical items which have the same meaning but differ in morphemic structure, phonological form and usage are synonyms, and the relationship between them is one of synonymy.

3.2 types of synonymy

? total / absolute / perfect synonyms: (完全同义词) are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning include.

? partial synonyms （部分同义词）/relative ~ 相对

refer to items which are close enough in their meaning to allow a choice to be made between them in some contexts

without affecting the meaning of the sentence as a whole. partial synonyms （部分同义词）

examples:

?able‘, ?capable‘, ?nearly‘, ?almost‘ ?announce‘, ?declare‘

4Antonymy反义关系

4.1 Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.

4.2 Types of antonyms

Morphologically, antonyms can be divided into root antonyms(词根反义词)and derivative antonyms（派生反义词）. P340 ? 词根反义词： long—short, up—down, white—black ? 派生反义词: code--decode, appear—disappear, useful—useless, Types of antonyms

Semantically, antonyms can be divided into three types:

? Complementary Contrary Converses (1) Complementaries 互补反义词

Complementaries are forms of antonyms which truly represent oppositeness of meaning.

binary antonyms 二元反义词 nongradable Examples in the textbook:

? Adj.: dead — alive, present — absent, male — female, true — false, ? Noun: boy — girl, man — woman ? V. pass---fail; hit---miss

Features of complementaries

They are so opposed to each other that they

are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them. The assertion of one is the denial of the other or vice versa.

? Another distinctive feature of this category is that such antonyms are nongradable. (2) Contraries 相对反义词

? gradable antonyms ? Contraries are best envisaged in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.

old, middle-aged, young hot, ___________, cold

beautiful, __________________, ugly

? Such words also show the feature of gradability, that is, superlative degree or comparative degree, even some adverbs can be added into the two poles to indicate the words are gradable.

? eg. Younger, youngest, very young, relatively young

Antonyms of this kind are characteristic of semantic polarity. These antonyms form part of a scale of values between two poles and can accommodate a middle ground belonging neither to one pole nor to the other. 这种反义词的特点是语义二极性。这些反义词形成了处于两极之间的一支等值尺，并可以提供不属于两端的中间地带。

(3) Converses 关系反义词

? Converses consist of relational opposites such as parent—child, husband—wife, predecessor—successor, employer—employee. The pairs of words indicate such a reciprocal social relationship that one of them cannot be used without suggesting the other. a. Nouns: husband --- wife; student---teacher; doctor---patient; b. Verbs: buy---sell; teach---learn; give---take;

rent --- let; save---waste; win---lose c. Prepositions: above---below; in front of---behind;

Note

? 天地heaven and earth

? 夫妻man and wife ? 因果cause and effect ? 来去come and go ? 远近far and near ? 黑白black and white ? 厚薄thick and thin

Note

? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

fire and water heat and cold eat and drink right and left rich and poor old and new heavy and light sooner or later

The Use of Antonyms 反义词的使用

(1) Antonym have various practical uses and have long proved helpful and valuable in defining the meanings of a given word. ? 反义词有各种实际用途，在解释词义方面早就被证明很有用处、很有价值。

? fresh bread, fresh air, fresh flowers, fresh look ? stale bread, stuffy air, faded flowers, tired look

The Use of Antonyms 反义词的使用

(2)Antonyms are useful in enabling us to express economically the opposite of a particular thought, often for the sake of contrast. 反义词能使我们简洁地表达一特定思想的反面，常常是为了形成对比。

The Use of Antonyms 反义词的使用

(3) Antonyms are often used to form antithesis to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting ideas together. 反义词常

用来构成对偶句，以便将对立的思想放在一起取得强调的效果

? Art is long, life is short. ? Easy come， easy go. ? More hate, less speed.

? United we stand, divided we fall.

? Hope for the best and prepare for the worst.

The Use of Antonyms 反义词的使用

(4) Many great writers are fond of using antonyms to serve their stylistic purpose. 许多大作家喜欢利用反义词以达到其风格上的目标。

It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the age of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the epoch of darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despairs, we have everything in before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct to other ways… -- A Tale of Two Stories

Homonymy同形同音异义关系

? Homonyms?

? Origin of homonyms ? Types of homonyms

Homonymy同形同音异义关系

? Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.

? 同形同音异义词是意义不同、而发音与拼写皆相同或只有拼写或只有发音相同的词。

Origins of homonyms

见课本

? Split of polysemy 多义词的词义分化

Quean/queen, flour-古法语flor花，拉丁语flos―麦子的最精细部分‖、flower

notes

? Hand是由palm，finger，knuckle三部分组成。他们之间是整体与部分的关系而非上下义关系。

? 又如 plant由 root， stem, leaf, flower, bud, shoot 组成。

Lexicology

Changes in word meaning

? Causes of change

? Mechanism/process of change ? Types of change

? ? ? ? ?

Types of semantic change

extension（词义的扩大）/generalization (词义的一般化)

narrowing （词义的缩小）/ specialization （词义的特殊化）/

elevation (词义的升格)

degeneration / degradation(词义的降格) transference of meaning (词义的转移)

1. generalization / extension

? Extension of meaning

is the name given to the widening of meaning, which some words undergo. It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized or has extended to cover a broader and less definite concept.

Examples

? lady:

―the female host in a house‖ ―a female aristocrat‖

―women who are educated‖

―a polite way to refer to any kind of woman‖ ―the synonym to ?woman‘‖

女主人— 贵族太太— 有教养的女主人— 任何女人

saleslady, cleaning lady, ladies‘ room, a lady novelist, lady traffic wardens, lady guests

1. generalization / extension

? From specific to general 从特指到类指 ? From concrete to abstract从具体到抽象 ③From technical terms to general words 从术语到一般词汇

④From proper nouns to common nouns从专有名词到普通

名词

Examples

①From specific to general 从特指到类指

Examples

③From technical terms to general words 从术语到一般词汇

汉语中的例子

? 又如：―得更求好女‖（《西门豹治邺》）

―好‖， 原来专指女子相貌好看，不涉及品德，现代汉语中―好‖可泛指一切美好的性质，对人、事、物都可以修饰限制。

2. specialization / narrowing

? narrowing

is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.

2. specialization / narrowing

? From general to specific 从类指到特指 ? From abstract to concrete从抽象到具体 ③From general words to technical terms 从一般词汇到术语

④From common nouns to proper nouns 从普通名词到专

有名词

Examples:

①from general to specific从泛指到特指

? meat

(各种食物, eg. ?sweetmeat甜食, greenmeat蔬菜, to be meat and drink to somebody‘ flesh meat肉食)

②From abstract to concrete从抽象到具体 ? room

（空间，地方 → 具体的有限空间，房间） eg. There is still room for improvement. Give me some room.

More examples:

③从普通名词到专有名词

? cape（海角）---the Cape （the Cape of Good Hope） me some room.

④ 从一般词语到术语

? memory记忆---存储器

3. elevation

? elevation

refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginning to positions of importance.

More examples中性 褒义

? queen

女人 女王 ? marshal

喂马的人 最高指挥官 ? constable

马夫 警察，警官 ? lord

loaf giver 贵族 ? ambassador

信使 大使

More examples贬义 褒义

? shrewd

凶狠的，邪恶的 → 精明的，机灵的 ? smart

凶恶的 eg. smart blow, smart frost

机灵的，巧妙地， 漂亮的…

4. degeneration / degradation

? degradation

is the opposite of semantic elevation. It is a process by which words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words and finally they come

to be used in a derogatory sense.

Examples

? silly

happy, fortunate, holy → innocent, harmless →foolish

Silly 幸福的神圣的--- 天真地，无害的-- 愚蠢的 ? sad

satisfied, contended → calm serious → gloomy →sorrowful

Sad 满足的— 镇静的--- 严肃的— 忧郁的— 悲伤的

汉语中的例子

? ―先帝不以臣卑鄙‖（诸葛亮《出师表》）

―卑‖是指地位低下，―鄙‖是指见识浅陋，并没有贬义；现在的―卑鄙‖则指品质恶劣，变为贬义词。 ? ―谤讥于市朝‖（《战国策· 齐策一》）

―谤‖古义为议论、批评他人过失，是中性词，现在是―恶意中伤‖的意思，是贬义词。

词义的转移

? 不论词义范围的变化还是词义褒贬的变化，词所指事物的类别都没有发生变化。但是，词从―字面意义‖转移到―比喻意义‖，所指事物类别完全不同了，词义发生了转移。

transference of meaning

? transference of meaning

refers to the process of meaning change in which the literal meaning（字面意义） of a word is transferred

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