英语国家概况 Chapter 12

Chapter 12 Ireland Today

I. Political Structure 政治体制

Ireland is a parliamentary republic and a unitary统一的 state under the 1937 Constitution. The Constitution is theoretically 理论上applicable 适用于to the whole of Ireland. Citizens of Northern Ireland are also considered citizens and can run for office 竞选in the South. The Republic of Ireland consists of 26 of the 32 counties of Ireland.

根据1937年的宪法，爱尔兰是议会制共和国是中央集权国家。理论上讲，此宪法适用于整个爱尔兰岛，北爱尔兰公民也被视为共和国公民，能够竞选南方的职位。爱尔兰共和国由爱尔兰岛的32个郡中的26个郡组成。

1. Executive power 行政权

The head of state is the president, elected by direct suffrage 直接投票for a term of seven years. 任期七年He sommons or dissolves the Oireachtas议会 (Parliament); signs and promulgates 颁布laws; appoints judges, the prime minister and other members of the cabinet; 内阁 and heads the defence forces. 武装部队 In addition, he has the right to refer提交 certain bills to the Supreme Court for a decision on their constitutionality符合宪法 and refer certain bills to the people by referendum. 全民公决The president is advised and assisted in his duties by the Council of State. 国家委员会

国家元首是总统，通过直接投票选举产生，任期七年。他召集或解散议会；签署和颁布法律；任命法官、首相和其他内阁成员；统率武装部队。此外，他有权提交一些议案给最高法院裁决是否符合宪法，也有权提交一些议案给人民进行全民公决。国家委员会给总统提供建议，并帮助总统履行职责。

Article条款 13 of the Constitution provides that the president shall appoint the prime minister (taoiseach总理) on the nomination提名 of the House of Representatives众议院 (Dail) and that he shall appoint the other members of the government on the nomination of the prime minister with the previous approval of the Dail. Up to the legal limit of the life of the Oireachtas, the prime minister holds office either until he chooses to resign 辞职or until he loses the support of the majority in the Dail. The Dail' s constitutional job of appointing the prime minister is a purely纯粹的 formal one. Every new Dail nominates the leader of the majority party or group to be prime minister. Then it usually adjourns休会 while the leader calls upon 要求the president to be formally appointed the taoiseach. He then returns to the Dail to put forward the names of his government, who are approved en bloc, then appointed by the president and assigned their departments by the prime minister. 宪法第13项条款规定，总统应在众议院提名下任命首相；其他政府成员由众议院事先批准，首相提名任命。在议会的合法届期内，

首相一直担任其职，直到他自己辞职或是失去众议院的多数支持。完法赋予众议院任命首相的工作相当正式。每届新众议院提名多数党或多数团体领袖为首相。当要求总统正式任命多数党领袖为首相时，众议院通常要休会。然后多数党领袖再到众议院提出其他政府成员名单，这些名单一起被批准后由总统任命，并由首相分配他们所负责的部门。

The government's responsibility to the Dail is collective集体的, and it is required to meet and act as a collective authority. Collective responsibility requires the government to present a united front统一战线 to the public and to the Dail. This feature特点 of Irish parliamentary life is due to party solidarity 政党团结and loyalty. Historically, 从历史上看political loyalty政党忠诚 was and remains a notable public virtue公共美德, and a strong sense of allegiance 忠诚to\ persisted. 坚持至今 In politics as in religion, turncoats变节者 are despised.轻视 Members vote consistently 一致地as they are bidden吩咐 by their leaders. In addition to除之外 being collectively共同地 responsible, ministers 部长are also individually 单独地responsible for the performance执行 of their respective 各自地ministries.

政府向众议院集体负责，它应该作为一个集体权力部门聚集和行动。集体负责制要求政府对公众和众议院以统一战线的面目出现。爱尔兰议会活动的这一特点归功于政党团结和忠诚。从历史上看，政

党忠诚一直是著名的公共美德，对领袖强烈的忠诚一直坚持至今。像宗教信仰一样，政治上的变节者受人鄙视。因其领袖的要求，政党成员总是全体投票一致。除集体负责外，部长们也对其各自部门的工作个人负责。

Over the years, the office of the taoiseach总理 has grown in power and authority权威 in comparison with that of the president. As the head of government the taoiseach is answerable应负责的 only to the Dail. 众议院He is required only to keep the president \informed on matters of domestic and international policy\ In the past he was kept \informed\through regular visits from the prime minister. Since the 1970s, these visits have become far from完全不 regular经常地.

多年来，与总统职位相比，首相职位的权力在增加。作为政府首脑，首相只对众议院负责。他仅需要让总统对“国内和国际事务的方针有总体了解”。而在过去，他要通过与总统的经常会晤，使总统有“总体了解”。自从20世纪70 年代以来，这些会晤日益减少。

2. Legislative power 立法权

All the legislative powers are vested归属 in the national parliament. The national parliament (Oireachtas) has two Houses. They are the House of Representatives众议院 (Dail Eireann) and the Senate 参议院(Seanad). Under the Constitution, the Oireachtas has the sole power of making laws. The only exception 例外is with regard to 关于laws passed by the European Parliament that apply to适用于 Ireland. The Dail currently 目前has 166 members, called in Irish

teachtai dala (T. D. 's). The country is divided into 41 constituencies. 选区 In 1987 a total of 13 constituencies returned three members each, 13 returned four members and the remainder returned five members each. The Seanad 参议院has 60 members, 11 nominated directly by the taoiseach, 43 elected by five panels小组 of candidates候选小组-the Cultural and Educational Panel, the Labour Panel, the Industrial and Commercial Panel, the Agricultural Panel and the Administrative Panel-and the remaining six by the universities. TDs 众议院议员and Senators 参议院议员are elected for five-year terms. 所有立法权都赋予了国家议会。国家议会分为两院：众议院和参议院。根据宪法，只有议会拥有制定法律的权力，惟一的例外是由欧洲议会通过的有关适用于爱尔兰的法律。目前众议院有166个议员，称为爱尔兰共和国众议院议员。全国划分为41个选区。1987年，13个选区中每个选区有三个议席，另13个选区中每个选区有四个议席，其余选区中每个选区中有五个议席。参议院有60位议员，儿位由首相直接提名；43位由五个候选小组选举产生——文化和教育组，劳动组，工商业组，农业组和行政组；剩下的六位议员则由大学产生。

众议院议员和参议院议员的任期为五年。

The powers of the Seanad, 参议院as defined by the Constitution, are in general less than those of the Dail. The Seanad has complementary补充的 powers with the Dail in broad areas such as the removal 免除from office of a president or judge, 免除总统或法官的职务the declaration宣布 and termination of a state of emergency终止国家的紧急状态, the initiation of bills other than除了 money bills 财政议案and the annulment废除 of statutory instruments. 法令文件 The Seanad has prior优先的 or exclusive 他性的powers in other areas. A petition 请愿书to the president to decline 拒绝to sign a bill until the matter can be put before the people in a referendum全国公决 requires the assent of a majority of the members of the Seanad (but only one-third of the membership of the Dail). A private bill, which is designed to promote the particular interest of a person or locality地区, as distinct from a measure of public policy, must be introduced in the Seanad first. 宪法所规定的参议院的权力通常比众议院的权力要少。在免除总统或法官的职务，宣布和终止国家的紧急状态，开始实施除财政议案外的议案，以及废除法令文件等广泛事务上，参议院与众议院的权力互为补充。但在其他一些领域，参议院有优先权或排他性的权力。如果提交请愿书要求总统拒绝签署议案，而提交全国公决，则必须获得参议院的多数议员同意(但众议院只需三分之一同意)。个人议案区别于公共政策议案，其目的是促进个人或地区的特别利益，它必须首先在参议院提出

3. Irish laws and courts 爱尔兰法律和法院

Irish law is based on English common law as modified修改 by subsequent 随后的legislation and the 1937 Constitution. Statutes passed by the British Parliament before 1921 have the force of law法律效力 except those repealed废除 by the Irish Oireachtas. By law, judges are appointed by the president on the advice of the government and can be removed 免职from office only by resolution决议 of the Oireachtas. The high court has full original jurisdiction原始司法权 and power in all matters of law. It also can determine the validity合法性 of any law within the provisions of the Constitution. Normally the high court is presided over主持 by a judge sitting with a jury of 12. The Supreme Court is the court of final appeal. It consists of a chief justice 大法官and six other justices. It also can decide if the provisions of any bill passed by the Oireachtas violate违反 the Constitution on the matter being referred to the court by the president. In addition, it may declare existing legislation to be unconstitutional. 违反宪法

爱尔兰法律以英国的普通法为基础，随后的立法和1937年的宪法对之加以修改。除那些被爱尔兰议会废除的成文法之外，1921年之前英国议会通过的成文法有法律效力。根据法律，总统根据政府的

建议任命法官，而只有议会决议

才能对法官免职。高级法院在所有的法律事务上有充分的原始司法权。它也具有裁决宪法条款范畴内的任何法律的合法性。通常高级法院由一位法官主持，由12人组成陪审团。最高法院是最后的上诉庭。它由一个大法官和其他六个法官组成。它也能裁定总统提交给法院仲裁的、由议会通过的任何法案的条款是否违反宪法。此外，它可以宣布现有立法违反宪法。

II. Political Parties 政党

Ireland has a bipolar两极的 political party system with two major parties, Fianna Fail 共和党and Fine Gad. 统一党 They are both descended from Sinn Fein新芬党 (We Ourselves). Sinn Fein was the guerrilla游击队 movement that wrested谋求 independence from the British in 1921. It split 脱离in 1921 over the Anglo-Irish Treaty. The larger faction派系, Cumann na Gael, later Fine Gael统一党, accepted the treaty and dominion status 自治领地位within the British Commonwealth while the minority, Fianna Fail, led by Eamon De Valera, 埃蒙·德·凡勒拉 refused it and continued the struggle. From 1931 to 1948 and from 1951 to 1973 Fianna Fail dominated Irish politics, but it has alternated 交替with Fine Gael-led coalitions since 1973. The only other national party of some size is the Labour Party. These three parties together generally secure over 90% of the votes cast in any general

election. Historically, minor parties have never thrived 繁盛in Ireland. 爱尔兰是两极政党制，主要的两大党为共和党和统一党。两党都由新芬党发展而来。新芬党是在1921年谋求脱离英国而独立的游击队运动中产生的。因对英爱条约的分歧于1921年分裂。其中较大派系，即后来的统一党，接受英爱

条约和在英联邦内的自治领地位，而少数派共和党，则由埃蒙·德·凡勒拉领导，拒绝接受条约，并继续斗争。193l到1948年，以及1951年到1973年由共和党主宰爱尔兰政治，但从1973年起，它与统一党领导的联盟交替执政。其他

政党，具有一定规模的、惟一全国性的是工党。这三大政党通常能在任何大选中获得90％以上的选票。从历史上看，小党从未在爱尔兰繁盛过。

(1) Fianna Fail共和党(Soldiers of Destiny命运) (替天行道士兵党) was originally a radical 激进的republican group. Now it is the largest political party in Ireland, with a record of over 40% electoral support in every election. Its membership is estimated at between 72,000 and 90,000. Fianna Fall's policies are a mixture of old and new. Neutrality中立, promotion of Gaelic and strong support for a united Ireland are the historic planks 施政纲领(principles) in the party platform. 政党舞台 Many of its economic policies are more recent新: support for the EC, a high level of public expenditure to reduce unemployment, and full

employment. Fianna Fail continues to demand that the British be withdrawn from Northern Ireland but it opposes 反对the use of violence to achieve this goal. Fianna Fail has a broad popular 广泛的群众基础base among all classes and in all regions. In the early days its support came mainly from the rural areas and from small farmers, but today it also attracts the business classes. On February 6, 1992, Albert Reynolds 阿尔伯特·雷诺兹was elected leader of the party.

(1)共和党(替天行道士兵党)原先是激进的共和组织。现在它是爱尔兰的最大政党，在每次选举中都有40％以上的支持率。其党员估计在72，000到90，000人之间。共和党的政策是新旧政策的混合。在政党舞台上，中立、提倡盖尔语和强烈支持爱尔兰统一是其历史的施政纲领。“其许多经济政策则更新些：支持欧共体，提高公共费用开支，减少失业。共和党继续要求英国人撤出北爱尔兰，但反对使用暴力达到这一目标。共和党在所有阶级和所有地区都有广泛的群众基础。在早期，其支持者主要来自农村地区和小农场主，但今天它也吸引了商界的支持。1992年2月6日，阿尔伯特·雷诺兹当选为政党领袖。

(2) Fine Gael (Irish Tribe) )统一党(自我党)was the larger of the two factions when Sinn Fein 新芬党was split in 1921. The roles 角色have been reversed 转换since then. Just as Eamon De Valera 埃蒙·德·凡勒拉dominated Fianna Fail共和党, so Fine Gael was

dominated in the 1920s and 1930s by William T. Cosgrave, 威廉·T·科斯格雷 prime minister of the Irish Free State from 1922 to 1932. From its outset 开始Fine Gael 统一党was a conservative party favouring balanced budgets and lower taxation. As it supported free enterprise 自由企业it attracted the backing支持 of businessmen. But its support of British ties 关系proved to be a liability, 不利的 especially after the rise of Eamon De Valera to power. From 1932 it lost six general elections. However, in 1948 Fine Gael under John A. Costello约翰·A．科斯特洛 formed the first coalition 联合government after it defeated De Valera 德·凡勒拉in the general election. With the support of the smaller parties, Fine Gael's share 得票at the national polls全国选举 rose to上升至 32% in 1954. During the 1960s Fine Gael changed its image from a conservative party to a socially progressive party社会进步党, advocating a program of expanded social services. Like Fianna Fail共和党, it has support in every part of the country, in both urban and rural area, yet it remains somewhat more class-based. It is stronger among the farmers and the middle class. The party is less in favour of promoting 提倡Gaelic盖尔语 than Fianna Fail 共和党is. Its membership is estimated at between 35,000 and 40,000.

(2)统一党(自我党)在1921年新芬党分裂时占较大部分。但从那以后角色转换了。正如埃蒙·德·凡勒拉领导共和党一样，在20世纪20年代和30年代，统一党由威廉·T·科斯格雷夫领导，他在

1922年到1932年间任爱尔兰自由邦首相。从一开始统一党就是个保守政党。赞成平衡预算和较低税收。因其支持自由企业，吸引了商人的支持。但它支持与英国的关系，而结果证明是不利的，特别是在埃蒙·德·凡勒拉上台以后。从1932年起，它六次在大选中失败。但在1948年的大选中，约翰·A．科斯特洛领导的统一党击败了德·凡勒拉，组成第一个联合政府。在小党的支持下，统一党在1954年的全国选举中的得票上升至32％。在20世纪60年代统一党改变其保守党的形象，转向社会进步党，提倡扩大社会服务事业。与共和党一样，统一党遍布全国，在城市和农村地区都有支持者，而且仍有些以阶级为基础，它在农民和中产阶级中更受欢迎。这个政党不像共和党那样提倡盖尔语。估计该党党员在35，000到4 0000人之间。

(3) The Irish Labour Party is the oldest of all the parties in Ireland. It was founded in May 1912 by James Larkin詹姆斯·拉金 and James Conholly, 詹姆斯·康诺利 who was executed处死 for his part 参与in the 1916 Easter Uprising复活节起义. It received 10 % of the vote in the first two general elections after independence, but after the rise of Fianna Fail 共和党to power, the party went into eclipse瓦解. Since 1948 its fortunes运气 have been tied to those of its frequent coalition partner, Fine Gael. Under the leadership of Brendan Corish, 布兰登·科利斯 the party has tried to transform itself from being a trade union organization to a social democratic 民主party of the West European type.

\公有制of essential industries主要工业 and services, extensive 广泛的social benefits, 社会福利full employment, opposition to the EEC and moderation 温和on the question of Northern Ireland,

(3)爱尔兰工党是爱尔兰最古老的政党。1912年5月由詹姆斯·拉金和詹姆斯·康诺利成立，后者因其参与1916年的复活节起义而被处死。独立后的前两次大选中有10％的选票，但在共和党上台后，工党近乎瓦解。从1948年起，它的运气与它经常性的联合伙伴统一党的运气联系在一起。在布兰登·科利斯的领导下，工党试图把自己从一个工会组织转向西欧类型的社会民主党。爱尔兰工党的政策包括高税收、主要工业和服务业的公有制、广泛的社会福利、充分就业、反对加入欧共体，以及在北爱尔兰问题上的温和观点。

(4) The Progressive Democrats 进步民主党were founded in 1985 by Desmond O' Malley. 德斯蒙·奥玛利 It is the largest of the minor parties少数党 after the 1987 elections. It gained 14 seats as compared to only 12 for Irish Labour. The Progressive Democrats describe themselves as centreright中右派. Other minor parties include the Workers' Party, 工人党the Democratic Socialists 民主社会主义党and the Communist Party of Ireland. 爱尔兰共产党

(4)进步民主党由德斯蒙·奥玛利建于1985年。它是1987年大选后最大的少数党。与爱尔兰工党仅得12席相比，它得到14个席位。

进步民主党把自己描述为中右派。其他少数党有工人党、民主社会主义党和爱尔兰共产党。

III. The Economy 经济

Ireland is a free-market economy 自由市场经济with a dominant private sector. 私有经济占主导地位 It is one of the least developed countries 最不发达国家in the EC. Its small economy小型经济 is marked by slow growth, high unemployment and imbalances不平衡 in public finance公共财政. The per capita GNP is US $ 9,975 in 1991. This is only half that of the United Kingdom and is higher than only Spain, Portugal葡萄牙 and Greece among OECD countries经济合作与发展组织国家. The 1991 GNP growth rate of 2% was due largely to the vigorous 活力performance of foreign-based high-tech industries. Even though employment is growing, unemployment remains at a high 19.2% (1991). Ireland has a high budget deficit, 预算财政赤字 estimated at 8% of the GNP.

爱尔兰是以私有经济占主导地位的自由市场经济。它是欧共体中最不发达国家之一。其小型经济的特点是发展缓慢、失业率高和公共财政的不平衡。1991年的人均国民生产总值为9，975美元。这仅是联合王国的一半，在经济合作与发展组织国家中仅高于西班牙、葡萄牙和希腊。1991年的国民生产总值增长率为2％，主要归功于以外资为基础的高新技术工业充满活力。尽管就业在增加，但失业率仍高

达19．2％(1991年)。爱尔兰的预算财政赤字很高，估计占国民生产总值的8％。

1. Agriculture 农业

Although Ireland cannot be considered to be primarily首先 an agricultural country in the same sense that it was over the past centuries, agriculture still is a major sector. It generates 生成an estimated 11% of the GNP, employs 17% of the labour force and produces 25% of total exports.

从过去几个世纪的同一意义上看，虽然爱尔兰不能首先被看作是农业国，但农业仍然是主要产业。它大约占国民生产总值的11％，雇佣了全国17％的劳动力，占出口总产品的25％。

As a whole, Irish farming is a mixed economy. Most of the farmers have a small piece of arable land and a considerable相当大的 area of pasture and meadow. 牧场 They depend chiefly for their living on occasional cash crops 经济作物and some from of livestock. 家畜 The principal crops include barley, 大麦wheat, sugar beets 甜菜and potatoes. But the farmer derives a sizable相当大的 part of his income from livestock. Some 84 % of the value of gross output总产值 in agriculture is accounted for by livestock and livestock products, almost all of which derives from cattle and milk. Pigs, sheep and lambs account

for most of the remainder. Dairying 奶制品工业is specialized in certain areas, notably显著地 the Munster lowlands芒斯特低地 and the area stretching inland from Donegal Bay. 多内加尔湾

总体上说，爱尔兰农业是混合经济。大多数农民有一小块耕地和大面积的牧场和草地。他们主要收入依靠偶尔种植经济作物和饲养某种家畜为主。主要作物包括大麦、小麦、甜菜和土豆。农民的一大部分收入来自家畜，农业总产值的84％来自家畜和家畜产品，基本上都是牛和牛奶。猪、羊和羊肉在剩余的家畜和家畜产品中占大多数。奶制品工业专门集中于某些地区，著名的有芒斯特低地和从多内加尔湾延伸至内地的地区。

Except for the northern farms, Irish agriculture is not intensive. 集约型 Because of good pastures and heavy rainfalls the cattle is left in the fields for as long as 10 months a year. There are few market gardens 果蔬园in a land well suited for bountiful 大量的crops. Tomatoes, apples and soft fruits 软水果are grown in very small quantities. Thus the greater part of Ireland is farmed far below远低于 its capacity. 可以开发的程度

除北部农场外，爱尔兰农业不是集约型的，因其良好的牧场和丰富的雨量，牛群一年长达10个月都放养在地里。虽然很适于种植大量的庄稼，但是果蔬园却很少。西红柿、苹果和软水果种植量极小。因此爱尔兰的较大部分的农耕远

低于它可以开发的程度。

The most significant recent development in Irish agriculture has been membership in the European Community. EC membership enabled Irish farmers to participate in the Community's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and export 出口their products to a wider range of markets.

爱尔兰农业近期发展中最重要的是其成为欧共体成员。欧共体成员身份使爱尔兰农民能参加共同体的公共农业政策并把他们的产品出口剖更广范围的市场。

2. Manufacturing 制造业

Since the 1960s, manufacturing has become the mainstay支柱 of the Irish economy. The small industrial units at the time of independence in 1922 had been concentrated in Dublin and the other main ports. The initial最初的 expansion was achieved under a policy of strong protectionism 保护主义and self-sufficiency自给自足, but major changes in industrial policy have occurred since about 1960. The government made a concerted effort 一致努力to spread the benefits of industrialization to all parts of the country. A proper investment climate投资环境 was created to encourage export-oriented companies to be established in Ireland. Preferential treatment优惠待遇 was given to

firms willing自愿 to be located in less-developed regions, away from the major urban centres. As a result of these policies, industry is now spread widely around the country. However, the density is still higher in the eastern half of the nation. 45 % of national industrial employment is concentrated in three main areas: County Dublin, the Cork city科克市 and harbour 港口区

area and the Limerick-Shannon-Ennis triangle. 利默里克——香农——埃尼期三角区Foreign investment has also been welcomed in industry. As a result, the industrial share of the GNP rose from 25.7% in 1949 to 33% in 1981. In contrast, 与此相反the agricultural share decreased during the same period, from 29.5% to 10%

自从20世纪60年代以来，制造业一直是爱尔兰经济的支柱。1922年独立时，小型工业单位集中在都柏林和其他主要港口。最初的发展是在强烈的保护主义和自给自足政策下取得的，但自从约1960年以来工业政策发生了重大变化。政府一致努力把工业化的好处传播至全国所有地方，为鼓励那些在爱尔兰成立、面向出口的公司，创造了合适的投资环境。给予自愿把公司建在远离大城市中心的不发达地区的公司优惠待遇。这些政策的结果是工业现已遍布全国。但是在东半部的分布仍很稠密。45％的全国工业就业集中在三大主要地区：都柏林郡，科克市和港口区以及利默里克——香农——埃尼期三角区。工业也欢迎外国投资。因而，国民生产总值中的工业份额从1949年的25．7％上升至1981年的33％。与此相反，同期的农业份额却从

29．5％降至10％。

Of industrial employment, 66 % are employed in manufacturing. Within manufacturing, employment tripled 三倍in the metals and engineering sector, 工程业 from 21,100 in 1958 to 61,000 in 1982. A similar rate of increase was reported by the chemicals sector. At the same time, the share of labour-intensive劳动密集型 industries, such as footwear, 鞋袜业 clothing and textiles, 纺织业 declined from 19.2% in 1958 to 8.6% in 1980. Industrial output has grown by an average of 5% annually since tariff barriers 关税壁垒were eliminated取消 in 1977. The most dramatic 显著growth was experienced by hi-tech industries高新技术工业, which have grown by 15% annually.

在工业就业中，66％的工人雇佣于制造业。在制造业内，金属业和工程业的就业人数从1958年的22，110人增长至1982年的61，000；增长三倍。同时劳动密集型工业的份额，像鞋袜业、服装和纺织业，则从1958年的19．2％降到1980年的8．6％。自从1977年取消关税壁垒以来，工业产量每年平均增长5％。而高新技术工业的增长最显著，每年增长15％。

Successive 连续几届Irish governments have adopted a consistent一贯的 and positive approach 积极的方针toward attracting overseas investment海外投资. Over 300 foreign firms set up manufacturing bases

in Ireland from 1973 to 1983. The number of people employed by foreign-owned industries increased by over 19,000 during the same period, to 80,000. The new foreign firms now account for over 70 % of manufactured exports. 出口制成品

爱尔兰政府连续几届都采用一贯和积极的方针吸引海外投资。从1973年到1983年间，300多家外国公司在爱尔兰建立生产基地。同期外资工厂的雇佣人数从19，000多人增至80，000人。新的外资公司的产品占出口制成品的70％以上。

3. Mining 矿业

Ireland has been a major mineral producer since the 1960s. The most significant success is the discovery of zinc-lead deposits矿藏 at Navan纳凡 in County Meath. 米斯郡With the output from the Navan mine, Ireland is now the largest producer of lead and zinc concentrates in Europe. In addition to除…. 外metals, the country's mineral resources 矿产资源include the so-called所谓的 industrial minerals工业矿物 such as barite重晶石, limestones石灰石, phosphate磷酸盐 and gypsum. 石膏 Most of the copper 铜矿and silver mines have been shut down. 关闭 There are eight coalfield 煤区areas in Ireland but only three are being worked. Coal production peaked at 240,000 tons in 1957 but has since declined to 75,000 tons annually.

自20世纪60年代以来，爱尔兰一直是主要的矿产生产国。其

中最重要的是在米斯郡的纳凡发现了锌、铅矿藏。有了纳凡矿的产量，现在爱尔兰是欧洲最大的铅和锌生产国。除金属外，国家的矿产资源还包括所谓的工业矿物：如重晶石、磷酸盐和石膏等。大多数铜矿和银矿已关闭。爱尔兰有八个煤区，但只有三个在开发。煤的产量在1957年达到高峰，为240，000吨，但此后已减少到每年75，000吨。

4. Energy 能源

While Ireland lacks sizable 大规模oil deposits石油储藏, it has a valuable energy source in the peat泥煤, or turf泥煤, bogs 沼泽that cover extensive areas of the country. Turf is considered as a solid fuel 固体燃料in Ireland. Currently目前 it produces 866,000 tons of oil equivalent等价物. Most of the peat is used to generate electricity. 发电 虽然爱尔兰缺乏有大规模的石油储藏，但在它覆盖全国广阔地区的沼泽里有极有价值的能源——泥煤。泥煤被视为爱尔兰的固体燃料。目前它的产量相当于866，000吨标准石油。大多数泥煤用于发电。

Ireland's total primary energy requirements 基本能源需求量in 1983 amounted to总计为 8 billion metric tons公吨 亿吨of oil equivalent, of which 38 % was produced from indigenous 本地sources. Ireland is still heavily dependent on imported oil, although the share of imported oil was reduced from 71% in 1979 to 49% in 1983. Gas now

provides 20% of total primary requirements, coal 12.5 % , peat 16 % and electricity 2.5 %. grown by 15% annually.

1983年爱尔兰总的基本能源需求量为80亿吨标准石油，其中38％由本地能源生产。爱尔兰仍严重依赖进口石油，尽管进口油的份额已从1979年的71％减少到1983年的49％。现在，天然气提供总基本需求量的20％，煤12．5％，泥煤16％，电2．5％。

Successive Irish governments have adopted a consistent and positive approach toward attracting overseas investment. Over 300 foreign firms set up manufacturing bases in Ireland from 1973 to 1983. The number of people employed by foreign-owned industries increased by over 19,000 during the same period, to 80,000. The new foreign firms now account for over 70 % of manufactured exports.

爱尔兰的劳动力估计为130．2万人，其中妇女占29．7％。参与率为42．2％。在主要行业就业的人中，97％是全日工。

5. Labour 劳动力

The Irish labour force is estimated at l. 302 million, of whom women constitute 29.7 %. The participation rate is 42.2 %. Of those employed in the main occupations, 97 % are full-time workers.

爱尔兰的劳动力估计为130．2万人，其中妇女占29．7％。参与率为42．2％。’在主要行业就业的人中，97％是全日工。

Unemployment is a chronic 长期的problem in Ireland. It is seen by both the government and the trade unions工会 as the country's most serious economic problem. The unemployment rate rose from 17% in 1985 to 19.2% in 1991. Ireland has the highest unemployment rate in the EC. The young have been particularly hard hit打击, 在年轻人中尤其严重with those under 25 making up one-third of the unemployed. Unemployment is now lasting much longer than earlier. About 40% have been unemployed for over one year compared to 25 % in 1976. The reasons for this phenomenon are as follows:

失业是爱尔兰的一个长期问题。政府和工会都把失业视为国家最严重的经济问题。失业率从1985年的17％上升至1991年的19．2％。在欧共体中爱尔兰的失业率最高，在年轻人中尤其严重，25岁以下者占失业人口的三分之一。与1976年的25％相比，约有40％的人失业一年以上。这种现象产生的原因如下：

(1) Ireland has a relatively young population--one of the youngest in Europe.

(2) Agricultural employment is declining.

(3) Public sector employment is being reduced for budgetary预算 reasons.

(4) Most of the new hi-tech industries are not labour-intensive.

(1)爱尔兰人口相对年轻——欧洲最年轻的国家之一。 (2)农业就业在衰减。

(3)因预算原因公共部门的就业在减少。

(4)大多数高新技术产业不是劳动密集型产业。

Irish trade unionism has a close association with the labour movement in Great Britain. In the mid-1980s there were 82 trade unions in Ireland, of which 31 were headquartered in England. Although Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland are separate political entities, 政治实体unions, like churches, are organized on an all-lreland basis. 以全爱尔兰为基础 The Irish Congress of Trade Unions (ICTU), 爱尔兰工会大会 founded in 1959, is the principal coordinating body协调机构 for trade union activity in Ireland and, to a lesser degree, in Northern Ireland as well.

爱尔兰的工会运动与大不列颠的工人运动有密切联系。20世纪60年代中期爱尔兰有82个工会，其中31个工会总部在英格兰。尽管北爱尔兰和爱尔兰共和国是不相干的政治实体，但是如同教会一样，工会组织以全爱尔兰为基础。成立于1959年的爱尔兰工会大会是工会活动的主要协调机构，它也是小程度上北爱尔兰的协调机构。

Strikes have plagued折磨 Irish industry for years. Most strikes are unofficial, 非官方的but more time is lost in official strikes. In workdays

lost, 损失劳动日方面 Ireland is second only to Italy in the EC. The standard workday is eight hours and the standard workweek is 40 hours. However, the actual hours worked per week are the highest in the EC, at 46.6 hours. Workers enjoy a twoday weekend两天周末 but fewer leave days and holiday time than their counterparts相对应的人in other EC countries.

数年来爱尔兰工业深受罢工的折磨。大多数罢工是非官方的，但在官方罢工中失去的时间更多。在因罢工而损失劳动日方面，爱尔兰在欧共体中仅次于意大利。爱尔兰标准工作日是八小时，标准周工作时间是40小时。但是在欧共体国家中，爱尔兰工人实际的周工作时间最高达46．6小时。工人享受两天周末，但请假日和假期比欧共体国家的要少。

6. Foreign trade 对外贸易

Ireland is now an industrial exporter. Since the 1950s, exports have increased not only in value and volume数量 but also in sophistication 复杂性and diversification. 多样化 Traditional manufactures, 传统制造业 such as handicrafts, 手工艺品 processed foods and drink食品和饮料加工, clothing and fabrics 纺织have not lost their importance, but it is industrial products--chemicals and. medicines, electrical machinery, 电子机械 data processing equipment数据处理设备, scientific instruments, 科学仪器synthetic fibres合成纤维 and so

on--that account for the bulk 份额in terms of value of manufactured exports. Ireland now has a dual 双重export base. The United Kingdom has yielded让位 place to EC countries. In 1986, 72% of total exports went to EC countries. Ireland also has markets in the Middle East, North Africa, Australia, the United

States and Japan. In 1986, 8.7% went to the United States and 1.8% went to Japan. Ireland's exports represents占52% of the GNP, a high proportion 比例by international standards国际标准. Manufactured goods account for about two-thirds of total exports. The value of imports generally exceeds 超过that of exports. That's why Ireland has a chronic 长期negative balance of trade. 贸易逆差Continuing dependence on imported oil is one of the reasons for the high import bill.

现在的爱尔兰是工业出口国，自从20世纪50年代以来，出口商品不仅在价值和数量上有所增长，并且在复杂性和多样化上也有所增长。传统制造业的手工艺品、食品和饮料加工、服装和纺织品并没失去重要地位，但占出口制造品价值大量份额的却是工业产品——化学品和药品、电子机械、数据处理设备、科学仪器、合成纤维等等。爱尔兰现有双重出口基地。联合王国已让位于欧共体国家。1986年，总出口的72％出口到欧共体国家。在中东、北非、澳大利亚、美国和日本爱尔兰也有市场。1986年，8．7％出口到美国，1．8％出口到日本。爱尔兰的出口占国民生产总值的52％，根据国际标准这个比例很高，制造商品约占总出口商品的三分之二。进口商品额通常超

过出口商品额，这就是为什么爱尔兰长期贸易逆差，一直依靠进口石油是高进口额的原因之一。

IV. Education 教育

Until the 19th century education was mostly in the hands of the Church and state control was limited. Although a national system of primary education was set up in 1831 and a national system of secondary education in 1878, political troubles 政治动荡and state opposition to denominational schools国家对教派学校的反对 prevented阻碍 the development of an effective school organization. Only with the establishment of the Irish Free State did education become a national priority. 优先

直到19世纪教育大多掌握在教会手中，国家控制有限。尽管1931年建立了全国小学教育制度，1878年建立了全国中学教育制度，但政治动荡和国家对教派学校的反对阻碍了高效的学校组织的发展。直到爱尔兰自由邦成立以后，教育也成为国家优先考虑的大事。

Schooling is compulsory 义务between ages 6 and 15. The chief language of instruction教学语言 is English, but Gaelic occupies a place of honour 令人尊敬的地位in the curriculum 课程and is compulsory for all students in state-aided政府资助 schools. More than 95 % of primary children attend national schools, of which 20% are run by

Catholic orders. Secondary schools are by and large private and denominational. 宗教的 Ireland's oldest university is the University of Dublin, of which Trinity College 三一学院is a constituent分院. It was founded in 1591. The National University is the nation's second institution of higher learning. 高等教育学府

6岁到15岁之间是义务教育。英语是主要的教学语言，但在课程中盖尔语占有令人尊敬的地位，并且所有的政府资助的学校的学生必须学习盖尔语。95％以上的小学生上国立学校，其中20％的学校是天主教会开办的。中学大体上是私立和宗教学校。爱尔兰最古老的大学是都柏林大学，三一学院是其一分院，成立于1591年。国家大学是第二大高等教育学府。

V. Media and Culture 传媒和文化

Newspapers have been published in Ireland for over three centuries. The first newssheet 报纸was published in February 1659. Today the Irish Times《爱尔兰泰晤士报》 is the nation's most influential daily. It is regularly read by the professional 职业人士and managerial elite. 高级管理人员The Irish Independent is a best-selling daily. It has the largest circulation. 发行量 It is loosely宽松地 identified with 倾向于the Fine Gael Party 统一党and appeals to a Catholic, bourgeois资产阶级 and rural audience. The Irish Press is controlled by the De Valera family德·凡勒拉家族 and is regarded by the party faithful 忠诚的as the organ 喉舌of Fianna Fail. 共和党 报纸在爱尔兰已发行三个多世纪。第一份报纸在1659年2月发行。今天《爱尔兰泰晤士报》是全国最有影响的日报。它的读者通常是职业人士和高级管理人员。《爱尔兰独立报》是最畅销的日报，发行量最大。它倾向于统一党，吸

引的读者群是天主教徒、资产阶级和农村读者。《爱尔兰新闻报》由德·凡勒拉家族控制，被视为共和党忠诚的喉舌。

Some 250 magazines are published in Ireland. Almost one-fifth of them deal with涉及 religion. Political periodicals期刊 include the Magill, 《马其尔》a radical monthly, 激进 月刊and Hibernia, an anti-establishment反对现存体制 republican 共和党weekly. 周刊 All Irish newspapers are privately and domestically owned. Attempts for foreign control have been vigorously 强烈地opposed. In recent years there has been increasing concentration in ownership as a result of economic pressures经济压力, both from declining readership and loss of advertising support. Irish newspapers are forbidden to refer to the Irish Republican Army because the IRA is an illegal organization in Ireland. 爱尔兰出版大约250份杂志。其中约五分之一涉及宗教问题。政治期刊包括激进月刊《马其尔》以及反对现存体制的共和党周刊《爱尔兰》。所有的爱尔兰报纸都是由国内私人所有。外国控制的企图一直遭到强烈反对。最近几年，由于读者减少和失去广告支持造成的经

济压力，报纸所有权越来越集中。爱尔兰报纸禁止提及爱尔兰共和军，因为爱尔兰共和军在爱尔兰是非法组织。

Ireland has no national news agency. 爱尔兰没有国家通讯社。

Irish broadcasting 广播began in 1926 in a small studio播音室 called Dublin Broadcasting Station, 都柏林广播站with the call signal 呼叫信号2RN. In 1960 it was converted into Radio Telefis Eireann 爱尔兰广播电台(RTE). RTE radio broadcasts its programs on two wavelengths, 波长/频道RTE1 and RTE2. The television service began transmission转播 in 1961. It is broadcast on two channels, RTE1 and RTE2.

1926年在称为都柏林广播站的小播音室里开始爱尔兰广播，呼叫信号是2RN。1960年广播站变为爱尔兰广播电台(RTE)。在RTEl和RTE 2两个频道广播节目。1961年开始电视转播。在RTEl和RTE2两个频道播放。

As mentioned in Chapter 11, Ireland has two official languages: Irish and English. Irish or Irish Gaelic is a Celtic language. Its history has three periods: Old Irish (from about the 7th century to about the 9th century) ; Middle Irish (from about the 9th century to the 13th century); Modern Irish (13th century to the present). There are various dialects 方

言of modern Irish. The language has been taught in all government schools of the country since 1922.

如同第11章所说，爱尔兰有两种官方语言：爱尔兰语和英语。爱尔兰语或爱尔兰盖尔语是凯尔特语言。其历史有三个阶段：古爱尔兰语(从约7世纪到约9世纪时期)；中世纪爱尔兰语(从约9世纪到13世纪)；现代爱尔兰语(从13世纪到现在)。现代爱尔兰语有各种各样的方言。从1922年起全国所有的政府学校都教授这门语言。

Old Irish works 著作exist only in Middle Irish copies. 中世纪爱尔兰著作 The most important works of the Middle Irish period are prose sagas传奇 and poem-cycles. 组诗One of the most well-known writers of that period is the poet Ossian, 奥西恩who wrote about mythical 神话heroes英雄 such as Cuchulain 库丘林and Finn MacCumhaill. 芬麦克库海Irish literature declined during and after the time of Cromwell. The Gaelic League, founded in 1893, has led the modern revival复兴 of the Irish language, and Irish literature.

古爱尔兰语著作仅存于中世纪爱尔兰著作中。爱尔兰中世纪时期最重要的著作是散文传奇和组诗。当时最著名的作家之一是诗人奥西恩，他写了库丘林和芬麦克库海这样的神话英雄。爱尔兰文学衰落于克伦威尔时期及之后。盖尔语联盟，成立于1893年，领导爱尔兰语言和文学的现代复兴。

The most well-known Irish writer of the modern period is James Joyce 詹姆斯·乔伊斯(1882--1941). He was born in Dublin, but lived on the Continent 欧洲大陆from 1904. However, all his writing is centred on Dublin. His main works are the book of realistic 现实主义short stories Dubliners《都柏林人》 (1914), A Portrait of the Artist As A Young Man《作为年轻人的艺术家画像》 (1916) and Ulysses 《尤利西斯》(1922). In A Portrait of the Artist As A Young Man , he introduced the stream of consciousness 意识流technique. 技巧 The novel traces追踪 the evolution 成长of its hero, Stephen Dedalus, 史蒂芬·德达卢斯 from infancy幼年 to young manhood, 青年时代 centring in his renunciation 摒弃of the Catholic faith and exploring those aspects in him that reveal揭示 the unique独特的 perceptiveness感知的, sensitivity敏感的 and detachment超脱凡俗 of the artist. Ulysses is Joyce's masterpiece. 杰作The novel describes the events of one day in the lives of several people in Dublin, and explores their subconscious 潜意识minds. The novel makes many experiments of style. Joyce's innovations创新 in language and style have deeply influenced 20th century writing.

最著名的现代爱尔兰作家是詹姆斯·乔伊斯(1882—1941)。他出生于都柏林，但从1904年起住在欧洲大陆。但他的所有作品都以都柏林为中心。主要作品有现实主义短篇故事《都柏林人》(1914年)，《作为年轻人的艺术家画像》(1916年)和《尤利西斯》(1922年)。

在《作为年轻人的艺术家画像》中他引进了意识流技巧。小说追踪主人翁史蒂芬·德达卢斯从幼年到青年时代的成长，以他摒弃天主教信仰为中心，探寻揭示艺术家独特的感知、敏感和超脱凡俗的方方面面。《尤利西斯》是乔伊斯的杰作。小说描述了都柏林几个人在一天里的事情，探索了他们的潜意识。小说对写作风格做了很多试验。乔伊斯的语言和风格的创新深深影响了20世纪的写作。

1. The head of state is _____, elected by direct suffrage for a term of ____ years.

A. the president, 4 C. the president, 7 B. the prime minister, 5

D. the prime minister, 7

2. In Ireland the prime minister is appointed by______ on the nomination of_______

A. the Queen / the president B. the president / the Queen

C. the president / the House of Representatives D. the Queen / the House of Representatives

3. The Republic of Ireland consists of______of the ________land. A. 25; 30 B. 26. 30 C. 25, 32 D. 26.

32

4. In Ireland all the legislative powers are vested in the_______ A. President B. Prime Minister

C. Cabinet D. Parliament 5. What are Ireland's chief exports?

A. Foodstuffs (especially beef), electrical machinery and chemicals. B. Wool, dairy products and fruit.

C. Motor vehicles, electrical machinery and petroleum.

D. Coal, mining equipment and textiles. 6. Almost _____of Irish magazines deal with religion.

A. 1/3 B. 1/4 C. 1/5 D. 1/6 7. What does the Irish Oireachtas consist of ?

The Oireachtas consists of two houses: the House of Representatives and the Senate.

8. What are the two types of farming in Ireland? They are arable farming and stock farming.

1. Which of the following statement is not right about the president of reland?

A. The president is the head of the state.

B. He can summon or dissolve the Oireachtas (Parliament).

C. He shares certain lawmaking powers with Congress. D. He is the head of the defence forces.

2. There are_____coalfield areas in Ireland but only ____are being worked. A.8;4 B.8;3 C.10;5 D.9;4

3. In Ireland, the powers of the Seanad, as defined by the Constitution, are in general_____ of the Dail. A. more than those B. less than those C. equal

D. superior to those

4. Now in Ireland_____ provides 16% of total primary energy requirements. A. gas B. coal C. oil D. peat

5. Secondary schools are by and large_____in Ireland. A. state-aided B. private

C. denominational D.B and C

6. The Dail currently has____ members in Ireland and the Seanad has____members.

A. 166;60 B.166;41 C.60; 166 D.41 ; 166

7. Which of the following is not one of the Irish Labor Party' s policies? A. High taxation.

B. Extensive social benefits. C. Private ownership of industries D. Opposition to the EC.

8. Within manufacturing, employment didn't triple in______ A. metal sector B. engineering sector C. textiles sector D. chemicals sector

9. Ireland remains a close association with or similar to Great Britain in the following fields except______ A. its trade unionism B. its parliamentary system C. its law

D. its political system

10. Every new Dail nominates the leader of the majority party or group to be_______

A. president B. prime minister C. judge D. none of the above

11. The per capita GNP of Ireland in 1991 is higher than ____among OECD countries. A. Spain B. Portugal

C. Greece D. all of the above

12. Sinn Fein was the guerrilla movement that wrested independence from the British in___ A.1911 B.1921 C.1931 D.1941

13. In the following aspects except _____, Ireland maintains the highest status in the European community. A. its unemployment rate

B. the actual hours worked per week C. its degree of economic development D. its production of lead and zinc

14. Which of the following is untrue of the Irish economy?

A. Ireland' s exports represent 52 % of the GNP. B. Ireland has a highly intensive agriculture. C. Ireland depends too much on imported oil.

D. Ireland is the largest producer of lead concentrate in Europe.

15. Which of the following statement about the political parties is true? A. Fine Gael is the largest political party in Ireland now.

B. Finna Fail supported free enterprise but it was against British ties. C. The Irish Labour Party~ policies include support for the EC, a high level of public expenditures to reduce unemployment, and full employment.

D. Historically, minor parties have never thrived in Ireland.

1. What is the court of final appeal in Ireland?

The Supreme Court in Ireland is the court of final appeal.

2. What is Ireland~ most influential daily?

Today the Irish Times is Ireland's most influential daily.

3. What is a lest-selling daily in Ireland nowadays?

The Irish Independent is a best-selling daily in Ireland nowadays

When did Irish broadcasting begin? Irish broadcasting began in 1926.

1. Oireachtas

Oireachtas is Irish parliament. It has two Houses, which are the House of Representatives (Dail) and the Senate (Seanad). Under the Constitution, the Oireachtas has the sole power of making laws. Members to the Dail are called TDs. Both TDs and Senators are elected for five-year terms.

2. Sinn Fein

Sinn Fein was the Irish guerrilla movement that wrested independence from the British in 1921. It split in 1921 over the Anglo-Irish Treaty and became two parties, Fianna Fail and Fine Gael, which remains to be the two major political parties in Ireland today.

What is the country’s most serious economic problem in Ireland? why? IV. Unemployment is the most serious economic problem in Ireland. The reasons for this phenomenon are as follows:

( 1 ) Ireland has a relatively young population-one of the youngest in Europe.

(2) Agricultural employment is declining.

(3) Public sector employment is being reduced for budgetary reasons.

(4)Most of the new hi-tech industries are not labour-intensive.

1. Ireland has a bipolar political party system with two major parties. They are____

A. Sinn Fein and Fianna Fail B. Sinn Fein and Fine Gael C. Fianna Fail and Fine Gael D. IRA and Sinn Fein

2. What kind of government system does Ireland have? Ireland is a parliamentary republic and a unitary state.

3._____is the oldest of all the parties in Ireland.

A. The Irish Labour Party B. The Progressive Democrats C. Fianna Fail D. Fine Gael

4. Who is the most well-known Irish writer of the modern period?

The most well-known Irish writer of the modern period is James Joyce

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