土木工程专业英语翻译

第一单元 In terms of architecture, the structure of a building is and does much more than that. It is an inseparable part of the building form and to varying degrees is a generator of that form. Used skillfully, the building structure can establish or reinforce orders and rhythms among the architectural volumes and planes. It can be visually dominant or recessive. It can develop harmonies or conflicts. It can be both confining and emancipating. And, unfortunately in some cases, it cannot be ignored. It is physical.从建筑学方面来说，建筑结构并非仅仅如此，它是建筑风格一个不可分割的部分，并且在不同程度上体现了建筑风格。巧妙熟练地设计建筑结构能够在建筑空间和平面上建立或加强格调和韵律。它做到直观上的显性和隐形，能够发展和谐体或对照体，同时它是局限的和开放的，并且在（某些情况下）一点是不可忽略的，也就是它的实际性。

The requirement of strength means that the materials selected to resist the stresses generated by the loads and shapers of the structure(s) must be adequate. Indeed, a “factor of Safety” is usually provided so that under the anticipated loads, a given material is not stressed to a level even close to its rupture point. The material property called stiffness is considered with the requirement of strength. Stiffness is different from strength in that it directly involves how much a structure strains or deflects under load. A material that is very strong but lacking in stiffness will deform too much to be of value in resisting the forces applied. 强度要求意味着选择合适的材料来承受由荷载引起的应力和保持适当结构形状。的确，提供一个安全系数以便在预计荷载作用下，所使用的材料不会接近破坏应力。被称为刚度的材料特性需要与强度要求一起考虑。刚度不同于强度，它直接体现了结构在荷载作用下的应变

打小和变形长度。强度高，刚度低的材料在外力作用下变形过大失去使用价值。

第二单元Concrete is a man-made conglomerate stone composed of essentially four ingredients: Portland cement, water, sand, and coarse aggregate. The cement and water combine to make a paste that binds the sand and stones together. Ideally, the aggregates are graded so that the volume of paste is at a minimum, merely surrounding every piece with a thin layer. Most structural concrete is stone concrete, but structural lightweight concrete (roughly two-thirds the density, of stone concrete) is becoming increasingly popular.混凝土是一种主要由四种成分组成的人造组合石材：水泥，水，砂和粗骨料。水和水泥组合成水泥砂浆，将砂，石粘结在一起。理想情况下，级配良好使水泥浆体积最小，粘结薄薄一层。大多数结构混凝土是碎石混凝土，但轻质混凝土（碎石混凝土密度的2/3）越来越得到普及。

The compressive strength of a given concrete is a function of the quality and proportions of its constituents and the manner in which the fresh concrete is cured. (Curing is the process of hardening during which time the concrete must be prevented from “drying out”, as the presence of water is necessary for the chemical action to progress. Coarse aggregate that is hard and well graded is particularly essential for quality concrete. The most important factor governing the strength, however, is the percentage of water used in the mix. A minimum amount of water is

needed for proper hydration of the cement. Additional water is needed for handing and placing the concrete, but excess amounts cause the strength to drop markedly.

给定混凝土的抗压强度是组成成分的质量和比例以及新浇混凝土养护方法的函数。（养护是硬化过程，在这期间必须防止混凝土过干，因为水的存在是一个进行化学反应所必须的）级配良好的粗骨料对混凝土质量是至关重要的。然而，决定强度的最重要的因素是配料的含水率，最小量的水分是水泥适当水化所必须的，另外的水对操作和浇筑混凝土是必须的，但过量的水会导致强度明显下降。

第三单元The subject of mechanics of materials cuts broadly across all branches of the engineering profession with remarkably many applications. Its methods are needed by designers of offshore structures, by civil engineers in the design of bridges and buildings; by mining engineers and architectural engineers, each of whom is interested in structures; by nuclear engineers in the design of reactor components; by mechanical and chemical engineers, who rely upon the methods of this subject for the design of machinery and pressure vessels, by metallurgists, who need the fundamental concepts of this subject in order to understand how to improve existing materials further, finally, by electrical engineers, who need the methods of this subject because of the importance of the mechanical engineering phases of many portions of electrical equipment. Mechanics of materials has characteristic methods all its own. It is a

definite discipline and one of the most fundamental subjects of an engineering curriculum, standing alongside such other basic subjects as fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, and basic electricity.

材料力学这门学科广泛贯穿于工程领域，在工程领域的所有分支都有重要的应用。海洋结构设计需要应用材料力学方法。土木工程师设计桥梁和建筑也需要采矿工程师和建筑师都对结构感兴趣，原子能设计师设计反应堆构件需要，机械和化学工程师依赖这门学科方法设计机械和压力容器，冶金学家运用基本概念弄清怎样进一步完善现有的材料，最后，是电器工程师需要这些学科方法，因为电器设备的许多部分运用了工程力学的重要原理。材料力学拥有自身的特性，它是一种特定学科，并且是工程学的最基础课程之一，并肩像流体力学，热力学，基础电学这些其它的基础学科。

The behavior of a member subjected to forces depends not only on the fundamental laws of Newtonian mechanics that govern the equilibrium of the forces but also on the physical characteristics of the materials of which the member is fabricated. The necessary information regarding the latter comes from the laboratory where materials are subjected to the action of accurately known forces and the behavior of test specimens is, observed with particular regard to such phenomena as the occurrence of breaks, deformations, etc. Determination of such phenomena is a vital part of the subject, but this branch of the subject is left to other books. Here the end results of such investigations are of interest, and this course

is concerned with the analytical or mathematical part of the subject in contradistinction to experimentation. For the above reasons, it is seen that mechanics of materials is a blended science of experiment and Newtonian postulates of analytical mechanics. From the latter is borrowed the branch of the science called statics, a subject with. Which the reader of this book is presumed to be familiar ,and on which the subject of this book primarily depends.受荷载杆件的性能不仅依赖牛顿力学基本定律控制力的平衡，而且依赖组合构件材料的物理学性能。与后者有关的必要信息来自于实验室，于此，材料收到准确已知的外力作用和试验样品试件断裂，变形等现象作了特别仔细地观察。对这些现象的确定是学科中至关重要的部分，但是，这一学科分支的研究留给其他的文献。我们感兴趣的是最后的研究结果，这门课程正是关于分析和数学部分与实验的对照。通过以上原因，由此可见，材料力学是一门实验和牛顿定律分析力学相结合的综合性学科。后者是来源于一个力学的分支，一个这本书的读者认为相似，并且，这本书以此为据的学科。 第四单元When members are adequately reinforced, as in Fig.4-la, the concrete cracks at a torque equal to or only somewhat larger than in an unreinforced member. The cracks form a spiral pattern. In actuality, a great number of such spiral cracks develop at close spacing. Upon cracking, the torsional resistance of the concrete drops to about half of that of the uncracked member, the remainder being now resisted by reinforcement. This redistribution of internal resistance is reflected in the

torque-twist curve(Fig.4-2),which at the cracking torque shows continued twist at constant torque until the reinforcement has picked up the portion of the torque no longer carried by concrete. Any further increase of applied torque must then be carried by the reinforcement. Failure occurs when somewhere along the member the concrete crushes along a line such as a-d in Fig.4-1. In a well-designed member such crushing occurs only after the stirrups have started to yield.如图4-1a所示，构件充分配筋时，混凝土在受到大于等于未配筋构件强度的扭矩处的开裂。裂缝呈螺旋状，事实上，许多这样螺旋状的裂缝相距很近地发展。一旦开裂，混凝土的抗扭能力下降到未开裂混凝土构件的一半。剩余部分从扭矩由钢筋承担。这种内力重分布在弯矩曲线上得到体现。（如图4-2），图表明在开裂扭矩作用下，扭矩不变，弯曲持续增长，直到钢筋承担承担部分不再由混凝土承担的扭矩，任何增加的作用扭矩都由钢筋来承担。当沿构件的某处的混凝土沿一条直线压碎如图4-1中的a-d线是，构件达到破坏，在设计合理的构件中，只有箍筋达到屈服，这种压碎破坏才会发生。

The torsional strength can be analyzed by considering the equilibrium of the internal forces which are transmitted across the potential failure surface, shown shaded in Fig.4-1.This surface is seen to be bounded by a 45°tension crack across one wider face, two cracks across the narrower faces of inclination Φ, an angle generally between 45°and 90°, and the zone of concrete crushing along line a-d. The failure is basically flexural,

as for plain beams, with a concrete compression zone developing adjacent to a-d.通过考虑，传播通过可能破坏面的内力的平衡可以来分析扭转强度，如图4-1的阴影所示。这个破坏面由宽面上的45°张拉，裂缝和窄面上的通常45°和90°之间的倾角Φ的两条裂缝构成，而且混凝土压碎区沿着直线a到d。与平梁相似，这种破坏基本是弯曲型的，有沿a-d发展的混凝土压应力区的。

第五单元The role of shear stress is easily visualized by the performance under load of the laminated beam of Fig5-1; it consists of two rectangular pieces bonded together along their contact surface. If the adhesive is strong enough, the member will deform as one single-beam, as show in Fig5-1a. On the other hand, if the adhesive is weak, the two pieces will separate and slide relative to each other, as show in Fig5-1b. Evidently, then, when the adhesive is effective, there are forces or stresses acting in it which prevent this sliding or shearing. These horizontal shear stresses are shown in Fig5-1c as they act, separately, on the top and bottom pieces. The same stresses occur in horizontal planes in single-piece beam; they are different in intensity at different distances from the neutral axis.通过如图5-1，用薄片叠成的梁在荷载作用下的性能可以很容易的观测到剪应力的作用。它由两个长方形构件在它们的接触面粘合组成。如果这个粘合足够强，构件变形与单梁变形相似，如图5-1a所示，另一方面，如果这个粘合很弱，这两个部分会分开，且彼此相对滑动，如图5-1b所示，明显可以看出，当粘合有效，有阻止其滑动成受剪的

力或应力产生。这些水平剪应力如图5-1c所示，它们单独作用在顶部或底部。同样的应力产生在单梁的水平面上。它们随着与中性轴距离的不同，其强度大小不同。

Fig. 5-1d shows a differential length of a single-piece rectangular beam acted upon by a shear force of magnitude V. Upward translation is prevented, i.e., vertical equilibrium is provided, by the vertical shear stresses v. Their average value is equal to the shear force divided by the cross-sectional area, Vav=V/ab, but their intensity varies over the depth of the section. As is easily computed from Eq. 1, the shear stress is zero at the outer fiber and has a maximum of 1.5 Vav at the neutral axis, the variation being parabolic as show. Other values and distributions are found for other shapes of the cross-section, the shear tress always being zero at the outer fibers and of maximum value at the neutral axis. 图5-1d表明了整块矩形梁在大小为V的剪力下，不同长度的剪力大小。没有向上的位移，也就是说，通过竖向剪应力V达到了垂直方向上的平衡。它们的均值等于剪力除以横截面积。VAB=V/AB.但是他们的强度随着高度不同而不同，如式1中简单算出，外层纤维的剪应力应为O，中性轴有最大剪应力1.5V，如图所示，这种变化成抛物线形。其他不同截面形状的值和分布发现最外层纤维的剪力应为O，最大值在中性轴上。

If a small square element located at the neutral axis of such a beam is isolated as in Fig. 5-2b, the vertical shear stresses on it, equal and

opposite on the two faces for reasons of equilibrium, act as shown. However, if these were the only stresses present, the element would not be in equilibrium; it would spin. Therefore, on the two horizontal faces there exist equilibrium horizontal shear stresses of the same magnitude. That is, at any point in the beam, the horizontal shear stresses of Fig. 5-2b are equal in magnitude to the vertical shear stresses of Fig. 5-2d. .如果，从如图 5.26所示梁中的中性轴处取出一个小的立方体V，根据平衡原理，它的竖向剪应力大小相等，方向相反。然而，如果仅有这两个应力存在，构件将不会平衡，而会旋转，因此，在两水平面上存在着相同数量的以保持平衡的水平向剪应力，也就是说，梁内的任一点，如图5-26所示的水平向剪应力等于如图5-26所示的竖向剪应力。

第六单元 Since external load is very rarely applied directly to the reinforcement steel can receive its share of the load only from the surrounding concrete. “Bond stress” is the name assigned to the shear stress at the bar-concrete interface which, by transferring load between the bar and the surrounding concrete, modifies the steel stresses. This bond, when efficiently, developed, enables the two materials to form a composite structure. The attainment of satisfactory performance in bond is the most important aim of the detailing of reinforcement in structural components.因为外部荷载很少直接作用，加强筋只承受了周围混凝土的部分荷载“粘结应力”是分布在钢筋混凝土内表面的剪力。他将荷

载传递到钢筋以及它周围的混凝土，改变钢筋的压力，这种粘结应力，可以高效地深度地使这两种材料成为组合结构粘结应力这一令人满意的作用，是加强结构构件细部的最主要的目的。

Bond strength was a more serious problem when only plain reinforcing bars were used. Bars with a deformed surface provide an extra element of bond strength and safety. On the other hand, the, behavior, of deformed bars, in particular the introduction of high-strength steels and large diameter bars, presented some new problems. This has necessitated a reex-ination of the conventional considerations of bond.

当仅仅使用光面钢筋时，粘结力是一个更重要的问题。表面不光滑的钢筋提供了更多的粘结应力，因此更加安全。然而，另一方面，变形钢筋，尤其是高强钢筋和大直径钢筋的使用也带来了一些新的问题。这就使对传统的需要考虑的粘结力的复查成为一种必要。

This equation indicates that when the rate of change of external bending moment (i.e., the shear force ）is high, the flexural bond stress can also exhibit high intensity. However, Eq.3 grossly oversimplifies the-situation, and it does not even approximately predict the magnitude of the actual bond stress. This is because the presence of cracks in the concrete at discrete intervals along a member results in additional bond stresses due to the tension carried by the concrete between the cracks. Even when the shear force is zero (region of constant bending moment ),bond stress will be developed. It has been observed, however,

that provided sufficient anchorage length is available for the bars, failure originating from flexural bond stress does not occur. Flexural bond considerations require the anchorage length to be checked in regions of members where the bending moment is zero (at simple supports and at points of contraflexure). In such regions the area of tension steel may be small and the shear force large, resulting in high flexural bond stresses. 这个方程表明，当外部弯矩的变化率较大时，弯曲粘结应力也会具有高强度。然而，式3只是大体上简化了这种状况，它甚至没有近似预测实际弯曲应力的重要性。这是因为沿构件在混凝土内部的离散裂缝的存在，导致附加的弯曲应力，这要归因于在混凝土裂缝之间产生的拉应力。即便剪力为零（弯矩为常量的区域）弯曲应力也会成长。通过研究发现，即使为钢筋提供了足够的锚固长度，由弯曲粘结应力产生的原产失败也不会出现。弯曲粘结因素需要检查构件中弯矩为零的区域的锚固长度（在简支点和反弯点处）。在这样的区域内拉结钢筋的范围可能比较小，可是剪力会比较大，导致较大的弯曲粘结应力。 第七单元 The structural design of a building is the process by which adequate strength, rigidity, and toughness are obtained. In this case \implies that the structure throughout its usable life will provide satisfactory service to its owners and occupants when natural or man-made loads or combination of loads produce on the structure are, determined by structural load analysis. These load effects are then compared to the capability of the structure so that the adequacy of the

structure, or its components can be assessed.

建筑结构的设计是一个获得足够的强度刚度韧性的过程。这里的“足够”是指当自然或人为荷载或动荷载施加在结构上时，在其使用年限内可以向业主提供满意的服务。为了做到这种设计，通过结构荷载分析来确定不同。荷载和荷载组合对结构产生的效应然后这些荷载效应和结构的承载能力做比较，以便结构或其部分构件得到充分利用。 The initial part of structural design is a collaborative effort with the other members of the design team (architect planner ,and the mechanical ,electrical ,and acoustical engineers) to develop the optimum form of the structural system. Due consideration to these other requirements is essential to the structural performance of the building. 结构设计最初的部分是和设计团队的其他成员（建筑师，平面设计师，机械师，电器师，声学工程师）共同努力来确定结构系统的最优形式。考虑到这些方面，对建筑结构性能的其他方面要求是必要的。 The structural design engineer determines the level of approximation (i.e., the appropriate structural \to be used in the load analysis and also in the member strength analysis. This level varies depending on the particular structure being designed. Frequently, the crudest approximations are all that are needed with little, if any, effect on the overall cost of the project. As the building increases in size and importance, or if members are repetitive. It becomes appropriate to analyze both loads and strength in more detail. Thus while most structural

analysis textbooks emphasize the complex and detailed analytical procedures, it is just as important to understand the methods and limitations of approximations. The determination of the precision required is frequently the most important decision the designer will be required to make.

结构设计师决定荷载分析和强度分析所使用的近似水平（也就是正确的结构模型）这种近似水平的变化取决于设计的某一种特定的结构。通常最原始的近视是那些如果对设计全部费用有影响的话，这种影响也很小的近似，这种近似是必要的，随着建筑尺寸和重要性的增加，或者它的构成是重复的，那么对荷载和强度更详细的分析是正确的。因此，虽然大多数结构分析书上重点强调复杂的和详细的分析步骤。这恰恰和理解近似的极限设计同样重要，需要的精确度的确定通常是需要设计者做的最重要的决定

第八单元 The basic aim of structural design is to ensure that a structure should fulfill its intended function throughout its lifetime without excessive deflection ,cracking or collapse ,and this aim must of course be met with due regard to economy .The designer is assisted in his task by the availability of a code of practice which is based on accumulated experience and research .Up

to the present time ,such codes have sought to ensure the safety and serviceability of masonry structures by specifying permissible stresses for various types and combinations of materials .Thus codes generally give

basic compressive stresses for various types and a range of brick-mortar combinations ,the basic stress in a particular case has then to be adjusted for the slenderness ratio of the element and the eccentricity of the loading. The basic stresses are derived from tests on walls or piers, the ultimate stresses having been divided by an arbitrary factor of safety sufficiently large to avoid cracking at working loads. Thus, to this extent, brickwork design has always been related to ultimate strength and to a serviceability limit state.结构设计的基本目标是要保证结构在它整个使用寿命内能够完成它的预期功能而不产生过大的挠度，开裂或破坏。并且这个目标必须考虑经济要求。设计者在完成任务的过程中得到了现行规范的协助。而现行规范则是根据积累的经验和科学研究编制的。到目前为止，规范已经通过为不同类型的各种材料组合的结构确定相应的容许能力来保证砌体结构的安全和使用功能。因此规范为各种砖和砂浆的结合物规定了基本的抗压能力，这个基本的应力在特定的情形下还要根据构件的长细比和偏心荷载予以调解。基本应力来自墙或墙垛，最终应力已经在充分考虑避免工作荷载下产生裂缝的任意安全因素下得以折减。因此，在这种程度上，砌体结构设计已经充分考虑了最大强度和可靠的极限状态。

It is usual to take the characteristic load as that which will have a 5 per cent probability of being exceeded during the lifetime of the structure . In many situations , however , statistical data are not available and the characteristic loads have to be based on nominal values given in codes of

practice or other regulations . The factor γf is a function of several partial coefficients .

γf1 which takes account of the possibility of unfavorable deviation of the loads from the characteristic external loads , thus allowing for abnormal or unforeseen actions

γf2which takes accounts of the reduced probability that various loads acting together will all be simultaneously at their characteristic values .

γf 3 which is intended to allow for possible modification of the loading effects due to

incorrect design assumptions (for example , introduction of simplified support

conditions ,inges ,neglect of thermal and other effects which are difficult to assess)

and constructional discrepancies such as dimensions of cross-section , deviation of

columns from the vertical and accidental eccentricities . Similarly , design strengths of materials , R* are defined by Rk R*= (3)

γm

—

—

Where Rk----- is the characteristic strength of the material

γm-----is a coefficient depending on the probability of obtaining results less than Rk

The characteristic strength of a material is usually taken as the 95 per cent confidence limit of the material strength in a relevant test series. The reduction coefficient γm is a function of two coefficients.

γm1 which is intended to cover possible reductions in the strength of the materials in the structure as a whole, as compared to the characteristic value deduced from the control test specimen.

γm 2 which is intended to cover possible weakness of the structure arising from any cause other than the reduction in the strength of the materials allowed for by coefficientγm1, including manufacturing tolerances. 8.4通常情况下会采用特征荷载，特征荷载在结构的整个使用期内具有百分之五的被超越的可能性。然而，在很多情况下，统计资料并不可靠，特征荷载只能根据现行规范或其他规定中的名义值确定。RF是几个单独参数的函数。RF1考虑了外部特征荷载作用下不利荷载偏差的可能性，以及考虑了不正常或不可预见的荷载作用。RF2考虑了不同荷载共同作用时降低它们的特征荷载同时作用的可能性。RF3考虑了错误设计假定下荷载效应的修正。（例如，简化支撑条件的引入，或略了温度和其他难以评估的效应）。类似地，材料的设计强度是这样定义的。。。。。。。（公式）。。。。。。。。在这里，RK是材料的特征强度，γm是一个考虑了小雨γk的可能性的参数。8.5材

料的特征强度一般采用在相关的一连串试验中确定的具有95%保证率的材料强度。折减系数γm是两个参数的函数。

γm1考虑了与试验样品中推导出的规格值相比，包括材料强度总体上在结构中的减小。

γm2考虑了除了参数γm1考虑的材料强度的折减以外的任何因素引起的结构和衰弱，包括制作允许误差。

第九单元 Building codes, therefore, are concerned with such things as structural adequacy, the quality and strength of the materials used, sound workmanship, the correct installation of approved electrical wiring and equipment, the correct installation of approved gas-, coal-, or oil-heating equipment and their piping, the correct installation of approved sanitary plumbing fixtures and their piping, the fire resistance of the materials used, and the existence of fire exits.

因此，建筑规范涉及下列内容，比如，建筑结构的合理性、所用材料的质量和强度，良好的工艺过程、电线及电器设备正确的安装布置方法；天然气设备，煤及燃油加热设备及其管线的正确布置方法、卫生设施及其管线的正确布置方法、防火材料的选用，消防出口的设置。

Once a building has been approves and occupied, if the owner should thereafter want to make a basic alteration in the electrical, heating, or plumbing systems, or a basic change in the structure, the building department must approve the alterations beforehand and inspect the workmanship and materials after the alteration has been completed. If the

job is signed off by a licensed electrician or plumber, adequacy of workmanship and materials is usually assumed, although the buildings department always reserves the right to make a subsequent inspection and order any changes it thinks necessary。一旦建筑项目获得批准并开工，之后如果建筑商希望进行一些基本的改建工作，比如电器，采暖或管道系统，或者结构方面的一些基本变动，必须预先争得建筑部门的同意，并且检查工艺和材料是否也作相应的改动。尽管政府部门总是保留一些在必要时进行后期检查与责令整改的权利，但如果这项工作由合格的电工或者管道工签字保证，则施工工艺及所用材料将由他们来负责

Specification-type building codes were probably a necessity in a day, when speculative builders tried to get by using the cheapest materials they could buy, assembled in the most slipshod manner. But times changed, and new materials were developed. Since World War Ⅱ standards of a material or structure are outlined and the builder is free to select whatever materials or building techniques will meet these standards.在投机建造商尽量使用他们能买到的最廉价材料，以马虎的方式建造的时代，指定方式的建筑规范可能是必须的。但随着时代发展，新材料应运而生。从第一次世界大战后，现行的建筑规范发生了根本变化，结构或材料的性能标准被规定下来，建造商可以在这些标准内自由选择合适的材料及建造技术

For example, a specification-type code for a house sewer will simply specify that castiron pipe of a certain quality and size be used and that the pipe be installed in a specified manner. The plumbing contractor has no choice or say in the manner. In a performance-type building code, however, the code will specify that the piping not be affected by any corrosive or harmful substances in the sewage or in the soil in which the pipe is buried, that the pipe meet certain minimum strength requirements, and that pipe not be affected by any corrosive or harmful substances in the sewage or in the soil in which the pipe is buried, that the pipe meet certain minimum strength requirements, and that the pipe not be affected by temperature changes within a specified range. The plumbing contractor is free to use plastic pipe, castiron pipe, or gold pipe if he wants to, as long as he can show the local buildings officials that the pipe does in fact meet their standards.

例如，指定规范中对于房屋排污管，只是简单规定应采用特定质量和尺寸的铸铁管，并且管道应以指定方式布设，管道承建者对这种方式不能质疑或者有其他选择。然而，如今的现行建筑规范规定，管道铺设的地方，不能被土壤或污水中的物质腐蚀或破坏，管道必须具备所需的特定强度，在一定范围内的温度变化不应对管道造成影响。管道承建者可以选择使用塑料管道、铸铁管道，或者希望使用的其他金属管道，只要他能向当地建筑部门出示这些管道符合标准的证明即可。

第十单元 [3]Footings generally can be classified as wall and column footings. The horizontal outlines of the most common types are given in Fig.10-1. A wall footing is simply a strip of reinforced concrete, wider than the wall, which distributes its pressure. Single-column footings are usually square, sometimes rectangular, and represent the simplest and most economical type. There use under exterior columns meets with difficulties if property rights prevent the use of footings projecting beyond the exterior walls. In this case combined footings or strap footings are used which enable one to design a footing which will not project beyond the wall column. Combined footings under two or more columns are also used under closely spaced, heavily loaded interior columns where single footing, if they were provided, would completely or nearly merge. 基础通常被分为墙基和柱基。图10-1给出的是一些常用类型的平面形状。墙基呈简单的钢筋混凝土条状，比墙略宽，用来分布荷载。单柱基础通常呈方形，又是做成矩形的 ，是最简单经济的一种类型。如果所有权问题上不允许基础超出外墙，则可以通过在底部使用外柱来处理这种问题。碰到这种情况，我们还可以设计这种基础，比如联合基础或者条状基础，它们的投影不会超过墙柱。联合基础通常位于两根或者多根柱子的下方，或者间距很小，荷载很大的对独立基础内柱的下方，如果这样设置了，它们几乎会成为一个整体。 [4]Such individual or combined column footings are the most frequently used types of spread foundations on soils of reasonable bearing

capacity, If the soil is weak and/or column loads are great, the required footing areas become so large as to be uneconomical. In this case, unless a deep foundation is called for by soil conditions, a mat or raft foundation is resorted to. This consists of a solid reinforced-concrete slab which extends under the entire building and which consequently distributes the load of the structure over the maximum available area. Such a foundation, in view of its own rigidity, also minimizes differential settlement. It consists, in its simplest form, of a concrete slab reinforced in both directions. A form which provides more rigidity and at the same time is often more economical consists of an inverted beam-and-girder floor. Girders are located in the column lines in one direction, with beams in the other, mostly at closer intervals. If the columns are arranged in a square pattern, girders are equally spaced in both directions and the slab is provided with two-way reinforcement. Inverted flat slabs, with capitals at the bottoms of the columns, are also used for mat foundations.

一些独立或联合的柱基是扩展基础中具有理想承载力的最常用形式。如果土层比较柔软或者柱上的荷载很大，基础面积将会变得非常大，变得不经济。碰到这种情况，考虑到土层，除了使用深基础外，还可以考虑使用垫层或者筏基。它们由实心的钢筋混凝土板构成，并且延伸到整个建筑底部，因此可以将基础的荷载分布到最大可用的区域。这种基础，从其自身的刚度来讲，也可以减小不均匀沉降。这是一种最简单的形式，它在两个方向都配有混凝土板和钢筋， 这种形式通

过使用倒梁和肋梁楼板，能够提供更大的刚度，从而更经济。主梁通常沿柱中线同方向布置，次梁则布置在同一个方向，且距离较近。 如果柱允许做成方形，则主梁可沿两个方向等距离放置，同时板也可以双向布置。用于柱底部的无梁楼盖，则常用于筏板基础。

[6]On compressible soils footings should be loaded concentrically to avoid tilting, which will result if bearing pressures are significantly larger under one side of the footing than under the opposite side. This means that single footing should be placed concentrically. under. The columns and wall footings concentrically under the walls and that for combined footings the centroid of the footings area should coincide with the resultant of the column loads. Eccentrically loaded footings can be used on highly compacted soils and on rock. It follows that one should count on rotational restraint of the column by a single footing only when such favorable soil conditions are present and when the footing is designed both for the column load and the restraining moment. Even then, less than full fixity should be assumed, except for footings on rock.

在可压缩土中，基础应居中放置，避免倾斜，否则会导致一侧的压力比另一侧的压力大很多。这意味着，独立基础在住下方应居中放置，墙基础在墙下方应居中放置，对于联合基础来说，整个基础的重心应与柱荷载重心重合。承受偏心荷载的基础常用于密实性好的土壤及岩石上接下来应该考虑独立基础位于合适土层中时以及基础设计用来承受柱荷载和约束力矩时柱中的转动约束问题，尽管如此，也不能假

定完全牢固，除非基础坐落在岩石上。

第十一单元 [2]Long-span structures cannot be designed any more like any other building type because of their vulnerability to failure. 由于大跨结构极易损坏，因此不能像其他结构类型一样进行设计。 [3]The larger scale may require building contigurations quite different from traditional forms as well as other materials and nonconventional detailing techniques. It requires a more precise evaluation of loading conditions than just provided by codes, this includes the placement of expansion joints as well as the inclusion of secondary stresses due to the deformations of the members and their interaction, which cannot be ignored any more as for small-scale buildings or structures of high redundancy. Further, it requires a much more comprehensive field inspection to control the quality during the erection phase, post-construction building maintenance and periodic inspection is necessary to monitor the effects of loading and weather on member behavior in addition to the potential deterioration of the materials. 由于大跨结构极易损坏，因此不能像其他结构类型一样进行设计。大型结构可能需要特殊的建筑构型，这和传统方式、材料和非常规的技术不同。它需要提供比规范要求的更精确地荷载条件，其中包括伸缩缝（接头）的位置，以及由于构件变形及相互作用所产生的二次应力，然而，对于高冗余的小型建筑或结构所产生的二次应力也不能忽视。而且，还需要进行更全面的现场检查来控制其在安装阶段的质量，对于后减建筑的维护与定期检查也是必须的，这样不仅能监测材料本身潜在的失效问题，还能监测荷载与气候对构件所构成的影响。

[8]Each of the cantilevering masses is supported by its side walls, which in turn act as vertical, cantilevers with respect to gravity action. The continuous wall-roof space truss envelope of case (Fig.11-8)is only edge supported at three locations, it allows a column-free interior space and flexibility in the placement of openings and large overhangs.

每个悬臂实体由它的侧墙支撑着，侧墙反过来可以作为竖向的，承受重力作用的悬臂结构。（图11-8）连续的屋面网架结构只在三个方向的边缘进行了支撑，这就提供了一个无中柱的室内空间，并给开敞及大悬挑结构的布置带来了灵活性。

词组optimum design 最优设计 transit-mixed 混合运输 field-or-job-mixed 现场或临时 with respect to 有关关于 retaining walls 挡土墙 sign off 签字 in conjunction with 连同，同…连起来

钢构件容许（allowable）长细比 allowable slenderness of steel member .裂缝宽度容许值 allowable value of crack with

超固结土 over consolidated soil 饱和度 saturation level 最优含水量 the optimum moisture 渗透系数 saturation coefficient 恒载持续荷载 constant load 有限元法 finite element method 地基承载力 bearing strength of the ground 最终沉降 final settlement

rolling hinge 滚动铰 Have recourse to 求助于，依靠 In contradiction to同…..相矛盾

Deep foundation excavation 深基坑开挖 Column bracing 柱间支撑

Cold bend inspection of steel bar 钢筋冷弯检查 Compression member with small 小偏心受压柱 Creep of concrete 混凝土徐变

engineering essentials 工程实际 building/architectural form 建筑风格 strength and stiffness 强度和刚度 unbalanced force 不平衡力 factor of safety 安全系数 anticipate load 预计荷载 material property 材料特性 structural system 结构体系 linear function 线性功能 fire-resistant 防火

high-rise frame 高层框架 apparent safety 外观安全性conglomerate stone 组合石材 coarse aggregate粗骨料 stone concrete 碎石混凝土 lightweight concrete轻质混凝土 compressive material抗压材料 tensile strength 抗拉强度

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Shear stresses in pairs act on an element at or near the wide surface, as shown in Fig. 4-4a, As shown in strength of materials , this state of stress corresponds to equal tension and compression stresses on the faces of an element at 45°to the direction of shear . These inclined tension stresses are of the same kind as those cause by transverse shear .However, in the case of torsion, since the torsional shear stresses are of opposite signs in the two halves of the member(Fig.4-4b)the corresponding diagonal tension stresses in the two halves are at right angles to each other(Fig.4-4a). When the diagonal tension stresses exceed the tension resistance of the concrete, a crack forms at some accidentally weaker location and spreads immediately across the beam, as shown in Fig.4-5,Observation shows that the tension crack(on the near face on Fig.4-5b) forms at practically 45°,that is, perpendicular to the diagonal tension stresses. The cracks on the two narrow faces, where diagonal tension stresses are smaller, are of more indefinite inclination, as shown, and the fracture line on the far face connects the cracks at the short faces. This completes the formation of an entire fracture surface across the beam which fails the member.

可能考选词填空

Shear stresses in pairs act on an element at or near the wide surface, as shown in Fig. 4-4a, As shown in strength of materials , this state of stress corresponds to equal tension and compression stresses on the faces of an element at 45°to the direction of shear . These inclined tension stresses are of the same kind as those cause by transverse shear .However, in the case of torsion, since the torsional shear stresses are of opposite signs in the two halves of the member(Fig.4-4b)the corresponding diagonal tension stresses in the two halves are at right angles to each other(Fig.4-4a). When the diagonal tension stresses exceed the tension resistance of the concrete, a crack forms at some accidentally weaker location and spreads immediately across the beam, as shown in Fig.4-5,Observation shows that the tension crack(on the near face on Fig.4-5b) forms at practically 45°,that is, perpendicular to the diagonal tension stresses. The cracks on the two narrow faces, where diagonal tension stresses are smaller, are of more indefinite inclination, as shown, and the fracture line on the far face connects the cracks at the short faces. This completes the formation of an entire fracture surface across the beam which fails the member.

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