贸易壁垒对出口的影响外文翻译参考文献

贸易壁垒对出口的影响外文翻译参考文献

贸易壁垒对出口的影响外文翻译参考文献

(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)

技术壁垒的概述及影响

技术性贸易壁垒又称“技术性贸易措施”或“技术壁垒”，是以国家或地区的技术法规、协议、标准和认证体系（合格评定程序）等形式出现，涉及的内容广泛，含盖科学技术、卫生、检疫、安全、环保、产品质量和认证等诸多技术性指标体系，运用于国际贸易当中，呈现出灵活多变、名目繁多的规定。由于这类壁垒大量的以技术面目出现，因此常常会披上合法外衣，成为当前国际贸易中最为隐蔽、最难对付的非关税壁垒。

随着经济全球化浪潮的兴起和贸易自由化的发展，加上WTO规则的有关限制，国际贸易壁垒的种类和形式在不断地变化：关税税率越来越低，传统的非关税壁垒也在逐步减少，新型的更灵活、更隐蔽的贸易壁垒——技术性贸易壁垒却在不断发展、种类在不断增多。我国已经加入世界贸易组织，所以在国际贸易中，我们必须按照WTO规则和有关国际惯例行事。面对这些新的变化，我们应该如何应对，从而在世界贸易中保护我国的对外贸易利益和在更加开放的环境中促进我国经济及社会的健康发展呢？我想在提出应对的措施之前有必要弄清楚作为国际贸易保护手段的技术性贸易壁垒愈演愈烈的深层原因：（一）、维护本国的利益是一切国际关系的根本目的。虽然为了推进经济全球化和贸易自由化的发展，各国在乌拉圭回合谈判中承诺进一步降低

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关税和在保持现状下逐步消除各种非关税壁垒。但现在国际竞争日益激烈，各国为了维护本国的贸易利益，在逐步取消明显有违WTO精神的一些传统的非关税壁垒的同时又不断推出更为隐蔽的技术性贸易壁垒，而且名目繁多，要求越来越苛刻。在发达国家之间、发达国家与发展中国家之间、发展中国家之间都存在技术性贸易壁垒。只是由于在技术水平上，发展中国家远低于发达国家，所以技术性贸易壁垒对发展中国家影响更大。（二）、《WTO协定》中的许多例外条文和漏洞，也为技术性壁垒的实施提供了法律上的依据。如《贸易技术壁垒协议》中规定：“任何国家在其认为适当的范围内可采取必要的措施保护环境，只要这些措施不致认为在具有同等条件的国家之间造成任何不合理的歧视，或成为对国际贸易产生隐蔽限制的一种手段。”又如《实施卫生与植物卫生措施协定》规定：“缔约方有权采纳为保护人类、动物或植物生命或健康的卫生和植物卫生措施”而且只要缔约方确认其的措施有科学依据和保护水平是适当的就“可以实施或维持高于国际标准、指南和建议的措施”。这意味着技术性贸易壁垒的建立具有很大的合法性。（三）、各国和国际性环保组织的地位在不断地提高，对政府决策的影响力越来越大。所以各国政府在实行有关政策时，不得不考虑他们的声音，在有关方面做出让步，增加贸易壁垒。由于地球环境在不断地恶化，引起了国际社会的关注，自从上世纪七十年代以来，世界性的环保组织纷纷成立，比较有名的，如绿色和平组织、国际环境影视集团、世界自然基金会等。他们在许多国家都设有分机构，拥有众多的会员，进行广泛的环境保护宣传，并极力反对各国政府各种破坏环境的行为，强烈要求各国政府实施可持续发展的经济和社会政策。欧盟就曾在环保组织的压力下，多次提高环保标准要求，以减少生产过程中对环境的污染及增加对人类健康和生命的保障。 （四）、可持续发展观念的深入人心，为各国进行技术性贸易壁垒提供了理论支持。如前所述，世界环境问题已引起各国人民及政府的重视，可持续发展正深入民心。所以，各国为了在国际贸易中取得更加有利的地位，在逐步消除一些明显违反WTO精神的非关税壁垒的同时，祭起了可持续发展大旗，越来越多地转向了卫生检疫标准和环境保护标准等与人民的健康和可持续发展相关的非关税壁垒。由于这些措施在很大程度上符合广大民众的意愿（尤其在发达国家）。因此，各国实施起来是有恃无恐，而且标准越来越苛刻，种类越来越多。这是技术性贸易壁垒愈演愈烈的主要原因。

综观世界各国（主要是发达国家）的技术性贸易壁垒，其限制产品进口方面的技术措施主要有以下几种：

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（1）严格繁杂的技术法规和技术标准

利用技术标准作为贸易壁垒具有非对等性和隐蔽性。在国际贸易中，发达 技术性贸易壁垒国家常常是国际标准的制定者。他们凭借着在世界贸易中的主导地位和技术优势，率先制定游戏规则，强制推行根据其技术水平定出的技术标准，使广大经济落后国家的出口厂商望尘莫及。而且这些技术标准、技术法规常常变化，有的地方政府还有自己的特殊规定，使发展中国家的厂商要么无从知晓、无所适从，要么为了迎合其标准付出较高的成本，削弱产品的竞争力。

（2）复杂的合格评定程序

在贸易自由化渐成潮流的形势下，质量认证和合格评定对于出口竞争能力的提高和进口市场的保护作用愈益突出。目前，世界上广泛采用的质量认定标准是ISO9000系列标准。此外，美、日、欧盟等还有各自的技术标准体系。

（3）严格的包装、标签规则

为防止包装及其废弃物可能对生态环境、人类及动植物的安全构成威胁，许多国家颁布了一系列包装和标签方面的法律和法规，以保护消费者权益和生态环境。从保护环境和节约能源来看，包装制度确有积极作用，但它增加了出口商的成本，且技术要求各国不一、变化无常，往往迫使外国出口商不断变换包装，失去不少贸易机会。

综述：

由此可见，技术性贸易壁垒有着许多客观的生存环境。在当今的国际贸易中，技术性贸易壁垒不但不可避免，反而将会长期存在。其对国际贸易的影响将会越来越大。同时，对社会的发展也将起着非常重要的作用。据国家知识产权局统计，当前世界贸易壁垒的80％来源于技术性贸易壁垒。

负面影响

1、越来越多的技术性贸易壁垒（如各国的标准条例、技术法规、合格评定程序等）阻碍着国际贸易的自由发展，不利于世界资源的自由流通和优化配置，并且与经济全球化 世界进口贸易额分布、贸易自由化的社会发展潮流背道而驰。这是贸易自由主义反对技术性贸易壁垒的主要依据。如，大多数电子、电器产品要求符合美国联邦通讯委员会（FCC）、保险商实验室（UL）以及其他相关机构的标准；美国联邦贸易委员会（FTC）要求纺织品标有成分和保护标签，消费者安全委员会（CPSC）要求纺织品的耐火性能达到相关标准；美国食品医药管理局（FDA）负责对进口食品、药品、保健品、化妆品、洗涤用品、医疗设备的管理和监测，对商品的纯度和标签等要求严

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格，在商品入境时会作抽检；美国农业部（USDA）还要求猪肉、家禽肉必须经过严格的消毒程序。这些一系列的标准要求和检测措施无疑会给国际贸易带来诸多不便，并同时提高进口商品的成本。2、环境或人民的健康和生命安全，但实际上，其更大的目的是为了使本国贸易商在国际贸易中获得更多的利益。另据统计，在生命科学与生物技术、信息技术、新材料等关键技术领域，西方发达国家所拥有的专利数量，大约占全球专利总量的90％左右，而包括中国在内的发展中国家仅拥有10％左右。如此大的技术差距，不可能在短期很长的一个时期内，国际贸易利益的分配将会进一步向发达国家倾斜。在现行的国际标准体系中，标准的制定者基本上都是发达国家，发展中国家大多是标准的被动接受者。而发达国家从他们自身利益和技术水平出发制定的标准是许多发展中国家所难以达到的。所以，发达国家经常利用技术标准设置贸易壁垒甚至发动技术贸易战，以保护他们的国际贸易利益，从而继续控制发展中国家和占据国际贸易的主导地位。如我国的冻鸡自1996年8月起被欧盟以没通过检疫为由禁止进入，直到2001年5月才对上海和山东若干地区的14家企业开禁，每年损失近亿美元；从2001年7月开始，欧盟对进口茶叶做出新规定，部分产品农药的最高允许残留量仅为原先标准的1/100－1/200（事实上按原来标准生产出的茶叶已经对人体没危害），如不采取有效措施，我国茶叶将被迫退出欧盟市场。据有关报道，我国1999年仅由国外技术规定、标准和合格评定程序而减少的出口至少达 500亿美元。现在，发达国家之间也经常发生“技术标准贸易战”，他们名义上是为了保护 我国对外贸易三大结构性变化内缩小。所以，在很长一段时间内，发展中国家在国际贸易格局中将会处于越来越不利的地位。

正面作用

1、环境壁垒及绿色标准在客观上促进了可持续发展的实施。经济建设和环境保护是任何国家发展过程都会遇到的一对矛盾。但眼前的经济利益往往会使人们选择破坏环境进行经济建设的道路。尤其在一些发展中国家，由于资金有限，根本无力去顾及环保。毁林而猎、竭泽而渔的做法使现在地球的环境急剧恶化。就算在我国，虽然早已把环境保护作为一项基本国策，但据不完全统计，1998年全国影响生态环境的产品出口金额达86亿美元，占当年出口总额的6.2%；2000年污染较重的产品(如染料、皮革制品、印染品、纸浆等)的出口达110亿美元，占当年出口额的5.1%。而绿色标准的实施将迫使我国企业在生产过程中减少对环境的污染，采用绿色生产体系生产绿色产品。这在客观上会促进我国可持续发展战略的实施。同样，在一定程度上也

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会促使世界经济的发展和世界环境的保护趋向协调和平衡，有利于在发展世界经济的同时保护整个地球的生态环境。2、不断提高的检疫标准和包装设计标准，促使各国要不断提高本国产品的质量和卫生及安全性能，这对人类的性命安全和身体健康是有积极作用的。尤其是现在世界各国动植物流行病（如口蹄疫、疯牛病、小麦的矮星黑穗病、玉米细菌性枯萎病等）时有爆发，再加上转基因产品（GMO）的安全性仍无法科学测定，所以在国际贸易中，各国制订相关的检疫标准并严格执行是非常必要的。

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The verview and impact of technical barriers to trade

Technical Barriers to Trade based on national or regional technical regulations, protocols, standards and certification (conformity assessment procedures) and other forms, involving wide-ranging, covers science and technology, health, quarantine, security, environmental protection, product quality and certification, and many other technical indicators system, used in international trade, which, showing a flexible, numerous regulations. As such a large number of barriers to technology emerged, so often an appearance of legitimacy, become the most covert international trade, the most formidable non-tariff barriers.

With the rise of the tide of economic globalization and trade liberalization, together with the relevant WTO rules limit the types and forms of international trade barriers are constantly changing: Getting lower and lower tariff rates, the traditional non-tariff barriers are gradually reduced, the new, more flexible, more subtle barriers to trade - but in the continuous development of technical barriers to trade, species are on the rise. China has joined the World Trade Organization, so in international trade, we must follow the relevant WTO rules and international practice act. Faced with these new changes we should how to deal with, resulting in the protection of world trade and China's foreign trade interests in a more open environment to promote the health of China's economic and social development? I would like to propose appropriate measures necessary to clarify before the international trade protection as a means of intensifying the underlying causes of technical barriers to trade:1. Safeguard the interests of all its fundamental purpose of international relations. Although the order to advance economic globalization and trade liberalization, countries in the Uruguay Round commitments to further reduce tariffs and to maintain the status quo in the gradual elimination of all non-tariff barriers. But now, increasingly fierce international competition, countries in order to safeguard its trade interests in the WTO to phase out clearly contrary to the spirit of some of the traditional non-tariff barriers at the same time continue to introduce more subtle technical barriers to trade, and numerous, requiring increasingly more demanding. In developed countries, between developed and developing countries, there are technical barriers to trade among developing countries. Only because of the technical level, developing countries are far lower than developed countries, so a greater impact on developing countries of technical barriers to trade. 2. \

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Many of the exceptions and loopholes, but also for the implementation of technical barriers to provide a legal basis. Such as \Barriers to Trade Agreement\\the environment, as long as these measures do not think that the countries with the same conditions result in any unreasonable discrimination, or to become disguised restriction on international trade as a means Again, Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Agreement, \or health of the sanitary and phytosanitary measures \scientific basis and the measures appropriate to the level of protection \be implemented or maintained higher than the international standards, guidelines and recommendations of the measures.\to trade has great legitimacy. 3. National and international environmental organizations are constantly improving the status; influence on government decision-making is growing. Therefore, governments have implemented such a policy; have to consider their voices, the parties to make concessions, increased trade barriers. As the global environment continues to deteriorate, causing the concern of the international community, since the since the 1970s, global environmental organizations have been established, more well-known, such as Greenpeace, international environmental film group, the World Wildlife Fund . In many countries have established sub-sector, with many members, a wide range of environmental information, and strongly oppose the governments of various environmental destruction, urged governments to implement sustainable development of economic and social policies. Once in the EU under pressure from environmental groups, many times to raise the environmental standards to reduce the production process and increasing environmental pollution on human health and life protection. 4.As mentioned earlier, the world's environmental problems have attracted national attention to the people and government, sustainable development is the public. Therefore, countries in international trade in order to obtain a more favorable position in the gradual elimination of some of the clear violation of the spirit of the WTO's non-tariff barriers at the same time, brings up the banner of sustainable development, are increasingly turning to the health and quarantine standards and the environment protection standards and people's health and sustainable development of non-trooped countries). Therefore, countries implement is nothing to fear, and standards are becoming increasingly demanding, more and more types. This is the main technical barriers to trade intensified.

Looking at the world (mainly developed countries) technical barriers to trade, the

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import of products of its limited technical measures are the following:

Strict complex technical regulations and technical standards.

In international trade, developed technical barriers to trade Countries are often international standard setters. Who by virtue of the dominance of world trade and technological advantages, the first rules of the game, forced to set up in accordance with the technical level of technical standards, the majority of economically backward countries, exporters catch. And these technical standards, technical regulations often change, and some local governments also have their own special requirements, manufacturers in developing countries are either unknown, loss, or pay a higher standard in order to meet its costs and weaken the competitiveness of products. Countries are often international standard setters. Who by virtue of the dominance of world trade and technological advantages, the first rules of the game, forced to set up in accordance with the technical level of technical standards, the majority of economically backward countries, exporters catch. And these technical standards, technical regulations often change, and some local governments also have their own special requirements, manufacturers in developing countries are either unknown, loss, or pay a higher standard in order to meet its costs and weaken the competitiveness of products.

Complex conformity assessment procedures:

Had become the trend of trade liberalization situation, quality certification and conformity assessment for the currently, the world's widely used quality standard ISO9000 series of standards identified. In addition, the United States, Japan, the European Union each has their technical standards.

Strict packaging, labeling rules

In order to prevent packaging waste and on the ecological environment, human and animal and plant security threat, many countries have promulgated a series of packaging and labeling laws and regulations to protect the interests of consumers and the environment. From the point of view of environmental protection and energy conservation, packaging system does have a positive effect, but it increases the cost of exporters, and the technical requirements of different countries, volatile, often changing packaging to force foreign exporters lose a lot of trade opportunities.

In today's international trade, technical barriers to trade not only inevitable, but will be a long time. Its impact on international trade will be increasing. Meanwhile, the community development will play a very important role. According to the State Intellectual Property Office statistics, 80% of current world trade barriers, technical barriers to trade

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from.

Negative impact on:

1. A growing number of technical barriers to trade (such as the national standards regulations, technical regulations, conformity assessment procedures, etc.) impeding the free development of international trade, the world's resources is not conducive to the free flow and optimized allocation and import trade with the world of economic globalization breakdown , Trade liberalization and social development runs counter to the trend. This is the technical barriers to trade liberalism against main basis. For example, most of the electronics, electrical products require compliance with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), Underwriters Laboratories (UL) standards and other relevant agencies; U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) requires the protection of textile label marked with the ingredients and consumers safety Commission (CPSC) requirements of fire resistance of textiles to meet the standards; U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is responsible for imported food, drugs, health products, cosmetics, cleaning supplies, medical equipment management and monitoring of the purity and labeling of goods and so demanding, in the entry of goods will be sampling; U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) also called pork, poultry must undergo strict disinfection procedures. These series of standards and testing measures will undoubtedly inconvenience of international trade, while increasing the cost of imported goods.

2. Environment or people's health and safety, but in fact, its greater purpose is to bring the domestic traders in international trade to get more benefits. According to statistics, in the life sciences and biotechnology, information technology, new materials and other key technology areas, the Western developed countries have a number of patents, accounting for 90% of total worldwide patent, while the developing countries including China, has only about 10%. Such a large technology gap, not very long in a short period of time, the distribution of benefits of international trade will be further inclined to developed countries. Under the current system of international standards, standard setters are basically developed countries; developing countries are mostly passive recipients of the standard. While the developed countries from their own interests and skill levels are starting to develop a standard difficult to achieve in many developing countries. Therefore, the technical standards set in developed countries often use technical barriers to trade or even launch a trade war to protect their interests in international trade, and thus continue to control international trade of developing countries and occupy the dominant position. Such as frozen chicken in China in August 1996 by the EU to not prohibited from entering the

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grounds through quarantine until May 2001, Shanghai and Shandong fishes 14 companies in several areas of lifting the ban, loss of hundred million dollars a year; from July 2001 month, the EU has made new regulations on the import of tea, some of the products of the highest pesticide residues allowed only the original standard 1/100-1/200 (in fact, produced by the original standard tea has no harm to human body), such as do not take effective measures, China's tea will be forced to withdraw from the EU market.. Now, developed countries often occur between the \standard trade war, they are nominally in order to protect China's foreign trade within the three major structural changes reduced. So, in a very long period of time, developing countries in international trade pattern will be more and more disadvantageous position.

A positive effect:

Environmental barriers and green standards for an objective to promote the implementation of sustainable development. Economic development and environmental protection is the development of any country will face a contradiction. But the immediate economic interests tend to make people choose to destroy the environment for economic development of the road. Deforestation and hunting, exploit the practice of the present Earth's environment deteriorated sharply. Even in China, although already the environmental protection as a basic national policy, but according to incomplete statistics, the 1998 National impact on the environment exports amounted to $ 8.6 billion, accounting for 6.2% of total exports; serious pollution in 2000 products (such as dyes, leather products, printing and dyeing products, pulp, etc.) exports $ 11 billion, accounting for 5.1% of exports. The implementation of green standards will force China's enterprises in the production process to reduce environmental pollution, the use of green production system to produce green products. This objective will be to promote China's sustainable development strategy. Similarly, in a certain extent, will promote the development of world economy and world environmental protection tend to co-ordination and balance, help in the development of world economy, while protecting the ecological environment of the entire planet.

Quarantine standards and continuously improve packaging design standards, prompting countries to continuously improve their product quality and health and safety performance, safety of human life and health have a positive effect. In particular, the epidemic is now the world flora and fauna (such as foot and mouth disease, mad cow disease, wheat dwarf smut, bacterial wilt of corn, etc.) when the outbreak, coupled with genetically modified (GMO) security is still not scientifically determined, so in

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