英语词汇学各章节重点、词汇解释、阅读及试卷

大学英语词汇学复习要点

1.外来词分为四类：1 Denizens ,cup from cuppa , port form portus 2) Aliens garage , décor 3) Translation –loans e.g. long time no see 4) Semantic- loans.e.g. dream.

2.Motivation 分类：onomatopoeic motivation, morphological motivation, semantic motivation, etymological motivation. Types of meaning: grammatical ~ & lexical ~; conceptual ~& associative ~(connotative~, stylistic~, affective ~, collocative ~,)

多义关系及两种研究方法:Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural language that one word has two or more senses or meanings. Diachronic approach is an approach to polysemy which studies how a word derived its different meanings from its primary meaning in the course of time.

3.Synchronic approach is an approach to polysemy which studies the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.

4.Primary meaning is the only meaning that a word had when it was first created.

5.Derived meanings are the meanings that a word gets from the primary meaning at different stages of its development in the course of time.

6.同形同音异义关系 Homonymy is one of the features of words that a word is different in meaning from another, but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling with the other Homonyms generally fall into three classes: perfect homonyms (same name); homographs (same spelling) and homophones （some sound）. Perfect homonyms are those words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning, e.g. bear /bea/ (n) a large heavy animal; bear /bea/ (v) to put up with. Homographs are the words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning, e.g. saw / / (v) to scatter seeds; sow /sau/ (n) female adult pig. Homophones refer to the words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning, e.g. dear /dia/ (n) a loved person; deer /dia/ (n) a kind of animal.

7.同形同音异义词与多义词的区别 Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation. This creates the problem of differentiation. The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several

distinguishable meanings. One important criterion is to see their etymology, i.e. homonyms are from different sources whereas a polysemant is from the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development. The second principal consideration is semantic relatedness. The various meanings of a polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning to a greater or lesser degree, e. g. neck (See 6.1 Polysemy) . On the other hand, meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.

8.同义关系Synonyms are words which share the same or nearly the same meaning with each other but different in sound and spelling. There are absolute synonyms and relative synonyms which result from borrowing, dialects and regional English, figurative and euphemistic use of words, coincidence with idiomatic expressions. There exists the difference between or among synonyms in terms of their

denotation, connotation or application. Absolute synonyms or complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects. Relative synonyms or near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality. 9.Sources of Synonyms 1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions

10.如何区分同义词？1Difference in denotation2 Difference in connotation 3 Difference in application 11.What are the characteristics of antonyms?

12.1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition 2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. 3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. 4) Contrary terms

are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intenisty, so each has its own corresponding opposite.

13.上下义关系:Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. Superordinates refer to some general words; subordinates denote those more specific words. Hyponymy can be described in terms of tree-like graphs, with higher-order superordinates above the lower subordinates. But their status either as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms. For example, horse, dog, pig are

subordinates in relation to animal, but superordinates of mare, hound and boar, Animal itself becomes a subordinate of creature. And creature in turn becomes

14.词义变化的种类There are five types of meaning, changes: extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation, and transfer among which extension and narrowing are the most common. Changes in meaning can be accounted for from extra-linguistic factors (historical reason, class reason, and

psychological reason) and intra-linguistic factors (shortening, the influx of borrowing, and analogy). 15.词义的扩大 Extension is a process by which a word with a specialized sense is generalized to cover a broader or less

16.definite concept. Compare the following；词义的缩小Narrowing is a process by which a word of wider meaning acquires a specialized sense；词义的升华Elevation is a process by which a word moves from a derogatory or neutral sense to a neutral and/or appreciative sense；词义的降格Degradation is a process by which a word of reputation slides into a pejorative use,；词义的转移Transfer is a process by which a word denoting one thing changes to refer to a different but related thing. Paper serves as an example. This word formerly denoted an African plant papyrus, which was once used to make paper. In modern times, paper is made from rags, wood, straw and the like, but the product has retained the same name. There is associated transfer. There are other kinds of transfer, such as, concrete to abstract, abstract to concrete and transfer of sensation.

17.语境的种类:非语言语境。语言语境：词汇语境和语法语境。There are two types of contexts: linguistic context and extra-linguistic (or non-linguistic context). Extra-linguistic context refers to those

situations and features which are not directly a part of the language in use but which either contribute in conveying a message or have an influence on language use. Linguistic or Intra-linguistic context is further subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context. By lexical context we mean the words that occur together with the word in question. By grammatical context we mean that the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs.

18.语境的作用：Three major functions of context: elimination of ambiguity, indication of referents, provision of clues for inferring word-meaning. Context an be summed up as follows:1) definition 2) explanation 3) example 4) synonymy 5) Antonymy 6)hyponymy 7) relevant details 8) word structure 19.英语习语的特点The characteristics of idioms include semantic unity and structural stability.

20.英语习语的分类According to the criterion of their grammatical functions, we classify them into idioms nominal in nature, idioms adjectival in nature, idioms verbal in nature, idioms adverbial in nature, and sentence idioms. The stylistic features are characterized with colloquialisms, slang, and literary expressions.

21.英语习语的使用The use of idioms involves their stylistic features, rhetorical features , and variations of idioms.

22.英语习语的修辞色彩The rhetorical features of idioms are represented with phonetic manipulation ( alliteration 头韵法and rhyme叠韵) , lexical manipulation ( reiteration复用, repetition重复and

juxtaposition反义词叠用), figures of speech ( simile明喻, metaphor暗喻, metonymy转喻, synecdoche借代, personification拟人, euphemism委婉)

23.英语习语的变异形式In the variations, addition, deletion, replacement, position-shifting and dismembering are involved in the changes in idioms constituents .

24.Associative meaning : 1) associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. 2)It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminated. 3)It is liable to the influence of such factors as culture , experience, religion,

geographical region, class background,education, etc. 4)Associative meaning comprises four types : connotative, stylistic, affective, and collocative.

25.Metonymy 和Synecdoche ,修饰有何区别? Both metonymy and synecdoche involve substitution of names, yet they differ in that the former is a case of using the name of one thing for another closely associated with it and the latter is that of substituting part for the whole and vice versa.

26.词典的种类There are four types of dictionaries with their features mentioned in this parts: (1) monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, (2) linguistic and encyclopedic dictionaries, (3) unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries, (4) specialized dictionaries. A monolingual dictionary is a dictionary which is written in one language.

27.A bilingual dictionary is one in which two languages are involved.

28.A linguistic dictionary is a dictionary which aims at defining words and explaining their usages in the language.

29. An encyclopedic dictionary is one in which encyclopedic information is provided along with the general information as in a linguistic dictionary .

30.An encyclopedia is a dictionary which only provide encyclopedic information concerning each headword.

31.An unabridged dictionary is an unshortened dictionary with at least 200,000 headwords that can supply a great quantity of basic, information about a word.

32.A desk dictionary is a medium-sized dictionary containing words ranging from 50,000 to 150,000. 33.A pocket dictionary is a dictionary which has about 50,000 entries or fewer. 七、分析综合49-50*9

1、对句子进行理论分析，并改进：ambiguous——原因cause——可以如何理解？——如何改进？improve 2、对单词进行分析：re-collect-ion——归属free morpheme, bound morpheme——解释 3、构词法进行分析：word formation: 例如：VIP=very important person 属于aronym 4、分析idiom:属于什么短语——作用

注：重点有 1、idioms相关知识； 2、一些名词解释，如术语等； 3、types of meaning； 二. 串讲内容

Introduction 部分：

34.Lexicology 这门课算哪一种学科的分支:Lexicology is a branch of linguistics. 35.Lexicology和那些重要的学科建立了联系:

1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics 4) Etymology 5) Lexicography

36.研究lexicology 的两大方法:1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学e.g. wife纵观历时语言学的方法论，woman 词义的变化算是词义变化的哪一种模式？ Woman 的词义的变化算Narrowing or specialization 第一章

37.What is word ?词具有哪些特点？词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。1) A word is a minimal free form of a language;2) A sound unity or a given sound ;3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释

38.词的分类（classification of a word）词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼写可以分为哪两类词 1) simple words 2) complex words单音节词例子：e.g. Man and fine are simple多音节词例子：e.g.

Management, misfortune, blackmailmanagement 可以次划分为manage 和 –ment misfortune 可以次划分为mis- 和 fortuneblackmail 次划分为black 和 mail

39.What is the relationship between sound and meaning?

1)There is ?no logical relationship between the sound and actual thing.e.g. dog. Cat

2)The relationship between them is conventional.

3) In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds. 40.What is relationship between sound and form?

1)The written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oral form, such as English language. 2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English

3)With the development of the language, more and more differences occur between the two. 41.What are the great changes that causes illogical relationship or irregularity between sound and form?

1) The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter tore present each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.

2) Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn farapart.

3) A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.

4) Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary. 要记住以上四句话中的关键词：

1) influenced by Romans2) Pronunciation changed3) early scribes4) borrowing

42.你能不能举出外来语对英语发音,拼写造成不一致的例子有哪些？e.g. stimulus (L) ,fiesta (Sp) ,eureka (Gr), kimono (Jap)外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是?sound and form ‘不一致。

43.What is vocabulary? Vocabulary refers to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. Vocabulary also refers to all the words of a given dialect, given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. 44.Classification of Words (本课的一个重点, 年年考试都考)

45.What is the classification of words? How to classify words in linguistics? Three criteria :1) By use of frequency 2) By notion 3) By origin

By use of frequency 可划分为：1) The basic word stock 2) Nonbasic word vocabulary

By notion 可划分为：1) Content word2) Functional word Content words are also known as notional words . (Content words 的别称)Functional words are also known as empty words, or form words.

(Functional words 的别称)Functional words possesses a characteristic of basic word stock, i.e. stability 46.According to Stuart Robertson ,et al (1957),* (年年考试必考) the nine functional words , namely ,and , be , have , it , of , the , to , will ,you 47.What are the characteristics of basic word stock?

1) All national character2) Stability3) Productivity4) Polysemy5) Collocability 要把握住?All national character‘词,就是和我们日常生活息息相关的，最普通词

48.稳定性是基本词的一个很大特点，请你举例说明？e.g. man, woman , fire, water …e.g. machine, video, telephone …e.g. bow, chariot , knight Stability is relative, not absolute.

49.根据词的use frequency 划分出的基本词之外，还有一类词叫作None basic vocabulary, 非基本词有几大特点？或者是几大分类？1) Terminology e.g. sonata, algebra2) Jargon e.g. Bottom line ( Jargon ) 3) Slang e.g. smoky, bear ( Slang ) 4) Argot e.g. persuader5) Dialectal words e.g. station ( AusE = ranch ) bluid ( ScotE= blood)6) Archaisms e.g. wilt (will)7) Neologisms e.g. email ( Neologisms )beaver 是girl 的slang 表达方式，但是二者之间存在着Stylistic difference

50.Which constitutes the larger number among English vocabulary, content or functional

words ? Answer : Content words What is native words? Answer : (1) By origin, English words can be classified into native words and borrowed words.(2) Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus know asAnglo-Saxon words. (3) Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number ,amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000, but they form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language

51.什么叫borrowed words?Answer: (1) words taken over from foreign languages are know as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.(2) It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modern English vocabulary (3) The English language has vast debts .In any dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed.

52什么叫Denizens?Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language. In other words they have come to conform to the English way of pronunciation and spelling, such as port from portus (L).?Denizens‘的例子都要记：Port from portus (L), cup from cuppa (L),shift from skipta (ON), shirt from skyrta (ON), change from changier (F), pork from porc (F). 53什么叫Translation-loans ?Translation-loans are words and expressions formed form the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language, such as ? long time no see from haojiumeijian (Ch)

54什么叫Semantic-loans ?words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form ,But their meaning are borrowed , in other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language ,such as the word dream ,which originally meant ‘joy‘ and ?music ‘, and its modern meaning was borrowed later from the Norse.

第二章：The development of the English vocabulary

The Indo-European Language Family It is assumed that the world has approximately 3,000(some put it5,000)languages ,which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar .

55.(重点：语系划分的标准)What is the criteria to divide language families ?

The answer : 1. the basis of similarities in their basic word stock 2. grammar(重点)The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as(选择题内容：)Prussian, Lithuanian , Polish ,Czech,

Bulgarian ,Slovenian and Russian.

56.?Indo-European’ 两大分支：1.Eastern set 2.Western set Eastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian and Albanian Western set : Celtic, Italic , Hellenic, Germanic. In the western Set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. Celtic ：Scottish, Irish, Welsh, Breton The five Romance languages, namely ,Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian , Roumanian all belong to the Italic.

The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian ,Icelandic, Danish and Swedish ,which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German,

Dutch ,Flemish and English.With Vikings‘ invasion, many Scandinavian words came into the English language. It is estimated that at least 900 words of Scandinavian origin have survived in modern English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modern German.

57.重点句: Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England

古英语最大的模糊性的概念来自于 (scripts )古英语正因为出现印刷术才打破了 ( early scripts)Sound and form 真正达到统一是在什么时期？.Sound and form reached their concord in ( Modern English period )如果从词汇变化的角度而言，Modern English 又可以细划分为 early period ,modern period. 58.*现代英语早期阶段属于哪一种文化现象的发展时期 （重要的选择或填空内容）

Early modern English appeared in the Renaissance 59.Modern English period 有什么样的外来语的进入？

The Latin words swarmed into English in early modern English period现代英语时期，英语词汇大量丰富还有另外一个原因是 (colonization)The richness of Modern English in vocabulary also arises from (Colonization )The English language has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language ( 重要选择或填空内容)Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary

60.Three main sources of new words :

1)The rapid development of modern science and technology

2)Social, economic and political changes;3)The influence of other cultures and language

61.Modes of Vocabulary Development 1)creation 2) semantic change 3) borrowing2)Semantic

The word which have meaning does not have necessarily reference.

146. 问题: ‘Forget, forgot, forgetting , forgotten , forgets‘这是从哪一个角度来界定这个词的分支?答案: Grammatical meaning

147. 问题: ?frozen, ?formal‘ , ?consultative‘, ?casual‘ and ?intimate‘ 这五个词是总结了什么的划分， 是根据什么的划分?答案: stylistic meaning , 是根据The Five Clocks written by Martin Joos. 148. 问题:But in daily life , we always refer to (formal), (neutral) , (informal).

149.问题: ‘Pretty boy, pretty woman , pretty garden, pretty garden , pretty car‘，请解释这些词的意义一样不一样？如果不一样请加以理论分析？答案:Collocative meaning, when pretty is used to modify different nouns both animate and inanimate , their collocative meaning are totally different.

150.问题：Table tennis can be replaced by pingpong ball and the name of the bird is also called cuckoo , which can also be reused to refer to the sound of the bird , so their two words are (onomatopoeically) motivated.

151.问题：‘Unexpected, expectation, expecting‘, these three words are (morphologically) motivated. 152.问题： ‘Hopeless, jobless, dislike‘, 这三个词是靠什么motivated. ( morphologically motivated) 153.问题：‘East or west , home is best‘ and ‘there is no place like home‘. 这两话是使用了什么样的意义构成的？答案: Connotative meaning

第六章: Sense Relations and Semantic Field polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy and hyponymy.（五种关系的名词解释要记住） Two Approaches to Polysemy: 1) Diachronic approach2)

Sychronic approach Two Processes of Development

1) radiation (1) radiation is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (2) the meaning are independent of one another, but can all be traced back to the central meaning. e.g. face, neck

2) concatenation (1) meaning ? linking together‘, is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until, in may cases ,there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning . (2) In plain terms the meaning reached by the first shift may be shifted a second time, and so on until in the end the original meaning is totally lost. e.g. treacle 注意： 这两种模式的名词解释照样要记（这两种模式只在填空，选择，出过题，还没有以名词解释形式考过）

154问题：In the linguistic study, what are the sense relations and what are the types of sense relations ?答案: A word which is related to the other words is related to them in sense, so it is called sense semantic relations. types of sense relations : polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy and hyponymy.（五种关系的名词解释要记住）

155.问题：Fruit 与 apples bananas, pineapples, lychees 是什么语义关系？答案：Hyponymy?

156.问题：Fruit 这一类里包含apples, bananas, pineapples, grapes 它们形成了一种什么样的理论？ 答案： Semantic field

157. 问题：有的时候在英语中存在着一种语言不共容的现象，那就是反义词的不共容的现象， 那么这种不能够相互溶合，这样的词在反义词当中被称作什么词。比如说：dead , alive , 它们之间的反义关系是什么样的一种关系？ 答案：Contradictory terms它们之间形成的语义关系被称作antonymy

158.问题：Contradictory terms 有一个最大的特点是什么？ 答案：Mutually exclusive and are non-gradable, They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like very to qualify them.

159.问题：反义词存在不存在一种包容现象？答案：表明two poles, two extremes，的反义词，它们之间存在一种包容现象，这种包容现象被称作（Middle ground） e.g. huge / tiny（ 它们之间存在着big , small , quite big, quite small）e.g. young / old这类反义词被称为(Contrary terms)

160.问题：fast 这个词, 它表示紧的概念时, 它 和loose 是一组反义词，表示快的概念 时，它和slow 是一组反义词， 这样的 一种语义关系算什么样的语义关系？答案： polysemy 161.问题：分析deer , dear 这两个词是什么样的词？答案：Homophone

162.重点: homonyms 有哪三个类别的划分？ 1) perfect homonyms e.g. bank , bear2) homographse.g.

bow, sow 3) homophones e.g dear, deer right, write, rite

163.重点：Origins of Homonyms 1) Change in sound and spelling 2) Borrowing3) Shortening 164.问题：shortening 可以表现在哪些分支结构构成上? 1) Acronymy 2) Homonymy 3) Narrowing 4) Idioms 重点问题：Homonymy 和 Polysemy 的区别？（ 未考过）

165.Rhetoric Features of Homonyms e.g. Long time no sea. ( puns ) humor, sarcasm or ridicule 重点：名词解释 Synonyms Types of Synonyms :1) Absolute synonyms 2) Relative synonyms

166.重要简答题：Sources of Synonyms ( 四大来源， 配以例子说明就可以了) 1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions 167.重点：如何区分同义词？(Discrimination of Synonyms ) 1) Difference in denotation2) Difference in connotation 3) Difference in application antonymy :

168.反义关系要点:反义词的三种类别的划分: What are the different types of antonyms? 三种类别的名词解释都要记: 1) Contradictory terms exclusive 特例: they cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like very to qualifythem. e.g. single/ married (有可能放在分析里去论述) 2) contrary terms 关键词: two poles or extremes middle ground e.g. rich / poor (中间还可出现well-to-do)3) Relative terms e.g. parent / child , predecessor/ successor

169.问题: What are the characteristics of antonyms?1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition 特例:Many words, though having synonyms, do not find their semantic opposites, e.g. read, hit, house, book, power, magazine. Therefore, in a language, there are a great many more synonyms than antonyms. 2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. (这个特点只适用于polysemous )e.g. fast , dull 3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion.(这里讲的包容性是指一个反义词必然包 含着另外一个反义词的绝对的概念) e.g.man/ woman (man 除了指男性,还可以指整个人类, woman 算作人类的一 部分, 所以woman 也算在man 的范畴内,因此,woman 被man 所包容) dog / ***** ( dog 除了指狗类通称,还可以指公狗, *****是母狗, dog指狗类通称的时,*****是狗的一种,因此我们说*****必然被dog所包容,所以,它们之间存在着Semantic inclusion) (语义上的包容性还没有考过) e.g. tall/short, old /young 4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intenisty, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(特例)Some words can have two different types of antonyms at the same time, one being the negative and the other opposite,(未考过, 重要的选择或填空内容) e.g. happy / unhappy/ sad ( happy/ unhappy 之间的反义关系是negative, happy/sad 之间的关系是opposite )The use of Antonyms (通常用在习语当中) e.g. rain or sine high and loweasy come, easy go

170.名词解释:Hyponymy (未考过,很重要的概念) Hyponymy : 1) hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. 2)That is to say, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. 3) These specific words are known as hyponyms. The general words are the

superordinate terms and the more specific ones are subordinate terms. 注意:hyponyms 和 subordinate 都是指下义词. 比如说:考试给你hammer, saw, spanner这些词, 然后再给你tool这个词, 然后让你用语义关系的理论加以分析这组词?分析: hammer, saw , spanner 都是specific word, 它们和tool 存在的关系是semantic inclusion , 所以too是一个superordinate , hammer, saw, spanner 属于subordinate 或者是hyponyms. (用上下义语义关系进行理论分析的题,也是一个考试的要点) hyponymy ( 它与语义场semantic field具有一定的联系)注意: 上义词与下义词不是一成不变的, 也不是绝对的, 是一个相对的概念,不同的语义场就存在不同的上下义关系. 171.重点:Semantic Field (名词解释) (未考过) Semantic Field: 1)The massive word store a language like English can be conceived of as composed around a number of meaning areas, some large, and others smaller. Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory. 2) The German linguist Trier saw vocabulary as ?an integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sense. Therefore, the ?words of languages can be classified into semantically related sets or fields. 3) According to Trier‘s vision of fields, the whole vocabulary can be divided up into fields. 4)Words in each field are semantically related and define one another.注意:答语义场的简答题与它的名词解释相同.

172.问题:在反义关系中, 同一个词具有不同的涵义, 因此也就具有了多个不同的反义词 ( true or false )问题: true e.g. fast, dull 问题: 反义词分为哪三类:1) Contradictory terms 2) Contrary terms 3) Relative terms 173.问题:可以用形容词比较级, 可以用程度副词 加以修饰的反义词是属于哪一类?答案: Contradictory terms

174.问题: 可以接纳一个Middle ground, 这样的词是属于哪一类反义词?答案:contrary terms

175.问题: Husband and wife , man and woman 这都是表示性别的反义词,但是他们属于同一类反义词的划分, 对还是错?答: 错 husband and wife : relative terms man and woman : contradictory terms

176.问题: empty 与 vacant 这两个词都表示空荡荡的感觉, empty表示的是修饰容积,容量, 没有填充物的空荡荡, 而vacant 表示的是一个not occupied, not taken 所以一般我们说没有放家具的房间叫做vacant apartment, 而人去楼空的房间叫empty room, 请从同义词的角度对这种用法加以分析? (书111 页)答案: Differnece in application : Empty, vacant are synonyms, but their collocations are not the same. Empty implies that there is no one or nothing inside while vacant suggests that something or some place is not occupied. 177.问题: 反义词之间存在不存在包容性概念semantic inclusion, 请举例说明?答案: e.g. man / woman , dog/ ***** tall/ short, old /young 问题:Face 具有不同的它有一个primary meaning也有很多的derived meanings ,那么,这种基本语义和派生语义体现在face的身上, 是用哪一种方法论研究得出来的结果?答案: diachronic approach

178.像车轮式一样进行发展的语义属于哪一种模式? 举例说明?答案: radiation e.g. face, neck 问题:harvest 它的意思是time of cutting, time of harvest, 现在是指yield of grain or food 是哪一种方法论得出的. 答案: diachronic approach

179.问题:huge/tiny, 这是一组反义词, 请从反义关系的角度来分析这是哪一种类型的反义词,并加以理论的解释? 答案:contrary terms

180.Antonyms of this kind form part of a scale of values between two poles and can accommodate a middle ground belong neither to one pole nor to the other as shown below: huge/very big/big/quite big / medium-sized/ quite small/small/ tiny( 这种分析题目易考)看例子: desk, table, chair, cupboard , 这些词都算在什么范畴之内, 加以理论分析?答案:这些词都属于furnature, furnature 是superordinate, desk , table ... 是furniture 的subordinate words 或者称作hyponyms ,它们之间形成的relationship is called hyponymy. 第七章: Changes in Word Meaning 两个大的部分: 1. Types of Semantic changes (五种) (1)extension extension 又被称作generalization e.g ‘manuscript‘ original meaning ‘ handwritting---now ‘any author‘s writing whether written by hand or typed with a type-writer \only barely‘---now ‘storeroom‘(2)narrowing narrowing 又被称作specializatione.g. \just ‘deer‘ \---now ‘maize‘only ‘garage‘ any safe place---‘ a place for storing cars‘ (3) degradation degradation 又被称作pejoratione.g. \\\又被称作 ameliratione.g. \now elevated to ‘delight, pleasant‘\horses---now means ‘high-ranking army officer‘\---now

means ‘policeman‘(5) transfer e.g. paper ( p140) the lip of a wound ( associated transfer) purse for ‘money‘ (associated transfer ) clear-sounding ( transfer of sensations ) 2.Causes of

Changes :1)extra linguistic factors(1) historical reasona word is retained for a name thogh the meaning has changed because the referent has changed. e.g. \

ball-pens, fountains pens increased scientific knowledge and discovery are also important factors. (2) class reasonelevation and degradation (3) Psychological reasonThe associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words Religious influence is another kind of psychological need. e.g. \on p.143 2)linguistic factorsThe change of meaning may be caused by internal factors within the

language system. Especially when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the meaning of the whole.The influx of borrowings has caused some words to change in meaning.The competition of native words eventually resulted in the semantic division. 语义扩大的三个特例:1)polysemic words of modern English 2)technical terms3)from proper nouns to common words 181.问题:由普通变成专有名词算哪一类词类变化模式?答案: Narrowing

182.问题: 词义缩小有几个特例?答案:有三个特例1) From common words to proper nouns e.g. city ---> the City pennisular --->the Pennisular profit --->the Profit 2) shortening3) material nouns

183.问题: 以下的词的词义的变化由什么模式造成的: 1)lust 最早是指人的一种pleasure快乐,现在是指sexual

pleasure, 这种词义变化属于哪一种模式?答案: degradation. 2)Editorial article 缩写为editorial 这是属于哪一种词义变化的模式?答案: Narrowing 3) the Pennisular : 专指利比利亚半岛,那么这个词的形成是属于哪一种模式?答案:Narrowing , 因为它是由common words 变成了proper nouns , 4) Sandwitch , 最早是指三明治这个家族, 但是现在是指一切快餐类食品,这种词义的变化属于哪一种答案：Extension 5)问题:多义词具有了不同的语义, 这种词义变化模式属于哪一类?答案：Extension 6) 问题:liquor 最早是指所有液体的通称, 现在专门指alcoholic drinking , 这种词义的变化算哪一种模式?答案：Narrowing or specialization 7) car 最早是指马拉的战车, 但是现在就是指小轿车,那么这种词义的变化算是哪一个原因造成的?答案：Extra linguistic factor中的historical reason 8) computer 最早是指人的手工劳动的计算,后来是指占地面积非常大的计算机,现在的计算机就是指micro computer ,那么computer 词义的变化算哪一个原因造成的?答案： Extra linguistic fator 中的historical

reason , 9) 这时的computer 指代的是哪一种模式?或者是说哪一种理据的构成?答案：Etymological motivation 10)在南北战争时期, 南方的人一见到北方的人就胆战心惊,所以把北方的人比作rattle snake ,那么南方人的 这种用词,它是哪一种原因造成的?答案：Extralinguistic factor中的psychological reason. 11) 问题:最早的纸是来自非洲的一种做纸的植物叫papyrus, 后来就用paper这个词指代所有的纸张,尽管造纸 的技术和原料变了, 但是paper 这个名词却被保留了下来, 这算词义变化的哪一种模式?答案:transfer (书140页) 12) 问题: Extention 又被称作什么,哪一种词类的变化最能说明这个原因?答案: generalization, from proper nouns to common nouns. 13) 问题:Narrowing 最能表现词义缩小的是哪一类?答案: From common nouns to proper nouns

184.1)A concept is universal to all men regardless of____A) culture B) race C) language D) all of the above答案:D 2)问题: Mouth 在 the mouth of river这个习语 , 它采用了哪一种motivated ?答案:

semantically motivated 3)问题: Radiation and concatenation are different stages of development leading to polysemy , generally , radiation 和concatenation 哪一个出现的早?答案: radiation proceeds concatenation 4)问题:Of the most words meaning changes , which are most productive , which are most common?答案:Extension and narrowing 5) 问题: wife 由最早是指所有的woman 变为了married woman , 这是属于哪一种?答案：Narrowing6) 问题: Angel 由最早的messenger 变成了messenger by god , 是哪一个词义变化模式?答案: Elvervation 7) 问题: silly 它现在的词义是foolish, 它是哪一种语义的变化模式?答案: Degradation 8)问题: cukoo, 它既指布谷鸟的声音,也可以指布谷鸟, 它是哪种理据构成的词?答案:

Onomatopoeic Motivation 9)问题: Italian , 它是哪一个语系分支当中的哪一个语族? 答案: Indo-European language family Western set Italic 10)问题: Greek 属于哪一个语系当中的哪一个小的语系当中的哪一个语族?答案: Indo-European language family Western set Hellenic 11)问题: fair and square, 这属于Idioms中的哪一个类别?答案： Phonetic manipulation 中的 Rhyme

185.问题：What are the characteristics of antonyms?答案：有四个： 1) Semantic opposition2) A word which ahs more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. 3) Semantic inclusion 4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.

186.问题： \请你从语境的角度来分析？答案：This is wrong sentence, because it has two problems : 1)Ambiguity 2)Indication of reference According to two functions of Context1) Elimination of ambiguity2) Indication of ReferenceThis sentence can be corrected as follows : 1)what a nice smell, the chicken is ready to eat. 2) The chicken is hungery, so the chicken needs foods. A concept has referring expressions ____.A) one B) many C)a few D) none of the above.答案：B The grammatical meanings of a word refer to the part of the meaning of a word which indicate grammatical concept or relationship, such as ____ . A) part of speech of a word B)Singular and plural forms C) tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms D) All of the above.答案： D)

187.问题：pick and choose , 它算习语中的哪一个类别？答案：reiteration （同义词叠用）

188.问题：rain or shine ， 它算习语中的哪一类答案：Juxtaposition (反义词叠用)kith and kin alliteration ，might and main ，alliteration cooked 这是哪一种, 请从词缀的角度来加以区别cookedinflectional affixation employer derivational affixes 名词解释：connotative meaning : is also known as connnotation What are the differences between hymonyms and polysemyms ? face 是多义词 , ball 不是

189.论述题： I met a write rwho is the relation of a politician. I met a newspaper reporter who is the brother of Senator Buckley.以上这两句话哪一话好，好在哪里？(p119)注意：答这个论述题时先说哪句好，然后

加以分析，最后要答上下义关系hyponymy 的名词解释。

190.第8章 meaning and Context 1 Context 如何进行分类两种: 1) Linguistic context，In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. This is known as linguistic context which may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.2) Extra-linguistic context or non-linguistic context IN a broad sense, it includes the physical situation as well. This is called

extra-linguistic or non-linguistic context, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. Context 这两个分类也就是它的名词解释1)Linguistic context Linguistic context can be subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context。Lexical context refers to the words that occur together with the word in question. The meaning of the word is offten affected and defined by the neighbouring words. Grammatical context In some cases, the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. This is what we call grammatical context.

191.重点:简答题: What is linguistic context?(这道简答题没考过, 但是整个context 考过) 重点:The role of Context 语境的作用?三个作用: 1) Elimination of Ambiguity ，Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy2) Indication of Referents Without clear context, the reference can be very confusing. 3) Provision of Clues for Inferring Wordmeaning在3) 中又包括八种线索: (1) Definition (2) Explanation (3) Example (4) Synonymy (5) Antonymy (6) Hyponymy (7) Relevant details (8) Word structure 第 九章: English Idioms 这一章关键是要记习语，这些习语都要记。

192.名词解释: Idioms (重点) (1)Idioms consist of set phrases and short sentences which are peculiar to the language in question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas.(2)Strickly speaking, idioms are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of indiviudal elements. (3)In forms idioms may include colloquialisms, catchphrases, slang expressions.

193. 9.1 Characteristics of Idioms 9.1.1 semantic unity (重点)1) idioms each consist of more than one word. 2) in the idiom words have lost their individual identity. 3) quite often the idiom functions as one word. e.g. \9.1.2 Structural stability ( 重点) 1) the structure of an idiom is to a large exten unchangeable. first , the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced. e.g. \not in fact ) \Secondly, the word order cannot be inverted or changed. e.g. twos and threes; tit for tat; the lion‘s share 3) Thirdly, the constituents of an idioms cannot be deleted or added to , not even an article. e.g. out of the question means ‘ impossible‘ in question ( being considered) 4) Finally , many idioms are grammatical unanalysable, e.g. diamond cut diamond ( two parties are equally matched ) like cures like (as) sure as eggs ( quite certainly ) stepped up ( improve or enhance) in the raw ( naked ) turnn over a new leaf ( begin a new life ) draw the curtain ( end or concel )

9.2 Classification of Idioms The difficulty in using idioms lies first in the difficulty of grasping the elusive and figurative meaning, of determining the syntactic functions of idioms e.g. heart and soul ( adverbial ) Idioms may be classified into five groups: 1) Idioms Nominal in Nature 2) Idioms Adjectival in Nature3) Idioms Verbal in Nature（五类中最重要的）

194.注意：考试的一个要点在这， 动词性习语有哪两类划分？(1) phrasal verbs : 短语动词(2) verbal phrases : 动 词短语4) Idioms Adverbial in Nature e.g. \pleasant or easy life 0 5) Sentence Idioms 9.3 Use of Idioms The rhetoric characteristics of idioms such as : stylistic features, rhetoric features and their occasional variations. 9.3.1 Stylistic Feature; Such expressions were all colloquial and informal and once confined to a limited group of people engaged in the same trade or activity. But they proved terse, vivid, forcible and stimulating so that later they broke out of their bounds and gradualy gained wide acceptance.As a result, their early stylistic features faded in part and many became part of the common core of the language and are now used in different situations. 9.3.2 Rhetorical Features ( examples are very important ) 1) phonetic manipulation (1) Alliteration (2) Rhyme 2) Lexical manipuation (1) Reiteration ( duplication of synonyms ) e.g. hustle and bustle cut and carve odds and ends (2) Repetition e.g. word for word year in year out (3) Juxtaposition

( of antonyms ) e.g. up and down hit or miss rain and shine 3. Figures of speech (1) Simile e.g. as dead as a doornail sleep like a log (2) Metaphor Animals are used to refer to people, e.g. grey mare snake in the grass Inanimate things to refer to people e.g. a new broom flat tire the salt of the earth Things to refer to something else, e.g. bed of dust a wet blanket black bottle Actions, state to refer to abstract ideas or other actions, state, etc. e.g. sit on the fence cut the ground from under sb. fall from grace (3) Metonymy : idioms in which the name of one thing is used for that of another associated with it. (4) Synecdoche: substituting part for the whole e.g. fall into good hands earn one‘s bread (5) Personification e.g. The pot calls the cattle back (6) Euphemism 9.3.3 Variations of Idioms 1) Replacement 2) Addition or deletion 3) Position-shifting 4) Shortening 5) Dismembering 195.问题：classification of idioms可分为哪几类？答案：Idioms may be classified into five groups : 1) Idioms Nominal in Natural 2) Idioms Adjectival in Nature 3) Idioms Verbal in Nature 4) Idioms Adverbial in Nature 5) Sentence Idioms

196.问题：Sentence idioms 如何分类: ( 选择或填空还未考过)答案： They embrace declarative,

interrogative, imperative and exclamative sentences.In terms of complexity Sentence Idioms can be further divided into simple, compound and complex sentences. 注意：习语中的特例有可能是填空内容: (Exception1) This class contains numerous prepositional phrases, which in nature are either adjectival or adverbial and in many cases have both functions at the same time. (Exception2 )Sentence Idioms are mainly proverbs and sayings, including colloquialisms and catchphrases, including colloquialisms and catchphrases. (Exception3)In terms of complexity Sentence Idioms can be further divided into simple, compound and complex sentences. (Exception4) forms and functions of idioms are not necessarily identical.

197. 问题：What are the rhetorical features of idioms?答案：1)Phonetic manipulation (1) Alliteration (2) Rhyme 2) Lexical manipulation (1) Reiteration (2) Repetition (3) Juxtaposition 198.问题：Figures of speech ( 大的修饰格6个, 小的修饰格4个)答案： 1) Simile 2) Metaphor 3) Metonymy 4) Synecdoche5) Personification 6) Euphemism (1) humourous (2) ironic and sardonic in tones (3) derogatory (4) hyperbole

199.重点简答题: Metonymy 和Synecdoche , 这两种修饰有何区别? ( 未考过)答案：Both metonymy and synecdoche involve substitution of names, yet they differ in that the former is a case of using the name of one thing for another closely associated with it and the latter is that of substituting part for the whole and vice versa. 习语的分析：(挑出习语加以分析，它是哪一个类型, 然后加以解释) e.g. He goes to the service , rain or shine.答：In this sentence, rain or shine, is an idiom. rain or shine is composed in Juxtaposition. It is Idiom adverbial in nature改写后：He goes to the service, no matter what the weather looks like , no matter what and no matter what kind of difficulties.

200.第十章 English Dictionaries 词典这一部分在填空或选择时出现的可能是最大的1) 词典的种类2)每一种词典的特殊性也是考试的要点：比如：CCELD它的最大特殊性是它的extra column3) 每一种词典的vocabulary stock 也是考试的要点：

大学英语词汇学个人总结重点

Chapter 1 The definition of lexicology 1.1 Lexicology

The term lexicology contains two Greek morphemes: lexicon and logie. The former means word and the latter means learning or the study of. The literal meaning of the term is the science of words

Lexicology is the branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, history, structure, meaning and application. In short, it is the study of the signification and application of words. 1.1.1 Aims of the course of English Lexicology

All the words in a language together constitute what is known as its vocabulary. Vocabulary is one of three elements of language: speech sounds, grammar and vocabulary. In learning a foreign language,

it is very important to enlarge one‘s vocabulary. In order to learn and use English words correctly, those who major in the English language should acquire a basic knowledge of English lexicology.

The aim of the course in English lexicology is to give a systematic description of the English vocabulary. Concretely speaking, English lexicology offers students an insight into the origin and development of the English vocabulary. It deals with meanings of Modern English words and their changes in the course of historical development. It discusses the problems of word-structure and word-formation in English, including the formation of new words which have appeared since the Second World war. It also studies the use of English words, phrases and idioms.

1.1.2 The significance of a course in English lexicology for language learning is also evident.

The course will help the learners to enlarge their vocabulary and improve their ability to analyze and use English words. English lexicology as a theory of Modern English may be useful in vocabulary study because it derives from practice and should guide practice since it is known that language learning requires practice. Students will use the basic knowledge of English lexicology to understand the material already familiar to them from English classes and apply it in their further study of English. 1.2 The connection of Lexicology with other Branches of Linguistics. 1) With phonetics语音学:

Phonetics is the study and systematic classification of the sounds made in the spoken utterance, that is, the study of speech sounds. It is closely related to lexicology. Without sound there is no word because every word is a unity of sound and meaning. 2) With grammar:

Vocabulary and grammar are organically related to one another. In learning a language, attention to grammar is as important as attention to vocabulary. It is noted that the vocabulary is the building material of a language. The vocabulary of a language assumes tremendous importance when it comes under the control of grammar, which is concerned with the modification in form of words and the combination of words into sentences. 3) With stylistics文体学:

Leech defines stylistics as the study of the use of language in literature and considers stylistics a meeting ground of linguistics and literary study. To put it here concerning lexicology, Stylistics is the study of optional variations in the sounds, forms, or vocabulary of a language, different situations of use, or different literary types. It should be mentioned that lexicology studies stylistic variants on the basis of meanings of words and their changes: synonyms, antonyms, etc. Stylistics is concerned with

language variety differing according to use rather than user. The same user may use different varieties for different purposes, different situations, in conversation with different people, to produce different effects. The same subject matter can be expressed in different styles, e.g. (1) His beloved friend has breathed his last (咽气了) (2) His dear friend has passed away （ 与世长辞） (3) His close friend has died （ 死了）

(4) His old guy has kicked the bucket. （翘辫子）

(5) His old friend has abandon the world/ join the choir invisible/ go to Nirvana/pay the debt of nature（谢世/ 归寂/ 去极乐世界/ 了结尘缘）

4) With historical linguistics:

Historical linguistics studies words from the view point of diachrony, whereas lexicology studies words from the view point of both synchrony and diachrony, but especially of synchrony.

1.3 Two approaches to the study of English lexicology.

There are two main approaches to the study of English lexicology, that is, synchronic and diachronic. The term synchronic means describing a language as it exists at one point of time. The term diachronic means concerned with historical development of a language. A synchronic approach is an approach to

the study of a language at one period of time, whereas a diachronic approach is an approach to the study of the change in a language that took place over a period of time.

The following examples may illustrate the difference between the two approaches and their interrelation.

1) Synchronically, words like January, February, etc. are simply English words, the names of the first and second months of the year. Diachronically, they are borrowed words. They were derived from Latin. For instance, January is ― the door of the year‖. The word was derived from Latin Janua meaning door. August is the name of the first Roman Emperor, Augustus Caesar. It is said that Augustus borrowed a day from February and gave August 31 days.

2) Synchronically, words like woman, Monday, etc. are simple words, a woman, not a man, and Monday, the second day of the week. Diachronically, they existed as compounds in Old English. The word woman came from ― wif + mann‖. The word Monday came from ? mona + dag‖, that is, the day of the moon.

3) Synchronically, we consider words like eventful, talkative, etc. as derivatives. Diachronically, they were hybrids, that is words which are made of two parts, each from a different language. Event is a Latin root, ful is an old English suffix. Talk is an old English root, ative is a Latin suffix.

4) According to synchrony, we can see that the word fond means like or affectionate, but according to diachrony we know that it means foolish. We find a similar example in the word comrade. The word comrade originally meant roommate, but now it means fellow member of a political party.

Nowadays most of the language teachers pay more attention to the synchronic approach to the study of the English vocabulary. They describe what the English vocabulary is like, rather than how it came to be that way.

Chapter 2 The sources of the English vocabulary 2.1 The English people and the English Language

The English people are of a mixed blood. The early inhabitants of the island called England now were Britons. From the Britons the island got its name of Britain. In 55 B.C, Britain was invaded by the Roman conqueror Julius Caesar. The Roman occupation lasted for about four hundred years. In 410 A.D, all the Roman troops returned to the Continent, thus ending the Roman occupation of Britain. At the beginning of the fifth century Britain was invaded by three tribes form the Northern Europe: the Angles, Saxons and Jutes. These three tribes landed on the Britain coast, drove the Britons west and north and settled down on the island. These three tribes merged into one people. And the three dialects they spoke naturally grew into a single language the English language.

However, the English language today reflects many centuries of development. The political and social events that have in the course of English history so profoundly affected the English people in their national life have generally had a recognizable effect on their language. The Roman Christianization of Britain in 597 brought England into contact with Latin civilization and made significant additions to the English vocabulary. The Scandinavian invasions resulted in a considerable mixture of the two peoples and their languages. The Norman conquest made English for two centuries the language mainly of the lower classes while the nobles and those associated with them use French on almost all occasions. And when English once more regained supremacy as the language of all elements of the population, it was an English greatly changed in both form and vocabulary from what it had been in 1066. In a similar way the Hundred Years‘ War, the rise of an important middle class, the Renaissance, the development of England as a maritime power, the expansion of the British Empire, and the growth of commerce and industry, of science and literature, have each in their way, contributed to the development of he

language. References in scholarly and popular works to Indian English‖, Caribbean English, West African English, and other regional varieties point to the fact that the political and cultural history of the English language is not simply international history of quite divergent societies which have caused the language to change and become enriched as it responds to their own special needs.

2.2 Evolutional periods of the English Language

This history of the English Language is divided into three periods. The period from 450 to 1150 is known as old English. It is sometimes described as the period of full inflections, since during most of this period the case endings of the noun, the adjectives, and the verbs are preserved more or less unimpaired. From 1150 to 1500, the language is known as Middle English. During the period, the

inflections, which had begun to break down toward the end of the Old English period, become greatly reduced, and it is consequently known as the period of leveled inflections. The language since 1500 is called Modern English. A large part of the original inflectional system has disappeared entirely and we therefore speak of it as the period of lost inflections. The progressive decay of inflections is only one of the developments that mark the evolution of English in its various stages.

2.3 Some characteristics of Old English

The pronunciation of old English words differs somewhat from that of Modern English words.

Especially the long vowels have changed a great deal. Take the old English word stan for instance. The word stan is the same word as the Modern English word stone, but the vowel is different. The a sound has shifted to the sound of o in Modern English. Other vowels have also undergone changed. e.g. Fot ( O. E) ----- foot ( Mod. E) Cene ( O. E) ---- keen ( Mod. E) Fyr ( O.E ) ----- fire ( Mod . E ) Hu ( O. E ) ----- how ( Mod. E )

Old English represented the sound of th by p and as in the word wip ( O. E ) ---- with ( Mod . E ), and the word a ( O. E ) --- then ( Mod. E ), the sound of sh by sc in sceap ( O. E ) --- sheep ( Mod. E ) or sceotan ( O. E ) ---- shoot ( Mod. E ), and the sound of k by c as in cynn ( O. E ) --- kin ( Mod. E ) or nacod ( O. E ) --- naked ( Mod. E).

The vocabulary of Old English consisted mainly of Anglo Saxon words. But when the Norman Conquest in 1066 brought French to England, much of the English vocabulary was replaced by words borrowed from French and Latin. During this period, much of the Old English was no longer in use, but the basic elements of the vocabulary have remained. They express fundamental concepts of human life, such as : mann ( man), wif ( wife), cild ( child ), hus ( house ), benc ( bench), mete ( meat, food), leaf ( leaf ), fugol ( fowl ), strang ( strong ), etan ( eat ), drincan ( drink ), libban ( live ), etc.

Old English is a synthetic合成的 language which shows the relation of words in a sentence largely by means of inflections while Modern English is an analytic分解的 language which indicates the relation of words in a sentence by means of order, prepositions or auxiliary verbs, rather than by inflections. For instance:

It's very important to notice right away that it is NOT the position of the word in the sentence that makes it take the form sé or tone; it's the role that the word is playing in the sentence. To make this clear, take a look at the following sentences: Sé sunu lufode tone f?der. Lufode sé sunu tone f?der. Tone f?der lufode sé sunu. Tone f?der sé sunu lufode. Sé sunu tone f?der lufode.

These sentences all mean exactly the same thing. In other words, in this kind of simple sentence, tone tells us that the noun it's associated with is the object, sé tells us that the noun it's associated with is the subject. Not all demonstrative pronouns change their form to indicate subject and object in this way. The \nouns, and these ones don't make any changes to either noun or demonstrative between subject and

object.

Se f?der lufode t?t wíf,\?t wíf lufode tone f?der,\\.\?t wíf\

Modern English depends upon word order to show the relations of words in a sentence. Different word order may result in different meaning. The sentence ― The police arrested the thief‖ is completely

opposite to the sentence ― the thief arrested the police‖ in meaning. So, in contrast with Modern English, Old English is a synthetic language.

2.4 Some characteristics of Middle English

The middle English period extends from 1150 to 1500. This period was marked by important changes in the English language. The Norman Conquest was the cause of this change. The change of this period had a great effect on both grammar and vocabulary. In grammar English has changed from a highly inflected language to an analytic language. In this period many old English were lost, and thousands upon thousands of borrowed from French and Latin appeared in the English vocabulary.

French influence on the English vocabulary is much more direct and observable. More than half of the English vocabulary is derived from Latin. Some of them have come directly, but a great many came through French. Borrowed words from French in this period are beef, pork, bacon, air, beauty, music, brown, painting, colour,etc which is further discussed in the latter sections.

Middle English represented the sound of c by ch as in the word child (M.E)---cild ( O.E), and the sound of cw by qu as in the word queen ( M.E) --- cwen ( O.E).

All in all, at the beginning of the period English is a language that must be learned like a foreign tongue, at the end it is Modern English.

2.5 Some characteristics of Modern English

The Modern English period extends from 1500 to the present day. We may divide this period into two parts: the early Modern English and the late Modern English period. The Early Modern English period extends from 1500 to 1700. The chief influence of this time was the great humanistic movement of the Renaissance. In this period the study of the Latin and Greek classics was stressed, so the influence of Latin and Greek on English was great. Some words as conspicuous, disability, disregard, emancipate, expectation exist, external came directly from Latin. Others, like chaos, crisis, emphasis, system are of Greek origin.

The Late Modern English period started after 1700. The eighteenth century in England was a time of stabilizing and purifying the English language. In the 18th century French greatly influenced English. The number of French words in the period from 1650 to 1800 increased rapidly. The following words are useful examples: ballet, cartoon, champagne, cohesion, dentist, patrol, publicity, routine, etc.

The territorial expansion of the English Empire in this period resulted in the expansion of the English vocabulary. Thus, there are American Indian words, caribou, hickory, moose, papoose, etc. There are also English Mexican words, such as, maize, potato, tobacco, hammock, etc. From Peru come puma, quinine, etc. From Brazil come cayenne, jaguar, etc. From India , calico, coolie, mandarin, etc come into the English. From Africa come banana, gumbo, zebra, etc.

The nineteenth and twentieth centuries are a period of rapid expansion for the English vocabulary in the history of English language.

In this period, many changes have taken place. Especially, the great development of science and technology is reflected in the English vocabulary, apart from which there are changes in industry, in political and social lives and other all which have contributed a great deal to the English vocabulary. The following words may be clearly found in this period. The words cinema and moving picture date from 1899. The words radio meaning a receiving station and television date from 1923 and 1904

I say it just Begins to live That day.

-- Emily Dickinson, ― a word‖

What is a word? What do you know when you know a word? Suppose you hear someone say morpheme词素 and haven’t the slightest idea what it means, and you don’t know what the smallest unit of linguistic meaning is called. A particular string of sounds must be united with a meaning, a meaning must be united with specific sounds in order for the sounds or the meaning to a word in our mental dictionaries. Once you learn both the sounds and their meaning, you know the word. It became an entry in you mental lexicon, part of your linguistic knowledge.

Someone who doesn‘t know English would not know where one word begins or ends in an utterance like Thecatsatonthemat. A speaker of English has no difficulty in segmenting the stream of sounds into six individual words: the, cat, sat, on, the, and mat. Similarly, a speaker of the American Indian language knows that kwapmuknanuk ( which means ― they see us‖) is just one word.

The lack of pauses between words in speech has provided humorists and songwriters with much material. For instance, there was a song popular during World War II. Mairzy doats and dozy doats Mares eat oats and does eat oats And liddle lamzy divey and little lambs eat ivy A kiddley-divey too, a kid‘ll eat ivy too, Wouldn‘t you? Wouldn‘t you?

Similarly, the comical hosts of the show Cartalk, aired on National public Radio close the show by reading a list of credits that includes the following cast of characters. Copyeditor Adeline Moore Add a line more Accounts payable Ineeda Czech I need a check Pollution control Maury Missions More emissions Purchasing Lois Bidder Lowest bidder Statistician Marge Innovera Margin of error

Russian chauffeur Picov Andropov pick up and drop off

Legal firm Dewey, Cheethum and Howe Do we cheat them and how

This shows that in a particular language, the form( sounds and pronunciation) and the meaning of a word are like two sides of a coin. For instance, in English the sounds of the letters bear and bare

represent four homonyms ( here also called homophones), different words with the same sounds, as shown in the sentences: She can‘t bear children She can‘t bear children Bruin bear is the mascot

He stood there—bare and beautiful

Sometimes we think we know a word even though we don‘t know what it meanings. In an introductory linguistics class, most of the 400 students had heard the word antidisestablishmentarianism and

believed it to be the longest word in the English language. Yet, most of the students were unsure of its meaning.

Antidisestablishmentarianism originated in the context of the nineteenth century Church of England, where \state church of England. The movement succeeded in England, but failed in Ireland and Wales, with the Church of Ireland being disestablished in 1871 and the Church of Wales in 1920.

Antidisestablishmentarian members of the Free Church of Scotland delayed merger with the United

Presbyterian Church of Scotland in a dispute about the position of the Church of Scotland. The term has largely fallen into disuse, although the issue itself is still current

Both children and adults have to be told that antidisestablishmentarianism is the longest word in English or discover it through an analysis of entries in a dictionary. Actually, should they wish to research the question, they would find that the longest word in Webster‘s Seventh International Dictionary is pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis, a disease of the lungs.

Since each word is a sound-meaning unit, each word stored in our mental lexicon must be listed with its unique phonological representation, which determines its pronunciation, and its meaning. Each word in your mental lexicon includes other information as well, such as whether it is a noun, a pronoun, a verb, an adjective, and adverb, a preposition, or a conjunction. That is, its grammatical category, or syntactic class, is specified. You may not consciously know that a form like love is listed as both a verb and noun, but a speaker has such knowledge, as shown by the phrases I love you and you are the love of my life. If such information were not in the mental lexicon, we would not know how to form grammatical sentences, nor would we be able to distinguish grammatical from un-grammatical sentences. The

classes of words, the syntactic categories—such as nouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, and so on—and the semantic properties of words, which represent their meanings, will be discussed in later sections. 2. Content words and function (grammatical ) words实意词与功能词

The English language makes an important distinction between two kinds of words—content words and function words. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs are the content words. These words denote concepts such as objects, actions, attributes, and ideas that we can think about like children, purple, etc. Content words are sometimes called the open class words because we can and regularly do add new words to these classes. A new word, google, entered English with the internet developing. Verbs like disrespect and download entered the language quite recently, as have nouns like bytes and email.

There are other classes of words that do not have clear lexical meaning or obvious concepts

associated with them, including conjunctions连接词 such as and, or, and but; prepositions介词 such as in and of; the articles the, an/ a, and pronouns such as it and he. These kinds of words are called

functions words because they have a grammatical function. For example, the articles indicate whether a noun is definite—the boy or a boy. The preposition of indicates possession as in the book of yours. But this word indicates many other kinds of relations too.

Function words are sometimes called closed class words. It is difficult to think of new conjunctions, prepositions, or pronouns that have recently entered the language. The small set of personal pronouns such as I, me, mine, he, she, and so on are part of this class. With the growth of the feminist movement, some proposals have been made for adding a neutral singular pronoun that would be neither masculine nor feminine and that could be used as the general form. If such a pronoun existed, it might have prevented the department chairperson in a large university from making the incongruous statement: ― We will hire the best person for the job regardless of his sex‖.

The difference between content and function words is illustrated by the following test that circulated recently over the Internet:

Please count the number of F‘s in the following text: FINISHED FILES ARE THE

RESULT OF YEARS OF SCIENTIFIC STUDY COMBINED WITH THE EXPERIENCE OF YEARS

What this little test illustrates is that the brain treats content and function words differently. The two classes of words also seem to function differently in slips of tongue produced by normal

individuals. In the early stage of development, children often omit function words from their speech, for example ― doggie barking‖. What is more, these two classes of words have different functions in language. Content words have semantic meaning, function words play a grammatical role.

3. Morphemes: The minimal units of Meaning

― They gave me‖ Humpty Dumpty continued, ― for an un-birthday present‖ ― I beg your pardon?‖ Alice said with a puzzled air. ― I am not offended,‖ said Humpty Dumpty. ― I mean, what is an un-birthday present‖

― A present given when it isn‘t your birthday, of course‖

Lewis carroll, Through the Looking-glass

In the dialogue above, Humpty Dumpty is well aware that the prefix un-means not as further shown in the following pairs of words: Desirable undesirable Likely unlikely Inspired uninspired Happy unhappy

Developed undeveloped Sophisticated unsophisticated

Webster‘s Third New International Dictionary lists about 2700 adjectives beginning with un.

Words have internal structure, which is rule-governed. Uneaten, unadmired, and ungrammatical are words in English, but eatenun, admiredun, and grammaticalun are not, because we do not form a negative meaning of a word by suffixing un buy by prefixing it.

The study of the internal structure of words, and of the rules by which words are formed is

morphology. This word itself consists of two morphemes, morph +ology. The suffix –ology means ―science of or branch of knowledge concerning‖. Thus, the meaning of morphology is the science of word forms.

Part of knowing a language is knowing its morphology. Like most linguistic knowledge, this is generally unconscious knowledge.

A single word may be composed of one or more morphemes: One morpheme boy , desire

Two morphemes boy+ ish, desire+ able

Three morphemes boy+ish+ness, desire+able+ity Four morphemes gentle+man+li+ness

More than four morphemes anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism

What is a morpheme? A morpheme, the minimal linguistic unit, is thus an arbitrary union of a sound and a meaning that cannot be further analyzed. Therefore, every word in every language is composed of one or more morphemes. However, There is a common view that words are the basic meaningful elements of a language, which may be reflected when Samuel Goldwyn, the pioneer moviemaker, once,

announced ― in two words: im-possible‖. Linguistically speaking, Goldwyn should have said: ― in two morphemes: im-possible”.

3.1 Bound and free morphemes

We can make a broad distinction between two types of morphemes. Free morphemes and Bound morphemes. Free morphemes refer to the morphemes which can stand by themselves as single words, e.g. open and door. Bound morphemes refer to those which cannot normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form, e.g. re-, -ist, ist, -s.

The free morphemes can be generally considered as the set of separate English word-forms. When they are used with bound morphemes, the basic word-form involved is technically known as the stem. For example:

Undressed carelessness Un- dress ed care less ness Prefix stem suffix stem suffix suffix Bound free bound free bound bound

What we have described as free morphemes fall into two categories. The first category is that set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs which we think of as the words which carry the content of

messages we convey, these free morphemes are called lexical morphemes, e.g. boy, man, house, tiger, long, yellow, sincere, open.

The other group of free morphemes are called functional morphemes, like and, but, when, because, on, near, above, in, the, that, etc. This set consists largely of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns.

The set of affixes which fall into the bound category can also be divided into two types. One is derivational morphemes. These are used to make new words in the language. A list of derivational morphemes will include suffixes such as the ish in foolish, the –ly in badly and the –ment in payment. It will also include prefixes such as re-, pre-, ex-, dis-, un- and so forth.

The second set of bound morphemes contains what are called inflectional morphemes. These are not used to produce new words in the English language, but rather to indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. Inflectional morphemes are used to show if a word is plural or singular, if it is past tense or not, and if it is a comparative or possessive form. Examples are jumped, boys, sitting, she is smaller, the smallest, Jerry‘s friend. To put is simply, they are –ing, -s, -er,-est, -ed, -?s. At the present stage of English history, there are a total of eight bound inflectional affixes. It should be noted that in English, all the inflectional morphemes are suffixes.

English inflectional morphemes Examples

-s the third person singular present She waits at home -ed past tens She waited at home -ing progressive she is eating the donut -en past participle Mary has eaten the donuts -s plural She ate the nonuts -?s possessive Disa‘s hair curly

-er comparative Disa has shorter hair that karin -est superlative Disa has the shortest hair

Armed with all these terms for the different types of morphemes, we can now take most sentences of English apart and list the elements. As an example, the English sentence The boy‘s wildness shocked the teachers contains the following elements.

The boy ?s wild ness shock ed the teach er -s

Functional lexical inflectional lexical derivational lexical inflectional functional lexical derivational, inflectional

As a useful way to remember the different categories of morphemes, the following chart can be used: lexical

free

functional Morphemes

derivational

Bound

Inflectional

Students often ask for definitions of derivational morphemes as opposed to inflectional morphemes. There is no easy answer. Perhaps the simplest answer is that derivational morphemes are affixes that are not inflectional. Inflectional morphemes signal grammatical relations and are required by the rule of sentence formation. Derivational morphemes, when affixed to roots and stems, change the

grammatical words classes and the basic meaning of the word, which may then be inflected as to number, tense, and so on. 3.2 English word formation

Word formation refers to the formation of longer, more complex words from shorter, simpler words. It is worth mentioning that there are some main common processes of word formation in English, like affixation, coinage, borrowing, compounding, blending, clipping, backformation, conversion, acronyms. Affixation: Affixation includes prefixation and suffixation. Affixation is the morphological process whereby grammatical or lexical information is added to the base.

Affixation has played an active part in the course of the development of the English language. It is not only an age-old, but a productive method in English word-building as well, which will be further discussed in the next chapter.

Word coinage: one of the least common processes of word-formation in English is coinage, that is the invention of totally new terms. We have seen that new words may be added to the vocabulary of a language by derivational processes. New words also enter a language in a variety of other ways. Some are created outright to fit some purpose. The advertising industry has added many words to English, such as kodak, nylon. Specific brand names such as Xeron.

Greek roots borrowed into English have also provided a means for coining new words. Thermos ― hot‖ plus metron ― measure‖ gives us thermometer. From akros ― topmost‖ and phobia ―fear‖, we get

acrophobia, ― dread of heights‖. To avoid going out Friday the thirteenth, you may say that you have triskaidekapobia, a profound fear of the number 13. An ingenious cartoonist, Robert Osborn, has invented some phobias, to each of which he gives an appropriate name: Logizomechanophobia fear of reckoning machines Pornphobia fear of prostitutes

Borrowing: one of the most common sources of new words in English is the process simply labeled borrowing, that is, the taking over of words from other languages. Throughout its history, the English language has adopted a vast number of loan-words from other languages.

Compounding: In some examples we have just considered, there is a joining of two separate words to produce a single form. This combing process, technically, known as compounding, is very common in languages like German and English. Obvious English examples would be bookcase, fingerprint, sunburn, wallpaper, textbook, wastebasket, etc.

Blending: The combining of two separate forms to produce a single new term is also present in the process called blending. However, blending is typically accomplished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of the other word. If you wish to refer to the combined effects of smoke and fog, there is the term smog. Some other commonly used examples of blending are brunch ( breakfast/lunch ), motel ( motor/hotel ) and telecast ( television/broadcast ), etc.

Clipping: the element of reduction which is noticeable in blending is even ore apparent in the process described as clipping. This occurs when a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form, often in casual speech. The term gasoline is still in use, but occurs much less frequently than gas, the

sometimes with the prefix stressed.

Ultraconservative—extremely conservatives Ultramarine—situated beyond the sea

Ultramodern—having the very latest ideas, styles.

Ultra-violet—beyond the purple end of the range of colors that make up light seen by human being. Ultra-secret—highly secret.

Ultra-short—very short in duration

Ultra-microscope—an apparatus for making visible scattered light particles too small be perceived by the ordinary.

Ultrahigh—of the highest degree, extremely high Ultraleft—extremely radical

Under-, the prefix, means too little. It combines with verbs, nouns, and ed-participles Undercharge—to take or ask too less

Underestimate—have too low an opinion of the degree or number of Underdeveloped—to become less developed

Undereducated—not normally or adequately educated

Under-occupied—have fewer occupants than there is room for, Underproduce—to produce less than the usual amount. Undertax—to tax insufficiently or inadequately. Underkill—an inability to defeat an enemy.

5) prefixes of orientation and attitude

anti-, the prefix, means against. It combines with adjs and nouns mainly. Antibacterial—directed or effective against bacteria

Anticlockwise—in the opposite direction to the hands of a clock Antisocial—opposed to laws or to organized societies.

Contra-, the prefix, means opposite. It combines with nouns, verbs and adjs. Contradiction—the act of contradicting. Contrafact—opposite to the fact

Counter-, the prefix, means against, in opposition to. It combines with verbs, nouns and adjs. Counteract—to lesson, reduce or oppose the effect Counterattack—to make a counterattack

Counterclaim—an opposing claim, especially in law. Countercurrent—flowing in an opposite direction

Pro, the prefix, has two meanings. Firstly, it means for, on the side of.

Pro-European—supporting or advocating the social cultural or economic unification of western European countries

Pro-common market—supporting European economic community Pro-student—favoring or siding with students

Secondly, it means on behalf of. It combines with nouns freely. Pro-consul—deputy consul.

6) locative prefix

Locative prefixes, like spatial prepositions, may extend their meaning metaphorically to abstract

spheres.

Fore-, the prefix, means front part of, front. It combines freely with nouns. Forearm—the lower part of the arm\\

Forehead—the part of the face above the eyes and below the hair

Foreground—the nearest part of a scene in a view, a picture and a photo Foreleg—either of the 2 front legs of a 4-legged animal Foreword—a short introduction at the beginning of a book.

Inter, the prefix, means between, among. It combines with adjs, verbs and nouns. Intercontinental—extending among continents or carried on between continents. International—having to do with more than one country Intertwine—to twine about one another Interview—to ask questions of Interplay—working together

Interaction—have an effect on each other

Trans, the prefix, means across, from one place to another. It combines freely with verbs and adjs. Transcontinental—go across a continent

Transpacific—crossing or extending across the pacific ocean Transform转换—to change completely in form

Transplant—to move from one place and plant in another Transnational—across the nations.

7) prefixes of time and order

ex-, the prefix, means former. It combines with human nouns ex-husband—former husband ex-president—former president ex-wife—former president

fore, the prefix here, means before.

Foresee—to form an idea or judgment about what will happen in the future Foretell—to tell what will happen in future Forewarn—to warn in advance

Foresight—the ability to see future needs.

Post-, the prefix, means after.

Post-election—relating to a period after election Post liberation—after liberation Post war—after war

Post-doctoral ( post doctorate)—being beyond the doctoral level.

Pre, the prefix, means before.

Pre-school—the period in child‘ s life from the infancy to the age of six that ordinarily precedes attendance at elementary school Pre-knowledge—knowing in advance

Prehistory—a time before history was written Premature—not mature

Preconference—prior to the conference

Pre cook—cook partially before final cooking Pre task—the first part of the whole tasks

Re, prefix, means again, back. Redesign—to design again Redial—make a call again

8) Number prefixes

This part belongs to the neo-classical items. They are originally Greek or Latin widely used numerical prefixes.

Bi, di, the prefix means two. Bicycle—a 2 wheeled vehicle

Bilingual—containing or expressing in two languages Biweekly—appearing every two weeks Bilateral—of, with two sides

Dioxide—a chemical compound containing 2 atoms of oxygen to every one another substance Dichotomy—a division or the process of dividing into two especially mutually exclusive groups

Multi, poly- the prefix, means many. Multi-lateral—having many sides

Multinational—involving more than two countries Multi-forms—having several different shapes

Multimedia—having many media worked together, one of computer systems

Polygamy—the custom or practice of having more than one wife at the same time Polysemy—the existence of many meanings

Polygon—a figure or a flat surface having 5 or more straight sides

Semi-, hemi- the prefix, means half Semicircle—half a circle

Semi-illiterate—a person who is barely able to read or write Semivowel—a sound like a vowel sound, like j in English Hemisphere—half a sphere Hemicycle—half a circle

Hemidemisemiquaver—sixty fourth note.

Hemiplegia—paralysis of one lateral half of the body

Tri-, the prefix, means three.

Triangle—a flat figure with 3 straight sides and 3 angles Tricycle—a bicycle with 3 wheels Trilateral—having three sides

Trilingual—consisting of three languages

Uni-, mon-, the prefixes, mean one.

Unification—the act, process or result of unifying Uniform—a dress of a distinctive design or fashion

Unisex—the state or condition of not being distinguishable as to sex Unique—being the only one

Monogamy—the custom or practice having one wife or husband at one time

Monologue—a spoken part of a play, film, for a single performer, especially acting alone Monorail—a railway with a single rail

9) Miscellaneous neo-classical prefixes

Auto, the prefix, means self. It combines with nouns and adjs Autobiography—a book written by oneself about one Autocrat—a ruler with unlimited power

Automation—the act that needs little or non-human control

Extra-, the prefix, means exceptionally. It combines freely with adjs, occasionally with nouns, sometimes written as a separate word

Extralinguistic—outside the province of language or linguistics Extralunar—found existing outside the moon Extraordinate—remarkable

Extravagant—spending too much money

Neo-, the prefix, means new, revived. It combines with nouns and adjs Neo-classism—new classism

Neo-impressionism—a late 19th century French art theory and practice charaterized by an attempt to make impressionism more precise in form

Neo-colonialism—the economic and political policies by which a Great power indirectly maintains or extends its influence over other areas or people.

Neo-Nazi—of or pertaining to a political party which follows the Nazi principles.

Pan, the prefix, means all, world wide. It combines especially with nouns and premodifying denominal adjs

Pan-Americanism—a movement for greater cooperation among the pan-American nations especially in defence, commerce and cultural relations.

Pan-Asianism—a movement or policy seeking the political union of all Asian countries

Proto-, the prefix, means first, original. It combines with nouns and adjs.

Protohuman—relating to or resembling an early primitive human or manlike primate. Protomartyr—the first martyr in a cause or region

Protolanguage—an assumed or recorded ancestral language

Tele, the prefix, means distant. It combines chiefly with classical bases to form nouns. Telegram—a message sent by telegraph

Telescope—a tubelike scientific instrument used for seeing distant objects by making them appear nearer and nearer.

Telecommunication—communication at a distance.

Vice-, the prefix, means deputy. It combines freely with nouns Vice-chairman—an officer next in rank to a chairman Vic-president—an officer next in rank to a president 10) Conversion prefixes.

The function of conversion prefixes is to produce a conversion of the base from one word class to another.

a-, the prefix, chiefly combines with verbs to form predicative adjs.

Asleep—sleeping

Astride—with a leg on each side Atremble—shaking involuntarily

Be-, the prefix, has three cases used in English. First, it combines with –ed to turn noun bases into adjs with intensified force. It means wearing or surrounded by. Befogged—surrounded by fog

Bespectacled—wearing spectacles Bewigged—wearing a wig

Second, it intensifies the force of verbs

Bedazzle—to confuse by a strong light, to impress forcefully Bestir—to stir up

Third, it combines with nouns to be transitive verbs Bedevil—to trouble greatly

Befriend—to act as a friend to sb

Bewitch—to have a magic effect, often harmful, charm as if by magic

En-, em- ( before p or b). the prefix en- or em chiefly combines with nouns to form verbs. The prefix en- means to put into, or to provide with.

Empower—to give someone the power or lawful right

Endanger危害—to cause danger to

Enlarge—make sth larger

4.1.2 suffixation

What is suffixation? Suffixation is a main type of word formation, putting a suffix after the stem,

sometimes without, but more usually with a change of word class. It is known that the primary function of prefixes is to effect a semantic modification of the base while the chief function of suffixes is to change the word class of the base, although suffixes have only a small semantic role. Therefore the suffixes may be classified into four categories according to the word class.

1) Noun suffixes: it may be subdivided into the following five types

(1) denominal nouns名词派生: abstract. The following nouns suffixes combine with noun bases which become largely noncount, abstract or collective nouns of status and activities. -age, the suffix, means measure of or collection of

Baggage—all the bags and other containers with which a person travels Luggage—the cases, bags, boxes, etc, of a traveler.

Percentage—an amount stated as if it is part of a whole which is 100 -dom, the suffix, means the state of being. Kingdom—a country governed by a king Wisdom—the state of being wise Officialdom—officials as a class

-ery, -ry, the suffix, means condition associated with, location of, etc. Drudgery—hard, dull, humble work Slavery—the system of having slaves

Nursery—a place where small children are taken care of Refinery—a building for refining metals, oil or sugar. Machinery—machines in general

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