财政学双语课后总结加重点分析

财政学

Chapter 1

1、Unified budget: The document which itemizes（逐项列出） all the federal government’s expenditures（支出） and revenues（收入）. 统一预算：联邦政府在一种文件中将其支出逐项列出。 2、regulatory budget: An annual statement of the costs imposed on（施加影响于） the economy by government regulations.(Currently, there is no such budget.) 管制预算：政府管制给经济造成的成本的年度报告。（目前尚无）

3、entitlement programs: Programs whose expenditures are determined by the number of people who qualify, rather than preset budget allocations（分配）. 公民权力性计划 其支出由符合条件的人数而非预先的预算安排来决定的计划。 Summary :

1、public finance ,also known as public sector economics or public economics, focuses on the taxing and spending activities of government and their influence on the allocation of resources and distribution（分配） of income. 财政学，也称公共部门经济学或公共经济学，以政府的收支活动及其资源配置与收入分配的影响为研究对象

2、In an organic view of society ,individuals are valued only by their contribution to the realization of social goals. These goals are determined by the government. 按照社会有机论，个人只有在有助于社会目标实现时才有价值。这些目标有政府来决定。 3、In a mechanistic view of society ,government is a contrivance（发明） erected（建立） to further individual goals. It is not clear now the government can reconcile（协调） sometimes conflicting individual goals. 按照社会机械论，政府是为了促进个人目标的实现而人为创立的东西。政府如何能协调有时是相互冲突的个人目标，尚不清楚。

4、Personal income and social security payroll taxes（工资税） are currently（目前） the largest sources of government revenue.

个人所得税和社会保障工薪税是目前政府收入的最大来源。

Chapter 2

1、 substitution effect: The tendency of an individual to consume more of one good

and less of another because of a decrease in the price of the former relative to the latter.

替代效应 一个人因一种商品相对于另一种商品的价格降低而多消费前者，少消费后者的倾向。

2、 normal good :A good for which demand increases as income increases and

demand decreases as income decreases, other things being the same.

正常品 在其他条件相同的情况下，其需求随着收入的增加而上升、随着收入的减少而下降的商品。

3、 income effect :The effect of a price change on the quantity demanded（需求量）

due exclusively（唯一的） to the fact that the consumer’s income has changed. 收入效应 价格变化对需求量的影响完全是由于消费者的实际收入的变化所致。

Summary :

1、 Experimental studies randomly assign subjects to either a treatment group or

control group .Random assignment reduces the likelihood that outside factors will lead the researcher to confuse correlation（相关性） with causation. 实验研究随机地把研究对象分成处理组或控制组。随机分派降低了外部因素导致研究者把相关性与因果性相混淆的可能性。

2、 Quasi-experiments can be structured in several ways, such as a

difference-in-difference analysis, instrumental variables analysis, and regression-discontinuity analysis.

准实验的研究方法有若干，比如双重差异分析、工具变量分析以及回归间断分析等。

Chapter 3

1、 welfare economics: The branch of economic theory concerned with the social

desirability（合意） of alternative economic states. 福利经济学 研究各种经济状态的社会可取性的经济理论分支。

2、 Pareto efficient: An allocation of resources such that no person can be made

better off without making another person worse off.

帕累托效率 一种资源配置状态，在该状态下，如果不使一个人的境况变差就不可能使另一个人的境况变好。

3、 Pareto improvement: A reallocation of resources that makes at least one person

better off without making anyone else worse off.

帕累托改进 资源的重新配置可在不使任何人的境况变差的前提下，至少使一个人的境况变好。

The first fundamental theorem of welfare economics福利经济学第一基本定理。 Fairness and the second fundamental theorem of welfare economics 公平与福利经济学第二基本定理。（内涵） Market failure 市场失灵原因。 1) market power 市场影响力

2) nonexistence of markets 市场不存在。

4、 asymmetric information ：A situation in which one party engaged in an economic

transaction has better information about the good or service traded than the other party.

不对称信息 从事经济交易中的一方对所交易商品或服务的情况比另一方知道得更多的情形 5、 externality :An activity of one entity（实体） affects the welfare of another entity

in a way that is outside the market.

外部性 一个实体的活动以市场机制之外的方式对另一实体的福利产生影响。

6、 public good :A good that is non rival and non excludable in consumption（消费）. 公共物品 消费具有非竞争性和非排他性的物品。 Summary

1、A Pareto efficient allocation occurs when no person can be made better off without making another person worse off. Pareto efficiency requires that each person’s marginal rate of substitution（边际替代率） between two commodities equal the marginal rate of transformation. Pareto efficiency is the economist’s benchmark

（标准） of efficiency performance for an economy. 如果不使他人的境况变好就不能使一个人的境况变好，这就实现了帕累托效率配置。帕累托效率要求，每个人对两种商品的边际替代率等于边际转换率。帕累托效率是经济学家判断经济是否有效运行的标准。

3、 The First Fundamental Theorem of Welfare Economics states that, under

certain conditions, competitive market mechanisms lead to Pareto efficient outcomes.

福利经济学第一基本定理指出，在某些条件下，竞争市场机制会产生帕累托效率的结果。 4、 The second Fundamental Theorem of Welfare Economics states that society

can attain（实现） any Pareto efficient allocation of resource by making a suitable assignment of initial（最初的） endowments（资源禀赋） and then letting people freely trade with each other. 福利经济学的第二基本定理指出，社会通过适当地安排初始资源禀赋，然后让人们彼此自由地交易，就可以实现帕累托效率资源配置。 5、A second reason for government intervention（干预） is market failure ,which may occur in the presence of market power or when markets do not exist. 政府干预的第二个理由是市场失灵，如果存在市场影响力或者市场不存在，就会出现市场失灵。

Chapter 4

1、 pure public good :A commodity that is non rival and non excludable in

consumption.

纯公共物品 消费具有非竞争性和排他性的物品。 2、 公共物品的定义我们需要注意的几点。

1) Even though everyone consumes the same quantity of the good, it need not be

valued equally by all.

虽然每个人消费的公共物品数量相同，但不一定所有人对这种消费的评价都一致。

2) Classification as a public good is not an absolute; it depends on market

conditions and the state of technology .

公共物品的分类不是绝对的，它取决于市场条件和技术状况。

3) A commodity can satisfy one part of the definition of a public good and not me

the other.

一种物品可以满足公共物品定义的一部分而不能满足另一部分。

4) Some things that are not conventionally thought of as commodities have public

good characteristics.

有一些在传统上不被认为是商品的东西具有公共物品的特征。

5) Private goods are not necessarily provided exclusively by the private sector. 私人物品并不一定只由私人部门提供。

6) Public provision of a good does not necessary mean that it is also produced by

the public sector.

一种物品的公共提供并不一定意味着也由公共部门产生。

3、 Vertical summation :The process of creating an aggregate demand curve(总需

求曲线) for a public good by adding the prices each individual is willing to pay for a given quantity of the good.

纵向加总 把每个人对某种既定数量的公共物品愿意支付的价格相加而得到该公共物品总需求曲线的过程。

4、 Free rider: The incentive(动机) to let other people pay for a public good while

you enjoy the benefits.

免费搭车者 让别人为公共物品支付而你坐享其成的动机。

5、 Privatization: The process of turning services that are supplied by the

government over to the private sector for provision and /or production. 私有化 把由政府提供的服务转由私人部门提供和（或）生产的过程。

6、 What criteria（标准） should be used to select the amount of each input? 用什么标准来选择每种投入品的数量呢？

1） Relative wage and materials costs.工资和材料的相对成本 2） Administrative costs 管理费 3） Diversity of tastes 偏好多样性 4） Distributional issues 分配问题

7、 Commodity egalitarianism :The idea that some commodities ought to be made

available to everybody.

商品平均主义 有些商品应当人人有份的思想。 Summary

1、 Public goods are characterized by nonrivalness and nonecludability in

consumption .Thus, each person consumes the same amount, but not necessarily the preferred amount, of the public good. 公共物品的特征是消费的非竞争性和非排他性。因此，每个人的消费的公共物品数量都相同，但不一定是其所偏好的数量。

2、 Market mechanisms are unlikely to provide nonrival goods efficiently, even if

they are excludable.

市场机制不可能有效地提供消费具有非竞争性的物品，即使它们具有消费的排他性。

3、 Even in case where public provision of a good is selected, a choice between

public and private production must be made. A key factor in determining whether public or private production will be more efficient is the market environment .Another important question is the extent(范围) to which complete contracts can be written with private sector service providers. 即使在某种物品由公共提供的情况下，还是要在公共生产和私人生产之间作出选择。决定由公共生产还是私人生产更有效率，一个关键因素是市场环境。另一个重要问题是，与私人部门服务提供者签订的合同的完备程度。

Chapter 5

1、 To expand on the subject, note the following characteristics of externalities. 外部性特征

1) Externalities can be produced by consumers as well as firms。 企业和消费者都可能产生外部性。

2) Externalities are reciprocal in nature。 外部性具有相互性。

3) Externalities can be positive or negative. 外部性可能是正的或是负的。 4) Public goods can be views as a special kind of Externality.

公共物品可以被看做是一种特殊的外部性 2、 Private response .私人对策。

1) Bargaining and the Coase theorem 讨价还价与科斯定理 2) Mergers 合并

3) Social conventions. 社会习俗

3、 Coase theorem: Provided that transaction costs are negligible（可以忽略的） ,an

efficient solution to an externality problem is achieved as long as someone is assigned property rights, independent of who is assigned those rights.

科斯定理 如果交易成本可以忽略不计，那么不管是谁，只要有人得到了产权。外部性问题就可以得到有效解决。

4、 Pigouvian tax ：A tax levied（征税） on each unit if an externality-generator’s

output in an amount equal to the marginal damage at the efficient level of output. 庇古税 对外部性产生者的单位产量课征的税，其税额正好等于效率产量水平上的边际损害。 5、 Public responses to externalities: emissions fees and cap-and-trade programs. 外部性的公共对策：排污费和总量控制与交易制度。

6、 Cost effective: A policy that achieves a given amount of pollution reduction at

the lowest cost possible.

成本有效 以可能的最低成本实现某一既定污染减少量的措施，

7、 Cap-and-trade: A policy of granting permits to pollute, with the number of

permits set at the desired pollution level ,and allowing polluters to trade the permits.

总量控制与交易制度：发放污染许可证的政策，许可证的数量按预期污染水平来定，并允许污染者买卖许可证。 Summary

1、 An externality occurs when the activity of one person affects another person

outside the market mechanism .Externalities may generally be traced to the absence of enforceable（可行的） property rights.

当一个人的活动在市场机制之外影响另一个人时，就产生了外部性。一般来说，外部性之所以存在，是因为缺乏可行的产权。

2、 The Coase Theorem indicates that private parties may bargain toward the

efficient output if property rights are established .However, bargaining costs must be low and the source of the externality easily identified.

科斯定理表明，如果产权确立了，私人各方通过讨价还价可以达到效率产量，但是，讨价还价的成本必须很低，并且外部性的原因也很容易确认。

3、 A pigouvian tax is a tax levied on pollution in an amount equal to the marginal

social damage at the efficient level .Such a tax gives the producer a private incentive（动机） to pollute the efficient amount. 庇古税是一种对污染课征的税收，税额等于效率产量是的边际社会损害。这种税使生产者产生私人动机，使污染量不超过有效数量。

4、 A subsidy（补贴） for pollution not produced can induce（导致） producers to

pollute at the efficient level. However, subsidies can lead to too much production, are administratively difficult, and are regarded by some as ethically（理论上） unappealing（无吸引力的）.

对不产生污染的生产进行补贴，会促使生产者的污染不超过效率水平，但是，补贴可导致生

产过多，在管理上很困难，并且有人认为它不符合道德规范。

5、 An emissions fee (a tax levied on each unit of pollution.) achieves a given

amount of pollution reduction at the lowest feasible（可行的）.

排污费（对每单位征收的一种税）能以可行的最低成本实现对某一既定数量的污染减少。 6、 A cap-and –trade system grants permits to pollute, but allows the permits to be

traded .It also achieves a given amount of pollution reduction at the lowest feasible cost.

总量控制与交易制度发放污染许可证并允许许可证买卖。这也能以可行的最低成本实现某一数量的污染减少。

Chapter 7

1、 crowd out :When public provision of a good (in this case ,education) substitutes

（替代品） for private provision of the good .In the presence of crowd out, when the government increase public education ,the net change in the amount of education is less than the amount provided by the government .

挤出效应（排挤） 一种物品（此时为教育）的公共提供渠道了该物品的私人提供，在有排挤的情况下，政府增加公共教育时，教育量的净变化小于政府提供的教育量。

2、 Charter schools :Public schools that operate under special state government

charters. Within limits established by their charters, these schools can experiment with a variety of approaches to education and have some independence in making spending and hiring decisions.

特许学校 在州政府特许情况下开办的公立学校。在特许的权限范围内，这些学校可以各种方法进行实验教学，且在开支和雇佣决策方面有一定的独立性。

3、 School voucher: A voucher given to a family to help the family pay for tuition at

any qualified school .The school redeems the voucher for cash.

学校教育券 ：为帮助家庭支付上任何一所合格学校的学费而给予家庭的一种教育券。学校可把教育券兑换成现金。

4、 School accountability: A system of monitoring（检验） the performance of

schools though standardized tests and either issuing “repot cards ”on the schools’ test performance or linking financial incentives to the test outcomes. 学校绩效责任制 ：通过标准化考试，或发布学校考试成绩的“成绩单”，或把考试结果与经济激励联系起来的一种监管学校业绩的制度。

Summary

1、 Equity concerns are often used to rationalize government subsidies for

education. In the spirit of commodity egalitarianism（平均主义）, some suggest that education should be provided to everyone, regardless of their preferences. 公平常常用来说明政府补贴教育的合理性。按照商品平均主义观念，有人建议，教育应当提供给每一个人，不管他们的偏好如何。

2、 A recent reform effort is school accountability（有责任）, which is a system of

monitoring the performance of schools through standardized tests. The government then either issues ”report cards” on performance or links financial incentives to the test outcomes. 最近的一项改革措施是学校绩效责任制，是通过标准化考试监管学校业绩的一种制度。政府

或发布学校业绩的“成绩单”，或把考试结果与经济激励联系起来

Chapter 9

1、 Social insurance programs: Government programs that provide insurance to

protect against adverse events.

社会保险计划 为防范不利事件而提供保险的政府计划。

2、 Insurance premium: Money paid to an insurance company in exchange for a

guarantee of compensation（补偿金） given a specified（指定） adverse event. 保险费 支付给保险公司的钱，在特定的不利事件发生时保险公司保证给予补偿。

3、 Expected value: The average value over all possible uncertain outcomes,

with each outcome weighted by its probability of occurring（事件）. 期望值 所以可能的不确定结果的平均值；每种结果都要用其发生的概率来加权。

4、 Risk aversion: A preference for paying more than the actuarially fair

premium（额外的奖金） in order to guarantee compensation if an adverse event occurs.

风险厌恶 为确保不利事件发生时获得补偿而愿意支付高于精算公平保费的一种偏好。 5、 Risk premium: The amount above the actuarially fair premium that a

risk-averse person is willing to pay to guarantee compensation if an adverse event occurs.

风险溢价 风险厌恶者为确保不利事件发生时获得补偿而愿意支付的高出精算公平保费的数额。

6、 *asymmetric information: A situation in which one party engaged in an

economic transaction（交易） has better information about the good or service traded than the other party.

不对称信息 从事经济交易中的一方对所交易商品或服务的情况比另一方知道得更多的情形。

7、 Adverse selection: The phenomenon under which the uninformed side of a

deal gets exactly the wrong people trading with it (that is, it gets an adverse selection of the informed parties.)

逆向选择 缺乏信息的一方与拥有信息的一方进行交易，拥有信息的一方倾向于选择对自己有利的行为的现象。

8、 Community rating: The practice of charging uniform（统一的） insurance

premiums for people in different risk categories（分类） within a community, thus resulting in low-risk people subsidizing（高于） high-risk people. 团体费率法 向一个团体中不同风险类别的人收取统一保费的做法，因此导致低风险人补贴高于高风险的人。

9、 Moral hazard: when obtaining insurance against an adverse outcome leads

to changes in behavior that increase the likelihood of the outcome.

道德风险 当获得防范不利结果的保险时，导致该结果出现的可能性提高的行为出现的情况。 10、deadweight loss: The waste that exists when trades occur in which marginal（边缘的） cost exceeds（超过） marginal cost do not take place.

无谓损失 在边际成本大于边际收益情况下发生交易或在边际收益大于边际成本情况下

不发生交易时存在的浪费。

11、third-party payment: payment for services by someone other than the consumer.

第三方支付 消费者之外的人对服务的支付。

12、Reason of high health care costs. 高额保健成本原因。 1）The graying of America . 美国的老龄化 2）Income growth 收入增长。

3）Improvement in quality. 质量的改进。 Summary

1、 For a risk-averse person, an insurance plan that charges an actuarially fair premium increase expected utility because it allows risk smoothing. 对于风险厌恶者来说，收取精算公平的保费的保险计划将提高预期效用，因为它使风险平滑化。

2、 Adverse selection arise when those being insured know more about their risk than the insurance company. This prevents the insurance company from charging premiums that are in line with each individual’s expected losses. If the insurance company instead charges an average premium across all customers, the low-risk people will tend to drop out of the plan, leaving the insurer to lose money.

当投保人对其风险的了解比保险公司更清楚时，就会出现逆向选择。这使得保险公司不能按每个人的预期损失收取保费。如果保险公司在所有客户之间收取平均保费，那么，低风险的人就会退出计划，保险公司就会亏本。

Chapter 10

1、 The advantage of employer-provided health insurance. 雇主提供健康保险的优点

1) Increase the risk pool . 提高风险共担能力 2) Reduce adverse selection . 减少逆向选择 3) Lower administrative costs. 降低管理成本

2、 Job lock: The tendency for workers to remain in their job in order to keep

their employer-provided health insurance coverage.

工作锁定： 工人为了继续享有其雇主提供的健康保险而留下来工作的倾向。

3、 Cost-based reimbursement or fee-for-service: A system under which health

care providers receive payment for all services required.

按费用补偿（报销）制度或一次一付医疗费制度：保健提供者获得全部所需服务付款的制度。

4、 Managed care: Any of a variety of health care arrangements in which prices

are kept down by supply-side control of services offered and prices charged.

管理保健：通过供给方控制所提供的服务和收取的价格来压低价格的各种保健制度。 5、 Capitation-based reimbursement: A system in which health care providers

receive annual payments for each patient in their care, regardless of services actually used by that patient.

按人头补偿（报销）制：保健提供者每年按每个病人得到费用支付，而不管该病人实际

接受了多少保健服务的制度。

6、 Medicare: Federally funded government program that providers health

insurance to people aged 65 and over and to the disabled.

医疗保险：联邦政府出资、向65岁以上的老人或残疾人提供健康保险的政府计划。 7、 Hospital insurance (HI): Part A component of Medical that covers inpatient

medical care and is funded through a payroll tax.

医院保险：承担住院病人医疗保健费用、资金来源于工薪税的医疗保险的A部分

8、 Medicaid: Federal- and state- financed health insurance program for the

poor.

医疗补助：联邦政府和州政府出资的针对穷人的健康保险计划。

9、 Catastrophic insurance policy: An insurance policy that has a high deductible

（可扣除的） and generous coverage for high medical costs. 灾难保单:具有高扣除额并对高额医疗成本给予慷慨保险的一种保单。 10、 Health care reform. 保健改革 1）*Individual mandates. 个人托管

2) Health savings accounts. 健康储蓄账户 3) Single payer. 单一支付人 Summary

1、 The advantage of employer-provided health insurance rather than

individual coverage is that it may increase the risk pool, reduce adverse selection, and lower administrative costs.

雇主提供健康保险而非个人保险的一个优点是，它可以提高风险共担程度，减少逆向选择，降低管理成本。

2、 Employer-provided health insurance might inhibit（抑制） job mobility, a

phenomenon known as job lock.

雇主提供健康保险可能抑制工作的流动性，这种现象称为工作锁定。

3、 The Medicare program provides health insurance for people aged 65 and

older. The major components（组成部分） of the system are hospital insurance (HI)and supplementary medical insurance (SMI),which pays for physicians and associated medical care.

医疗保险计划为65岁以上的老年人提供健康保险。该制度的主要组成部分是医院保险（HI）和补充医疗保险（SMI），对医生和相关的医疗服务进行支付。

4、 Proposals to reform the health care system include individual mandates（托

管）, （which would require all people to purchase health insurance）, and single-payer system, under which all insurance would be provided by the government and financed by tax revenues.

保健制度的改革议案包括个人托管（要求所有人都要购买健康保险）、单一支付人制度（所有保险都由政府提供并由税收收入筹资）。

Chapter 11

1、 Why have social security? 为什么要有社会保障

1） consumption smoothing and the annuity market. 消费平滑化与年金市场 2） Adverse selection and the annuity market. 逆向选择与年金市场

3） Other :lack of foresight and paternalism; 缺乏远见与家长主义moral hazard ;

道德风险 economize on decision-making and administrative costs; 节省决策和管理成本income redistribution;收入再分配 improve the economic status of the aged.改善老年人的经济状况

2、 Consumption smoothing: Practice of reducing consumption in

high-earning years in order to increase consumption in low-earning years.

消费平滑化：减少高收入时期的消费以增加低收入时期的消费的做法。

3、 Fully funded: A pension system in which an individual’s benefits are paid

out of deposits（存款） that have been made during his or her working life, plus accumulated（累积的） interest.

完全积累制：一种养老金制度。在这种制度下，个人的养老金要从存款里出，这些存款是人们在工作年限内积攒起来的并加上累计的利息。

4、 Pay-as-you-go (unfunded): A pension system in which benefits paid to

current retirees come from payments made by current workers. 现收先付制（非积累制）：一种社会保障制度。在该制度下，支付给现在退休者的退休金，来自现在工作人的缴款。

5、 Supplemental security income （SSI）: A welfare program that provides

a minimum income guarantee for the aged and disabled.

补充性保障收入：为老年人和伤残人提供最低收入保障的一种福利计划。

6、 Average indexed monthly earnings (AIME): The top 35 years of wages in

covered employment, indexed（按?编索引） each year for average wage growth. The AIME is used in the computation（计算） of an individual’s Social Security benefit.

月均指数化收入：就业期间最高35年工资每年按平均工资增长率指数化；用来计算一个人的社会保障金。

7、 Primary insurance amount: The basic Social Security benefit payable to a

worker who retires at age 65 or becomes disabled. 基本保障额：支付给65岁退休者或者伤残者的基本社会保障金。

8、 Effects of social security on economic behavior.社会保障对经济行为的影响 1) saving behavior 储蓄行为

2) wealth substitution effect (财富替代效应) 3) retirement decisions (退休决策)

9、 social security reform 社会保障改革

1) Maintain the current system 推行现行制度 2) Raise the payroll tax 提高工薪税

3) Raise the maximum taxable earnings level提高最大应税收入水平 4) Raise the retirement age提高退休年龄

5) Reducing the cost-of-living adjustment降低生活费用调整 6) Change the benefit formula改变退休金公式 7) Comparing the options.各种方案的比较

8) Privatize the system 社会保障制度的私有化 9) Effect on solvency 对偿付能力的影响 10) Effect on saving 对储蓄的影响 11) Risk 风险

certain expenses incurred（招致） in earning that income.

调整后毛所得 全部应税所得减去挣取所得过程中所发生的某些费用后的总所得。 2、 Taxable income: The amount of income subject to tax. 应税所得 应纳税的所得额。

3、 Exemption: When calculating taxable income, an amount per family member

that can be subtracted from（减去） adjusted gross income.

免税额 在计算应税所得时，每个家庭成员可以从调整后毛所得中扣减的数额。

4、 Deductions：Certain expenses that may be subtracted from adjusted gross

income in the computation of taxable income.

扣除项 在计算应税所得时，可以从调整后毛所得中扣减的某些费用。

5、 Rate schedule: The tax liability associated with each level of taxable

income.

税率表 每一应税所得水平的应纳税额

6、 Capital gain (loss): An increase (decease) in the value of an assert（坚持）. 资本利得（损失） 一种资产价值的增加（减少）。

7、 Realized capital gain: A capital gain resulting from the sale of an assert. 已实现资本利得 出售一项资产所获得的资本所得。

8、 Imputed rent: The net monetary value（净货币价值） of the service a

homeowner receives from a dwelling（住处）. 估算租金 住房所有者从居住中获得服务的净货币价值。

9、 Lock-in effect: The disincentive（抑制因素） to change portfolios（证券投

资组合） that arise because an individual incurs（发生） a tax on realized capital gains（资本利得）.

锁定效应 因对已实现资本利得征税而发生的对改变资产组合的抑制作用。

10、 Individual Retirement Account (IRA): For qualified individuals, a savings

account in which the contributions are tax deductible（可扣除的税款） and the interest accrues tax free, provided the funds are held until retirement. On withdrawal（提款）, both contributions and accrued interest（应计利息） are subject to tax.

个人退休账户 对于符合条件的个人来说，存入储蓄账户的款项和增加的利息，在持有这些资金到退休时，前者是可扣除的，后者是免税的；而当提取这些资金时，它们都要纳税。

11、 Roth IRA: A tax-preferred savings vehicle. Contributions are not tax

deductible, but funds accumulate tax free.

罗思个人退休账户 一种得到税收优惠的储蓄工具。其缴款在纳税时并不能扣除，但在该账户中积累的资金是免税的。

12、 Itemized deduction: A specific type of expenditure that can be subtracted

from adjusted gross income in the computation of taxable income. 分项扣除 在计算应税所得时，可以从调整后毛所得中减除的特定类型支出。

13、 Standard deduction: Subtraction of a fixed amount from adjusted gross

income that does not require documentation.

标准扣除 从调整后毛所得中扣除一个固定的数额，无需有关材料证明。

14、 Tax credit: A subtraction from tax liability (as opposed to a subtraction

from taxable income).

税收抵免 从应纳税额中的扣除（与从应税所得中的扣除不同）。 15、 Alternative minimum tax （AMT）：The tax liability calculated by an

alternative set of rules designed to force individuals with high levels of preference income to incur at least some tax liability.

替代性最低税 按另一套税则计算出来的应纳税额，该税则旨在迫使拥有高额优惠所得的人至少缴纳一定的应纳税额。 Summary

1、A traditional benchmark measure of income is the Haig-Simons definition: Income during a given period is the net change in the individual’s power to consume.

传统的所得衡量是黑格-西蒙斯定义：一定时间内的所得时个人消费能力的净变化。

2、Implementation（实行） of the Haig-Simons criterion（标准） is confounded（困惑的） by several difficulties: (1) Income must be measured net of the expenses of earning it. (2) Unrealized capital gains and the imputed income from durable（耐用的） goods are not easily gauged（测量的）. (3) It is difficult to measure the value of in-kind receipts.

实行黑格尔-西蒙斯标准有几个困难：(1) 计算所得时必须减去获取所得时的花费。（2） 未实现资本利得和耐用品的估算所得不易测算。（3）实物收益的价值难以计算。

3、Deductions are either standard or itemized（逐条列记）. A standard deduction reduces taxable income by a fixed amount.

扣除分为标准扣除和分项扣除。标准扣除是从应税所得中减去一个固定数额。

4、The alternative minimum tax (AMT) was designed to make sure that high-income taxpayers who heavily utilize tax shelters（避税的合法手段） would pay at least some federal income tax. However, due to certain structural flaws（缺陷）, it will soon be the tax system confronting（面对） millions of middle-class Americans.

替代性最低税（AMT）旨在确保大量利用税收庇护的高收入纳税人至少要支付一些联邦所得税。可是，由于存在着某些制度上的漏洞，这种税很快就成了几百万美国中产阶级的税制。

5、Income tax systems are important as revenue raisers for the states. State income taxes have lower rates than the federal system and vary（改变） widely in their exact provisions（规定）.

所得税是各州政府的重要收入来源。州所得税的税率比联邦所得税的税率低，而且在具体法规上差异很大。

财政学要点整理 第二章 （小题目）

1、帕累托最优：如果存在一种资源配置的状态，任何调整都不能使其中至少一个人的状态变好，而其他人的状态至少不变坏，这种状态就是最好的。

2、帕累托改进：如果在一种状态下，比如A状态，存在某种调整，如调整到状态B，会使至少一个人的状态变得好一些，而其他人都至少不变坏，我们就称从A到B的调整是帕累托改进

3、福利经济学第一定理：在完全竞争的条件下，对任何初始资源配置，市场运行的结果必然导致有效率的结果。

2、投票悖论：在投票过程中，由于投票人的偏好结构问题导致投票结果不稳定，不同的投票顺序会产生不同的投票结果。

4、在当所有选民都表现出单峰偏好时，多数票原则下投票结果一定是稳定而又一致的。 但当存在多峰偏好时，公共决策结果就有可能出现投票悖论，这种情况下，决策者可以通过人为操控投票顺序实现自己偏好的投票结果。

第四章 公共产品 （计算题+问答证明题）

1、公共产品：是一种共同消费的商品，多一个人来消费不会导致其他人的消费数量减少。

2、基本性质：

（1）非竞争性：该商品一旦提供，多一个人来消费不会增加额外的资源成本。

（2）非排他性：在技术上无法将某个人排除在该商品的受益范围之外，或即使能够但成本太高。（注意，是否具备排他性总是和能否收费联系在一起。）

3、（1）排他性公共产品（灯塔）（2）拥挤性公共产品（优美的风景、拥挤的道路）（3）俱乐部产品（排他性＋拥挤性）（4）公共产品（国防、治安、监狱、钓鱼）

4、私人产品的有效提供（P85）

需求曲线水平加总 PA=PB=MC MRSA=MRSB=MRT 5、公共产品的有效提供

需求曲线垂直加总 PA+PB=MC MRSA+MRSB=MRT （萨缪尔森条件） 具体例子见P95 第三题 第五章 外部性 （计算题）

1、外部性：当某一实体（一个人或企业）的活动以市场机制之外的某种方式直接（没有通过价格传递）影响他人的福利时，这种影响称为外部性（externality）。

2、外部性有正负之分 正外部性 负外部性

公共产品与外部性：公共产品本质上是一种极端的外部性 MSC：社会边际成本 MPC：私人边际成本 MD：外部边际损害 MB：边际收益 MSC=MPC+MD 社会净收益：S?dgh

eg：MB?300?Q MPC?20?Q MD?40?2Q 无政府干预：MB?MPC?300?Q?20?Q?Q1?140 社会有效率：MB?MSC?MPC?MD ?300?Q??20?Q???40?2Q??Q*?60 庇古税：t=MD(60) =160 P110 第四题

3、庇古税（Pigouvian tax）就是对污染者每单位产量征税，其税额正好等于污染者在效率产量水平上造成的边际损害（边际外部成本）。

4、科斯定理：在一个零交易费用的世界里，只要初始权利是明确界定的，那么无论初始权利如何界定，各方之间的谈判最终会形成一个帕累托有效的配置。

5、外部性的私人对策：（1）讨价还价（谈判） （2）合并（3）社会习俗

公共对策：（1）庇古税 （2）创造市场 （3）规制

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